Post on 04-Apr-2018
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C h a p t e r t w o
a Ccl Fmk pc Dvlm
Despite the reCent upsurge in interest, partiCipatory De-
vlm lc b lck ccl cl. allc
m mll dll jd b ll m l,c m , mv ccbl, bld
cl cl, d mv dmd d vc. p
ccl cll l dd
m, bd cc dvlm lc,
d d c dv cx d v m. t c
mk c k b m .
t l dd c v
dvlm l, mc dvlm v
vd mk vm l.
t c b b bf v cc mk l-
, k cc d j dvlm lc. i v
x bc l b dc-
cc cvl c l. t c cvl c
l dc vb cvl c c l m mk
d vm l d ll c mk,
vm, d cvl c l c lcl dvlm. t
c c dvlm v ld,
m , b dd m cvl c l.
t mk ld xdd dc v lm cvl c l l cd d c, cl-
, ql d l dm, d d
dc m cq cll d cc.
Participatory development
policy is beset with a lack
conceptual clarity . . .
. . . with many millions o
dollars justifed by little m
than buzzwords.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
50
Market Failure
Mk l bl llc c cl
t l v : c m v
m m ; m m mlz cl v
mk b c cm; l m cd m c cmm d b vdd b
mk mcm, l m mk.
al ql d v c cx b c d
c mk, mk l d d v d
b . t, , cc mk l
c l cm dc l , d
mk l dl c llc l
. Cc mk l
cl cll dvlm (h d slz 2001Dvj d Kb 2005). t m cll db
c qbl cl b m
dvlm.
M mk l cd b xl
c c dc c ( b) b (jd) b
vlvd . exl x mklc
xc d d vc b dvdl
cqc, v v, l vlvd
dc.
a v xl cc dvdl m d b ll c dc. i c, c c
c b b dvdl m. exml cld
cm ll vm v
cl . nv xl ld vdc
d d vc, bc ll cd ll c
d d vc m.
a v xl x dvdl m d
cv ll b dc. i c, b c
b d b dvdl m. exml
v xl llv m c d dvlm
ll c b b. pv xl ld d
dc d d vc, bc ll cmd
ll b d d vc c.
Cd l cl c xl c
l dvdl cd cmlm c
Although inequality and
poverty can coexist with
both efcient and inefcient
markets, market ailures tend
to deepen poverty traps and
inhibit growth.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
c ld v
l l qlbm (h 2000,
145). w c bl lbl cc d
cd , cd
mk l m mk b
. t mk l bl lv blm, v . Fml d ml c cc m
x m b lbl, xml, mk c dc-
bl d bjc ml d -k.
a m c mk l xc c-
db m. im mmc
m m dvdl v m m .
p ld cll v v ll cc ml cd m-
k, xml, d l ll ml ld l bc
dcl cmmcl bk cllc lbl m bl l.
pv d ql x bc mk l, d
mk l x bc v d ql. B
l ql db c c ml c m-
k l c l cd d lb mk. Mk l
c l ld l kd db cl
c, ld v .
a v c l d
dcd m l v bc mc-
m c cd mk mc, c, dcl, dc m vm l, dc-
, cl cl. i ql , db
bl, bc d World Development Report 2006:
Equity and Development v dm ql (l,
, cl ) c c c m dd mbl-
d bc d mbl b (wld Bk 2006; r
2006). t ql db b c d
b dm d bv l l m-
cl v c d dc l dcv
. Cd d cl mk l d v d
mc , d mm m c b b cd
b d ql cm d .
Cd, c, cll lb k l ld-
ld. illc, mlm, d dbd lkl mk
v dcl c k bk ccl v.
Important causes o mark
ailure include externalitie
o which coordination ailu
are a special case, and
constraints in the distribu
o inormation.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
52
ev l lc mk bl cll ld
ld dc, ll k ld v dcl v
lcl d jdcl m l m
. i m ld, cd cl c d
dc b ldld d lb: ldld cll
bl dm dd b c c, bl bv . sc -bd ql m
lkl b ll d cl m d
k v m c .
iq, c c x v cl c mk
, , cc . i dd, c cmb
mk l m cc d c l
c l l dl b b
. t c vd l vm v
c v mv cmb, xmlvd vc c l, dc, cd, c
cmm c mk ll bl d b
mlm ld m qlz v cc
v d ql .
Government Failure
t cc lk vm lv mk l
blm cd, m mm, d ql lccz vm. gvm l cc lc
lcl v mk c llc l c
cm dcd b mk (Bl 2006).
i l d vm l, c cmm
ll lcl m, m lcl l, c vm
l dmcc mk. Lk mk l, v
m d lcl l ld l m d
cd.
Inormation ailures. t clc m l vc
c bl vm k c
cz. ic l mllc cvd
cl clc dd, bld d d v
ld dc l c k . Dclz
l blm, bc b vm cl
Inequity can combine with
market ailures to magniy
inefciencies and can result
in situations in which the
aggregate loss in welare
is disproportionately borneby the poor.
Looking to government to
solve market ailures is
problematic . . .
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
l c blc cc m d vm
kld cz c.
a c vm l m mm
c c m lv
m . gvm k v m -
m cz c ccdl b cc blcjc, bd llc, d l l d d.
Coordination ailures. gvm cll bjc v-
cd l, c l m l b
bl fc dc mk l v d cc
v l lbb, c, b. Cd
l c l cv lcl m v
d cdd m c, l c b
md b cv ld, lzd c
l c ( l cllcv c). Cd lc c dmc blm c bm m blc -
v, c dl c cl d clc d
ld cmm (wld Bk 2004). t c l l
l ml v m cc (B 2008), lv
c vlbl cvl d c .
Inequity.J c mk l, bd v-
m l ql ll dl . p d
ll l d m v m b
l d vm cd. i lvl bl c
d-d ql, c lkl fc cl ; c cml l, lc
c xc c m d l,
b m m d (B
2008).
o cll dvlm dd , ,
d blc dm m-
k. C vm lv mk l d d q
m d k mk cc? C mk k
v v vc c l, l, d dc-
vm bl d ? C vm vd
cd d c dvd v c ll
? w lvl vm l ll mll lv
m d cd blm l md l
bl ?
. . . because it
suers rom problem
coordination, inorm
asymmetry, and inequ
Just as in the case o
market ailure, the burden
government ailure reque
alls disproportionately on
the poor.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
54
a mk d vm dmll ccd
cll m d cd lc j
l mk d vm b l lk b
m. il cm v dmd dvlm
cc bl lv mk l d dd
ql m cdcv l- clv (wld Bk 2005; acml d rb 2006).
Civil Society Failure
t dml l lcl c dvlm bld
cv lcl cvc . t l J hbm (1991
cvl c cvd b blc c c
z, cllcvl d blcl, c d c d mk. t, cvl c mbcll lkd
cv c mk d vm.
a cv cvl c cl c cz
c, vll z k d cllcv b
i c c dvdl cz. t m civi
societyd nongovernmental organization(ngo) d
cbl, b cvl c mc m cllc ngo
a dd b cl J alxd (2006, 4), dll, cv
c
ld vl d cc
cl ccm d dmcc m m. sc
l ld, l m d
k b m c cl, xc, bc
v cmmm cmm cl .
a cllcv vll mblz cz d vl
d cmm lcm cv, cd
bd c, l z, cl mvm
v kd, dc cv, d v ml d
ml c d dvcc z bl cv
c cv.1
Fll hbm, cm v cl
czd dml cvc c dvlm c
Bl (2004, 2008) c v d
One o the challenges o
policy making is to understand
where, when, and how to
balance the power o the state
against the reedom
o markets.
Historians have increasingly
recognized how undamental
civic action is to the
development process.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
c , c id d C, dd ml b-
w d d cl. id, l dcd
l vd dc d cvd cvc d-
zd d d dl. i id, c, b
l 19c, lbl ld cd ecumene(blc )
ld d vb cvc d dmcc l c d. McClk (2006) d Mk (2010) c-
l cl q dvlm k
d dc b v, c cl
dvlm v d clm. a cv d cv cvl
c ll cz vm d mk,
ld m ccbl, d cl cl cmc
d dmcc cv.
i dl , , l cmlm
c, v cm dlcl b: cvl c vlv cl-lcv c, jc, , d cl m c l;
dll, bd cl cc, ccm, d
db.2 i c, mk vlv dvdl c ll d-
vdl l mxmz d l.
Fm d dd ccll zd dv lb,
ql, m l. gvm d b -
zd d lc, l c dc ;
dd d ll c. i c, cvl
c d b mblzd d cmm d -
cl ql (alxd 2006). all dd bl-c d c v ccl. Mk d vm
l d q v bc cv d d cvl
c, d cvl c l c xcb mk d v-
m l. w qll l, k
cc; ql dc mk blcd b
qlz vlc cvc , d dc vm
mlz blcd b ccbl d
cm m cvl c.
Civil Society Interaction with Markets and Governments
Cvc c mk d vm cfcl:
b ld ccbl, cmbl q, d
d q m mblzd cz
cl d l vm cl d v c c.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
56
ab l, mk ld b mvd ll b
mxmz. i m c, -m m
d d ccd b cz. smll
bc cvc ccbl, lcl ld
ld b ld , c , d v x
c. Cvc c lm v m; b cv dc c dc-mk c
vm d mk c b d d c
m c v (b dc m
lm ).
i c mk, ll-c cvl c c
cd cm , c,
l m bv dml cm. t bv
cld cc d l lv (c d d d
dl) ll cc cl, c, dqbl, c cll d c x. p m cvl c
b bl, m ld, b
lm c l d, d, mbl, d c
bv. w c ll, cvl c l c
q, c dcm cc
c dcm cl cmm. t
cvl mvm ud s, ab s t
d ab rblc e, sld mvm pld
d -dmcc ll ilmc rblc i c
xml cvl c cv. Cvl c c b c cvl c cck vm. sc cck ll
d , b c mm b cll dml ,
xml, vl m m l
v xm c .
i dd cd c, cvl c l
dc l cmc cv (mcc z
m xml). Mv, cv cvc c l c
bl vm l cl, b
cl cl k m m d c cl
lcv l cd d c. td c m-
cv, d d, d c k l
m cd d jb ll xml cvl c cv.
a d cvl v m ccl d vm. i
vm d ccbl, d ld
ccbl b cvl c. Cvl c k mc m cvl
To be eective, civic action
oten has to orce agents o
government and the market
to act against their private
interests and in the interest
o citizens.
In its interaction with markets,
a well-unctioning civil society
acts frst as a watchdog.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
cv cc cllcv c,
c cl c cv bc c-
v cz cbl cvl .
sm cl ll pm (1993) d cll cc
cl cl. t m dl d d blc
m ccll mc k, mk vl mlcd l cv d lc (M d r
2004).
Mk c cvl c v b vd
m dc d vc, xml, b d
c cvl c z c
. gvm cvl c ml , -
vd m d m fc d cl ,
cld l b ll d lcl z.
gvm l m , d v c, cvl ccv d jm- c dvlm c.3
Markets, Government, and Civil Society at the Local Level
Cvl c, mk, d vm c v lvl
lbl, l, bl (/dc), d lcl (c/vll/
bd). ec lvl q cll, md
, d cv c.
Mk l k dl c lvl. Mk l
lbl q lbl cd d l ccl , c, wld td oz (wto) m
m. Mk l l lvl cc
vm d cl bk. Mk l lcl lvl m
b ddd b lcl c c mccd d mc-
c. t lvl c m dd mk
l. t mm v b c mll c-
q l c, xml; c cllcv
lbl m q lbl c.
gvm l d lvl. Cc b lbl
vc ddd b ud n m d b -
b d m vm. t c vm
ld b llcd lvl m cm dl m. sm
c, c l d, lc, d l-
, c b bl dclzd. i llc c
lcl lvl, d- d b cdd (Bd d
An engaged civil sphere
makes a critical contribut
to good government by
keeping it transparent and
accountable.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
58
Mkj 2006). Lcl vm c b b md b
cz c, d b bl d d
cz bc b m d l c c. B
m v dcl cd dc mk c cmm
(bc cmm xl llv). Mv
dclz ld l l cl cm.t, ml d dclz q d
dv b-ld cv ddv
m cll cd blm. i l, v
lcl blc d b dclzd c d d
d , v m, d q d
v cmm d lcl kld d
cmm llv cm cl. pbl
d d vc cll ll c cld
d d, lcl cl, d vll d. o cmm-l c c bd d c l b lcll
md. Cvl, blc d m; c
cm cl, bc ccl cmlx; q
cl cd, ld ll b md cll (xml
cld l vcc cm d l ).
t dclz vm c cld, v
ml l dclz vm l. Lcl v
m l mb , cld bc dm
cc mcm b c v c cmmc c, lck
cv lcl cm, d lck cvc cc. w c, lc d fc v l ,
l lck ccbl cz, d dclz
c llc dc c cll xcb -k d
c (Bd d Mkj 2006; Bl 2006). i mk
dc b dclz dvl c,
m dd d d l vm
l d lvl vm, ll l cv
c l, d blc cd lc c
l lc- cmc .
J mk d vm d lvl, d
cvl c. M lcl ll k b cvl c
lvl -, cx
lc (alxd 2006). B c b c
c lbl blc d lbl cvl c (xml
The optimal design
o decentralization requires
trading o the advantages
o better-aligned incentives
against the disadvantages
o more challenging
coordination problems.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
cld mvm cmb clm c (
lbl dvlm m mk dm-
lm). a vb cvl c l lvl m
j k mk cv czb l
mk d vm l. scl mvm v md mk
ccbl b x mc l cl d (xml rl nd l ccl mv mbl
). t v qlzd d l xcldd cl
(cld d l L amc d
s ac) d d dmcc ( id) d
vm ( id). t l dvlm cll
bld v ccl cck d blc m mk,
vm, d cvl c cm d cc
k c .
t cc lcl cvl cz z mlv cllcv ld lcl cc-
bl; c vm (cl cmm, blc
vll m); md mk l c lck cc cd
c (mccd d mcc ); d dcl
m cmm c ( mm ,
). i vm c dclzd lcl lvl,
m v cz c d cc lcl
vm l c cv m.
Lcl cvl c c l v m lk l
cvc . Fll r d Mll, lcl vm, cmm- z, d lcl cvc b
d cvc cv. i vl mll lcl ecumenesdvl
cc d l m b xc d d
md d vd ml , m v cc
cvc cl l lvl.
Defning Civil Society Failure
Cvl c l c b bdl c
cvc c b l
dc cc.4 i c cc bc bl c
cllcvl. F xml, dvdl m b bl c-
d c d mk cllcv dc ld lv ll
mmb b v l bc dvdl
Just as markets and
governments operate at
dierent levels, so does
civil society.
Civil society ailure can be
broadly thought o as a
situation in which civic ac
is either absent or operate
in a way that results in a n
reduction in efciency.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
60
c - b ( d cmm)
i c l cc b bl mblz cllcvl
l b, d ,
bl d , l l l v
cz dcd.
How does participation occur?Cllcv c cc . idvdl v dcd c cvc
v b bl lv cll cllcv
c d c cmm . Fl c c b d
vdl cv c d cc cllcv
c. t c l b v d l cv
c cv. F c, cv c c
c m dc dmcc. i l
c c b vc d d
ev c, v, m b m c vlbl lcl c c cv c xl
dd ab s d s ac; vlbl
c (, bc l ), cv
c cld c ll. i l cl mvm
vlbl d lcl c
(K 2007). sc c c b (ll
cc lcl m) cld (mk c cc dcl)
ecv cvc c q v m
d d lcl d bl mblz
cz m k dv m.Participation bd m cv v cv, cld
ll:
c dc mk clv c dlbv bd mk v
c llc dc
cb c, ml d, cl lb cc blc d vd blc vc
m d c blc d v vcvd
v m d vlvm -
cv
m bd cmm ( c, dc cm lv lcl cfc)
lc lc lcl v.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
iml, dlcl, d d-bd mv dc d-
vdl c cvc cv. iml mv v
d cmc d lcl b dvdl m b
c. F c, cmm dvlm jc cm
vll d bld lcl c, dvdl
m c m cd jc d cc d d d ; m v
lcl ccl lc d l mv c lc
m c. idlcl mv v d d d
bl. i m c, c, lm l d
dl cmmm, mk c cm-
m jc x m. id-bd mv
v d cl l d. exml cld l
bld mq cc mblz c
d vll.pc l m c. t m bv
c m, c dd dvdl cmc , ml-
m , d ml bl, m c. pc
l vlv cl c, c c b bvl
dvdl cbd m m
cmml blc l, c m d mmb
ddvd c, c , b. t m l b cc
c. y m v cd l-c v
lzd dcm dl, mk cll cll-
mblz m dvlm cv. Cmm v ccmd cv b m m b d
bl b kd x cl b b.
idvdl, mbddd cl cl d k,
ll blc ll c d b b dcd c.
t dc c ml dvdl dc, -
v, cvc cv m cv l cv
d cllcvl. al dvdl m c,
c bl m b bl cm cllc-
v dc. pc b clc cll cllcv
c d b dd m c b dvd-
l. Fm, dvdl dc c dl c-
cd bl c; dvdl blv
ll b cv bl c c, ll b l
cld c.
Instrumental, ideological,
identity-based motives ind
individuals to participate
civic activities.
Participation entails some
costs. The most obvious is
the opportunity cost o tim
which is higher or the poo
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
62
Mc ol (1965) zd lm 50
cc m cl dvc mk dvdl c
cmm , l l-d dvdl ll c
cv cmm . ol ccd
xl b mll, l mll
blc d ld d d l .
ud cd ll l c? ud
cd ll blv m
v md cdbl? om (1990) mz l
cl m, m c, d mv
cv cllcv c, b l ld bv
dm cc cllcv c mm
cmm. a l cllcv c,
cd cl m dl b l d cl m v d. t cl cld
cll dd bd cmm, dd cmm
cd c; l m cmm
lcl cd; m m cllcv
dc, c mlv bjc cllcv ;
dd c, v c d m
vl l; l-c d dl ccd mcm lv
cfc; d bc xcv vm c. i dv
cd, om k ccll b cmm
l c mm; m d cl l d lcl c dvlm.
ic d mmz k b m
cllcv c v l dcd, D
(2009) d c cd c:
1. a v d c c,
v l k d v l
d .
2. a v d c c, v
blv ll ll k d.
t cd l-c m b m
md b xcd b ccd b . t c
d c, v, bc v m, ll
bl v blv v l ll c cll
Under what conditions will a
group o people cooperate?
Under what conditions will
they trust one another enough
to believe that the promises
they have made are credible?
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
i c, ll ll k b
c. t cd cd dd , b
ll blv v l ll k
d. t, cd m l-c
bl cl cllcv c.
w, , cd d c l vm b cd m? w m l
mk cdbl, c c?
pl m bl clll vm -
dl d c cdcv cllcv c.
pl m m cl ll ccc:
1. Mutual aection. Cd cld c
b cl d cz l
m .
2. Pro-social disposition. i l k m md cdbl, v bc
ml c, c v l-
l. Ll kd c b d b -cc cl
d b; mmb cmm lz m
c x l m l
c. Ll c l bc c
cl m cb m l d
v -cl d d .
icv c l l c. pl m lkl k m cv c -
k m c
v l k m lc. t cv
c c b dd:
3. External enorcement. exl cm m md
q xlc cc cd b
bld c d , c
d ll , bc ml ,
dl ld (c c, ld, d dl
panchayat[vll ccl]). t xl c d v
c: v c c cm x ll ld l
mk cdbl cmmm , d m ll
b cd b bl ll b k. Cllcv c
c b m ccl c ccl , d
People are more likely to kagreements i a cooperat
inrastructurea set o
institutions that ensures
that keeping promises is in
the interest o every party
everyone else keeps them
in place.
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64
l c c l cvc c, j cvl c
l c c l. w xl c
c b d c m, ll
cllcv m, c
cld l c.
4. Reputation as a capital asset. ev bc xcm, l ll k m vl
. r bcm cl bc
dvdl m , ld cl cd,
v l-m l.
5. Long-term relationships. i l-m l,
bcm cl c cmld, bc
bl dvdl cdbl cc
am, , mll cd. t cv c
cl l, cmm m m c bk m.
i cc, ccc 3, 4, d 5 cld bld
ll l m cllcv c l
ll l cml m. hv, D
(2009) , cdbl m mdm
ld b cv d l c d b
dcd lv m c
vm. i c dvdl cd bcm
mc d cvl cfc cl d, cc l-c m m b dd cv, ld cvc
l (C d rvll 1993).
w dvd l bd mll cl, c
mc, d lcl l, cc c c b
cd. i, c, ml v cd d c
dd m bl d c, c dd
cmmm m lcl , vl
c ld l cll ll . t, lkd
m mk c b.
t m, v, l mk m dl qbl. hl
ccl c, c c l id d w ac, c
dd l c m d k c l
cl c, m mk c c b l cv
d dl dd ql .
Capacity or cooperation
can be enhanced where
individuals are bound together
in multiple social, economic,
and political relationships.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
Coordination ailures in civic action. w mk cvc c
cv m cx d cv ? w cl-
l lcl cmm c cv cc cllcv
c?
t m m c cvl c l bbl c-
d l. a m dvlv dc lcllvl dc cd blmb ll l m
cd b jc m m dcl.
sc dvl b m ml cd l ll
d. Cd l lcl lvl v m c:
lck cv c ( mk dvd-
l m cllcv cdbl) d bc mcm
l dvdl v lc, cmm,
c ( , -cl d).
Cd cll jc c cm-m bl m lcl . F jc k,
dvdl cmm v c v
m . t l v c cv, c
l d d lc d v
d m c. i ll dvdl l dvc
d dd cllcv c, d cmm ld
cc, ld dl d d dc lcl lvl-
d. i cc, m cmm d ld v,
v c, vlvd m cllcv c m
cmm c, cv cv c.t c cv c c cm
dvlm jc. s jc mv cllcv
mm b cmm-md d
vd cl cv dvdl c b cm-
m cm l b lm v. t d ld
b m cv dl ld
cml m m jc, cdd -
d bd c, d d c m
md b dvdl d d. t d ld l b m
lkl ccd cmm d vlvd md b c
m dd cdbl bc c dvdl blvd
m md b v dvdl, bd l-m d
bl vl m ld l cm m
cmm. idll, d ld dc ddl
The most important sourc
civil society ailure is prob
coordination ailure.
The presence, or absence
a cooperative inrastructu
aects the outcomes o
development projects.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
66
cv vbl cv vm
c d d c d vlbl. i bc
l-m cmm
d ld d v -k, c l
. t, d l-m cm m
d c m dvdl cmm bxml cv cv c.
Cd xml, dclzd m c vl
l ccl v lc bc cll
md v dc m. a m, m
dd bc lc ld b vd vll m
, vll c q cc vll
ccl. t md m lcl c d lc
kld mv v , c lk b vll
d cl vm, d ld lcl vm blcllccbl. i cl vm k d c
c, dc md vll m ld b cd
i c, vll ld dcd m
c c m, bc b ld b
c. t jc m c, cmm-bd
ld l bc k bl c cl
lcvl md dc.
s cm c m mm cmm-
d ll. i cmm qd ll l d l
d b d l d l lcd, cv cmm ll l. i
cmm d m cllcv c, ld v
dl m c mm. i dd , cmm
c ld b vzd d llcd fcd
m l.
a xml cv c l
cl c dclz c cm m t
(2007) k C.5 t k ml q: h c v
v blc d b xld bc m
ccbl? t C dclzd
lcl vm m bl v bc b
lc d d vc (d cc, d m,
k, m cl cl, ). sm vll vm
vd d blc d d vc, vd
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
bl ll. accd t, xl v-
c m vll lcl ld , c
vd ml ccbl. a ld
cllc dvdl ml bl d .
o t dlvll ml ,
vll cc, d l l ml d ml v cl ccc ccl t
mml, m b cm ( v-
d jdc lcl vm), d m b
mbdd (c lcl cl mmb).6
w bd ld vl dm-
v bd lcl vm, mbddd cl v
cl bl cb d ,
t (2007, 356). i mbddd cl, cv
ccbl m ml d v blc d.
t q d m d cvc cl cl.
wv cl cl c m v, d
m mbdd c (c cc ) bl
ld vll cl ccbl v blc d,
Cmm p mmb bd m mmb.7 i
c, vll ml c b b cm d mbd-
dd; bl v cvl ml
ccbl. L l l l mll, bc
m mk m l cv.a m d clm md b t bcc -
-d cl dmcc m v
c v c v blc d b vll
vm. imlm lc d d
vml mc, cll dmcc -
k (t 2007, 370).
i c d lcl dmcc, xll
dcd mvm cv c cm
m , c mvd cm l dclz-
m c lm, c bll
mv ql c. Cd c s
id Kl. Kl l l cl
m mz dc, l, d m ql, b
l 1996 ml -d m dcd m
In countries with strong
traditions o electoral
democracy, externally
induced improvements in
cooperative inrastructure
that come rom the state
substantially improve the
quality o participation.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
68
cl. al Kl bld l d d
lc, c cd lcl d
mmb .
Fll cl mdm 1993, c
mdd vm dvlv c d
dmccll lcd vll ccl (gram panchayats), Kl b l d dcl d dl c m dc
lz (hll d ic 2003). t m d l
l. i dvlvd 40 c dvlm bd vll
ccl, dvlvd bl ccl, d d
xv l cm d
m cz b d z m c
panchayatm.
t cm d l c bd d
cml ( xml, k cmm m d dvlm m ld cjc vll m, c
cd cl c). id dlb
d (mmb blc) dvdd c-md
cmm. t dc c ld c
l dc d dd c. t c, c
ml ll dc Kl, d d c
cc cl dc mk b blc c
dmd d z dvdl bc llc
vm-bdzd v b. t c b cld
b v m c cz dlbv l d vll c md l c
l m cv blc vc dlv.
i Kl, dc v b dmcc cd
dmd c l b c
c l b l b vd c mk
l ml l mbdd dclzd
m vm cm . t cd
mcm d lk cvl c.
Lc Kl lm 100 cmc
id v m 66 c; l l
cvc mblz bc lb cd
cmm mvm. Lcl c Kl dd
m cc; d b cl dmccll d l
cll cz c v ld b
In Kerala, India, the state
created mechanisms that
strengthened its links with
civil society.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
lcl vm. i bc Kl ll-dvld dmcc
d c d, lkl l cm
ld v kd.
t ll dd l cllcv c,
m dd cx, , d cl
cv c. t lcl cmm m v vlvd cl cllcv
c, x c c m xcld m ddvd
, d m bl. Lcl cllcv
c m m b cv m c,
c, b cl mm. smll, d vl-
l vm x c
cv cvc cl d cv ll m d dmcc
m d mlc cc lcl
c.Culture and civic identity. Cd cvc c lcl
lvl l cd b m cllcv dc,
m c, b ccl d cl c.
i mll, cll m cmm, m m v
d c ml.8 i m c, c cld
l cmm c d dc v -
dl . M ll, cmm cll d
l dvdl c ll c
c, l cl cllcv c.
s lc c cmm cll d d cmmc. F c, c cvl c cmm
l d b dc c c-
; mbl , c f ld llc;
d cl ccl.
o k b cl d cvc d c
cc cllcv c b k b m
r (2008) cll mblc blc d. r bld k
C (1999, 2001), dm cllcv c d
d b c d . C bc m
ll. M mdl cllcv c m, mlcl,
m x cmm kld. w dvdl
l cllcv c m, c dmc, md
dvdl a k , m , c, cv,
bl mv, d cd b dvdl B. idvdl B,
To ully understand the na
o a ailure o collective
action, it is important tounderstand how context,
history, and culture shape
the nature o cooperative
inrastructure.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
70
, k ll b dvdl a d k dvdl a
k v b dvdl B. idvdl a, , k
dvdl B k dvdl a k, d . t cmm
kld m m m b ld
cmm dd l m: v k
v l l.i c, cck l dd l bbll ll b qckl
cd b bl dd c kll
, d c l. i c cd
d cmm dd cmm kld m
c. i l cd c cd
cllcv cv, c c cc bc. Cmm kl
d bl c cc bd c m
d cl cl, c ml dc
cllcv c.
9
i d dd cllcv c, , ccl
dd cl cx mblc blc d
cl . y mblc blc d mlv dc
d c. t c k v m, cld
bl c d m c lm; c
, c mq d ml; d dc l v, c
vl. all m ccc blc d,
c b mll vl (cm b
d dc bl cm m
d) d mm xcldbl ( bl d cc d).
id ccd mblc blc d cl c
v bv. pcll id dmd b -cl
Mlm m Jv. t c dcd ll
ddc c b ml Jvz c
(rckl 2002). t dlcl b Jv bl c
c cllcv, cl d cv (B 1986
545). B mc bl xd m
gotong royong(ml c), c bcm mk
id lm d b cc l
d. sk, id, md
dv (ilmc, -ilmc, l, Cmm
c b cll ke gotong royong
(gotong royong-). Gotong royongvdd m cll l
mc cl.
Symbolic public goods
acilitate the social basis
or collective action.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
w sk d, c 1967, cc, s,
dcd n od cmc lc. ecll l
, lc dd -d
lc lc bl d
b l . a m lm
dcll c gotong royong mld vll d c. Gotong royongbcm k lm
dvlm l , cll mblz
l lb. i d c lcl d cll
id , s blvd d b l -
d dvlm d cd cv d cllb-
v m. B l 1970, sk d svadaya(l-l)
d b d cmb gotong royong, d svadaya gotong
royong(mblz)bcmcl mlm dvl-
m lc (B 1986).i dld lcl dvlm Jv cm-
m, sllv (1992) dm cmb
cc d cl svadayald m cd
lb. t b d id, d cb lb d c
dvlm jc. Cllcv c m, xc-
. Mblz cmm d: cvd b
vll dm (kepala desa) mll, bc d md
b xcd c d jc d
d llcd ld b vdd lcll. i c, d ld cvl
mblzd cb m cmm. ev xcd cb lb; dvdl ld d cld b lbld
c cv d c cl, lcl, ml, d
v cl c.
i m, id lcl ld ccd mblc
blc d lm, dl md dl bl
md dvdl bv cmm. a m
dk cx ml dc,
c ccl cd blc c.
s -d ldd d l m
dcd, d bl mvm
lv dd . t mvm cvd
c-cv b, c, x m
cmm c. s d dm d md
mlcl v x c, b l cvd xcll v
dc d m dvlm cm.
Indonesia consciously
built symbolic goods by
establishing a communita
ethic (gotong royong) as s
policy via school curricula
public education campaig
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
72
i dcd, b dmcc d d
ccd dclz lcl d cl
d dc vm, vll ld id
b cl qd. B, c v d dm
, gotong royong b m dd. i
b dl lzd bd b vl cmm c, c m d
m b d id. a 2004 v scd
ub pv pjc vl (pd, r, d rmb 2010
lvl c blc d cc m
, 47 c, 59 c d
c ml bc d bl. t
lvl c l cqc: cmm id
cb 37 c c vll blc d. id
ccll dcd cmm dl cl c lcl lvl, mv cc
cllcv c.
r bld mblc blc d, c m
ml c dc bv l
lc bjcv. al (2005) vd xml m
id, , , xlcl md
c cmm d m cllcv
d cl cmm-bd mm. Bd
v cvl d v d, al k dd
vll Km d m vll vm l 1920 cv cm
m-md cv md b 1990. h d
cvd b dclz dc mk
lcl lvl d b xlc dc cmm mmb
vl blc d d bld b vm
cl d lcl ccl.
Vll ccl d cv ccl dm md
m l d d c
vll m cll vlvd cl m (al 2005). e c vll b
ccl ccl mmb d dm
cd ml d ml c l
c.
The state can also attempt
to directly manipulate
preerences to induce
behaviors that are in line with
its policy objectives.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
Inequality and the role o elites. o d dv
lcl c cc mv mc b b-
c c d llc blc d d b. t
cl bd c cmm
v m, dclz dc mk
d jc mm l m c cm d bc mc.
Lcl cmm m dvl c d b
l v b l l ql. i l
m dd b ql d c
lcl cvc l.
t ml l ql cllcv c
cm m ol (1965), zd c v
v blc d, ql cld cl
cllcv c bc ld b l vd d, ll d. ecm v
xdd bc vl (Bld d pl 2006;
Bd, gk, d Kvv 2006).
Bld, Bd, d Bl (2006) mmz x.
t ql c v mb d cdc c
cllcv c, v :
h cm m c c l dmd blc
d b l c c m, m-
m b l bl dv m v. i
c c , m dc
cllcv c. i cld l l c
cllcv bjcv cvd b c vd m d
vd lb.
p c l m dc b dmd
c d bl xc l m .
t, l m c c
cmm m clb ld l b
l lkl d cld cl.
iql m c c cbd blc d, b m l dc l
m c ll, ol (1965) .
Cllcv v blc d m b
b v ql d lm cl ql,
One o the purported
advantages o local
participation is its capaci
improve the match betwe
benefciaries preerences
the allocation o public goand benefts.
Olsons seminal insight wa
that i the rich have a stro
interest in the provision o
public good, inequality ca
acilitate collective action
. . . later theorists have
demonstrated that the lin
between inequality and
collective action is more
ambiguous.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
74
v ql d. iql
cld v Ud c cllcv c.
t l dvd cx c cllcv c
blm, cmm d d c
w cmm mmb v lvd l m dxc c cl d cmc l v
l m v cmm dvl c
l b q d cv c
bcm mc m l. rl cmm cc
zd b ql cm d l, c ll l c
ld ql d cl . t cmm
d ql , c m ml v
b c, d , . t m c ml m
ld v l vll d l dc
. i c , ql cmbd cv c; lcl dl ld blv cllc
v c b , ll cc.
i c , ccl cllcv c cm
ql, ol mdl. B, D (2009) dm
mdl d m, ll
d cb c, ql c b
xl. t , v m,
c cld c c ld m cc
cm ld mk m ld v b
bc cllcv c. i dc
l , m b cd cv
cm mk m b ld v b
c, b ld v b c
Cql, cv qlbm cld b d c
ld b xld v l m.
al v l d c d
lz c ql m: ddvd m v
c cc d d
b bjc r d wl (2004) cll c c. F c, c dvd m hd c m
m c ccc c d c mv
mbl. t bl l mll xl c
dvdl m l c cl l m c
v cl c. F l c, b
Inequality traps can
create situations in which
successul collective action
exploits the poor.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
c vd m m ;
l bm, l d xl c c lm
, c dcm d xl, d blck mbl.
iql c l mc xcl ddvd
d m.
a m c l b ql d cl-lcv c l l l lcl dvlm. a fl
d l l c c, l
dm l c k l cl v cm-
m dvlm c vdd b lcl cmm
(, xml, abm d pl 2004). i c, d
c cllcv c mz ld c cl
mvm ll m m dcd mddl d cl
(M d sb 2004).
o blm dd l l dvlm m l d l. el
c b m dcd m xcd mmb cm-
m, c b l d m l. Elitec l
m l bl dm c, l,
c . n ccc mll xclv; l
dvdl m m b mll. t
lv q c l dc dmc
d fc .
w d cl cllcv c d blc
dbc c blc vc, cmm m,
l lc bvl cl c
b cv cv c: l c l
mblz cmm, d , d d m d
cllcvl dv, l-c bv. Lcl dvlm
jc dmd l cd ld; dcd l
bc, d d jc dc-
m, m cc, d m cv
vd b lcl jc. t cl
c b dcbd m bvl c (r d ibz2005; Bd d D 2006).
hv, v bvl l v cl k d k
m cl c. t, bc lcl jc
lkl b l m cll lkd ld. i
dvl c cl, d b b
Elite control can be an
eective part o the
cooperative inrastructure
when power is used to
acilitate collective action
toward the public good.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
76
dcd ld , m c lkl
b ld b l, c d l cfc
Cl bcm mlvl c l xc blc
c v b. C c m l v
, cld , c, d db b
cl lv.i m d c m cc
, ll, mcl blc dcllm. Cllm
cc ld llc blc c d d
k d l cld cl d
.
i dmcc , c m cmm
dvl ld c, c bvl mlvl
c cl cmm: ld
d d b lvl vm; d c cmm m mblc blc d v
dvld cmm; d, t xml m C
dmcc m ccbl x. i dmc
, cllm ll cqc cl m d l
m. B dld dvdl d m
ld cl bl, bld llc, lc
t lcl cx l dm l c
c dmcc dclz. Bd d Mkj
(1999, 2000) cc mdl l c lcl cm
. t d lvl c dd dx lcl c, lcl d
l, d v cm b
lcl lcl d . wl
c mk cb c lc, c
d c v. a v v b
. Lvl lcl c d dd
db lc, ccmc , d x
md. Dmcc dclz ll l d
ql vc, c b m d l
dvcd . i ll l d l lcl ql d
db , mk x c mc m
cc lcl cx.
Cllm dmcc cc l b
cz d lc dcd ml c,
Control becomes malevolent
capture when elites extract
public resources or their
private beneft.
It is important to distinguish
capture rom clientelism.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
dc xc cz v dc m
c cc mlm, d d vc (Kcl d
wlk 2007, 2). a Bd d Mkj (2011) ,
(dmcc) cllm vl m v cqc
dvlm. F, c dcd d -m b
qck lcl c m d v d (,bdzd d) d cb dvlm
l m (dc, l). pv , mv, d
b dcd d v x v
mbl c v. V m l md b
lcl ( l cl lcl
) b x v m dcl m-
. t cqc llc qll dbd v
m dv bc. Cllm c dc cc
d xcb ql v bc xlc c.w lcl dvlm jc, m
dd l l d d b l cl,
c cb cv c lcl lvl;
cllm; d c. udd lcl c
ql d lcl cl d lcl l l
v d ll dm bl c ll
cl b . exlcl cz c
d dmc cld l d dd c ql
mv c m, c mdd cl m
d m vll ccl, d m xcl-vl c , m d d m
dc vlc c.
Group composition and collective action. t mb
cmm mk dc, cll c dc
d d c. g d c m mm-
b mmb . Cql, dvdl
m blc dvdl cv c
dv m d.
t c l cmm v m m
ld cllcv c m dcl cv m
l cmm. hv, al d L F (2005)
, m c m b m dcv,
bc dv m ll d kll l cmlm l
dc c. t c lkd
Clientelism in democratic
settings occurs when
relationships between citi
and politicians are predic
on a material transaction.
The number o groups in
a community can make a
dierence, particularly i e
group has a distinct ident
and preerences.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
78
dc c m c cv vd dm
d cfc.
t l b z cmm d cc
cllcv c bd . a ol
(1965) , l cmm l v m d, bc
mc c dvdl dc mll. Mv, bld d ( xcldbl), dvdl
blc d dcl l , dc cv
cllcv c. t m k l
group-size paradox. hv, c (xcldbl) bl
d, ol l vd, l bl dc
m m. Mv, eb d r (2000)
ml c c cl, l v
cc cm m v d xcldbl
( , ccc v d).t dd m, cd c
l d mblz c l d xlv lc
ld. t ml c c c
xml , b bc, b , c
m d bc m c, m vbl
bcm d m k bcm ld
Cql, mblz ld lkl l
l mb l ld b m d .
i cl l cmm, m
ql cmm, m cmm m cllcv c l. t mc c cmlx
d l dd dl cllcv c
x ddc cmm,
cv c, c c,
lvl v, d x lc d lcl .
Inormation ailures. a d dv dclz
lv m m l bl d
cl vm bv c l
cll, dmvl, cll m cl dc
mk. t lck m bcm cll c
c l vbl, c l
v m. Dclz m mk vm m
v d cz b mk m xm c
z. w dclz cll lv m blm
Larger, more unequal, or
more heterogeneouscommunities are not
necessarily more prone to
collective action ailure.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
b mv mc b lc dc d c
bc mcl q.
im l cvc ll l lk
b cvl c, , d mk. sc l dl
vl d l cld ql d . t
cld mc vlbl m b c bc c vll bd, cz kld ll
d bcc cd, d cd d -
c. g ql cb l mmc m;
c d m l l lkl v b ccd
k, b cc l l vm, m dc-
(d ), d cc fc
dc mk. Lck m d c l m
lcl d cl ccbl (Km 2007). t c-
c m l (b m md, m cm, cd cdbl m d l b)
l mv bl cz mblz mlv
ld d mk m ccbl. w b m,
cz bcm m d b bl mk m md
lcl dc, c l lcl ccbl.
ev bc lcl ccbl, b m m
bl cz m md v d cc-
bl , c blc cl dcl d c m
b m v d (h 2009).
i c vm, lbb c, d mkdmd , ql cmm c blm
c d m d
c v m vc. ev mblz, ql m c
d lk cvc (eb d r 2006).
M ql cmm ll v m lzd lbb, c
v d c vm lck m b
c d cz. M lzd lbb m
l b m cv vc . Cql, v-
m m b m fcd b c xm d
d mk c dc. t, eb-r mdl,
ql c cl cvl c l.
slv mc v m lvl
d, l lkl vlv vl lcl
l. hv, lv m mmqlz
Inormation ailures in
the civic arena are largely
ailures in the links betwe
civil society, the state, anmarkets.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
80
cc m b c d
. Dc c c m b c
c m ccbl d v lc. w
v m mv c d mk
d cc cz mblz m mcl q
Conclusions
Fd, l, d dv lc dc
c dvlm. p dvc k v
lld b dllm, c v mm
clz, vl. i m, xcv clz
v ll, c v clm lc
c.t v b l c v wld w ii
d ( c 1). i c d xld,
clz m v b. advc d vcd
vdbl d llc c, b
d b lmd b l d mk, v
m, d cvl c l; ql; d cxl dd
b c m.
t d ddl; ll-b cd
b b mv c c d c
lk m m. t blm m mm d cd c mk d vm l c cvl c
Dc b , , d m lcl c
v . t d b md dd
cv c; l l; d cmc
lcl, d cl c d b cd lclz dc
mk v c v m.
Notes
1. ecv cvc c c l v ml cqc v cz, cll mll cm cx m c, c, bl m bl c l b cvl mblz mmb d c mj bm (K 2004). t
Equalizing access to
inormation is relatively
straightorward . . .
. . . but citizens may need
to conront the structures
o power directly to use
that inormation to make
governments more responsive
to them.
Participatory development
policy needs to be driven
by a thoughtul diagnosis
o the interaction betweenmarket, government, and civil
society ailures.
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a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e v e l o p m
c cvl c l , bl, bl qlbm l .
2. t jc d m v m c c d . B v cl m dm d j, d cvc c mblzd bd m.
3. s Bd (2005) lb . a lk-
cc m vm, mk, d cvl c xm m m ccbl l ( 3.2 wld Bk 2004). w cz/cl z cllcvl, b c lc d d v
x vc. t c lc d lc mk- cmc vc vd. t cmc c bml, dcl m vc vd vm bcc, vm c dl v vc mk b v v vd dlv blc vc cz. t 2004 World Development Reportc b
c cz c ld vc vd ccbl. t l
vlv lcl ccbl; cz d vm bl vc v b lc m mv mm c b v . t dclzvc v cmm, l vd d dc cl d mm cz, xc cl ld m dcl ccbl.
4. t dd bcmk mk d vm l c-d p cc l l-d dvdl b p mm bjc c m, vxd c d cl. i cvc , c cb md b xd; dlbv c dd cc. Fm, cdd c c c m
d bl cc. F , d cvl c l lv . t l Kl h l m . F dc ldcc cmm l, hm d Kkc (1981), Bldd pl (1996), ak (2001), d Bd (2005).
5. i c c, t vd 316 vll vc d C.
6. Vll ml zd d vll d d, c C l l ckd d Cll rvld b bql bld. L zd dvll cl ll.
7. Vll cc c b mbddd, bc p mmb bd m k cc cv. B c, v cl vll ml mblc cd c ml ccl lcm c ml d d ldp mmb lm l mmb mlccl d m d ml cv.
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l o c a l i z i n g d e v e l o p m e n t : d o e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k ?
82
8. t c l cl bld cllcv d. Fm cll l c l dvlm lc, rd wl (2004) d Lm d smll (2008).
9. s Bcd (2009) x ld d cllcvm.
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