Juan José AlavaJuan José Alava PhDPhD School of Resource & Environmental School of Resource & Environmental ManagementManagementFaculty of EnvironmentFaculty of Environment, Simon Fraser UniversitySimon Fraser University

Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Galapagos: The DDT caseGalapagos: The DDT case

2012 Photo Credit: JJ Alava

Source:Source: http://earth.google.com

Galapagos: Natural HistoryGalapagos: Natural History

• 13 Oceanic volcanic Islands (Galapagos 13 Oceanic volcanic Islands (Galapagos Archipelago)Archipelago)

• Active volcanic islandsActive volcanic islands

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/4000/4514/galapagos_ast_2003_lrg.jpg

•Volcanic origin (2.8–5.6 millions and 60 -300 Volcanic origin (2.8–5.6 millions and 60 -300 thousands years ago).thousands years ago).

(Image: MODIS NASA GSFC).

(Photo- M. Hall, 23 Oct.2005)

Sierra Negra Volcano Sierra Negra Volcano eruptioneruption

Volcanic ActivityVolcanic Activity

Galapagos Islands (Galapagos Archipelago)Galapagos Islands (Galapagos Archipelago)

San CristóbalSan Cristóbal

FloreanFloreanaa EspañolEspañol

aa

IsabelaIsabela

Santa Santa CruzCruz

FernandinFernandinaa

SantiagSantiagoo

MerchenaMerchena

Santa Santa FeFe

PintaPinta

GenovesaGenovesa

Galapagos Galapagos Archipelago*Archipelago*

*Galapagos Islands were discovered in March 10th 1535 by Fray Thomas de Berlanga by accident.

• Complex oceanographic featuresComplex oceanographic features

• Variable Sea Surface TemperatureVariable Sea Surface Temperature

• High Primary ProductivityHigh Primary Productivity

Galapagos: Natural HistoryGalapagos: Natural History

Photo Credit: JJ Alava

Oceanographic currentsOceanographic currents

Source: Satellite Photo: NASA-GSFC 2001. November 5, 1999. (Banks, 2002)

PRYMARY PRODUCTIVITYPRYMARY PRODUCTIVITY

(Banks, 2002)

Primary productivity distributional Primary productivity distributional patternspatterns

(Banks, 2002)

Sea Surface Temperature Sea Surface Temperature (SST)(SST)

Charles DarwinCharles DarwinBritish British

NaturalistNaturalist1809 -18821809 -1882

H.M.S. Beagle (1831–1835)

“I I have called this principle, by whichhave called this principle, by whicheach slight variation, if useful, is each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natural Selection.”preserved, by the term Natural Selection.”      

—Charles Darwin from “On The Origin of Species” (1859)

Evolution and Evolution and BiodiversityBiodiversity

Photo Credit: JJ Alava

http://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/darwin.htm

BiodiversityBiodiversity

• Native and endemic species• 2,909 marine species (18.2% endemics)• 174 fish species• 47 macro-invertebrate species• 88 marine/shore bird species (5 endemics)• 26 terrestrial birds (84% endemics-13 Darwin’s

finches)• 1 endemic species of marine iguana• 2 endemic species of terrestrial iguanas• 12-14? endemic species of Galapagos tortoises• 23 cetacean species• 2 endemic pinniped species • 23 endemic genera of insects• 560-600 vascular plants (175-180 endemics)

Photos’ Credits: JJ Alava

Photos’ Credits: JJ Alava

Photo Credit: JJ Alava

Photo Credit: JJ Alava

Photos’ Credits: JJ Alava

((Amblyrhynchus cristatus)Amblyrhynchus cristatus)

Marine Iguanas

Photo Credit: JJ Alava

Galapagos Land Iguana Galapagos Land Iguana ((Conolophus subcristatusConolophus subcristatus))

““Galapagos Galapagos dragons”dragons”

Photos’ Credits: JJ Alava

Giant Terrestrial TortoiseGiant Terrestrial Tortoise ((GeocheloneGeochelone elephantopuselephantopus)) Photos’ Credits: JJ Alava

Killer whale observed at Fernandina Island (west Galapagos Islands, Ecuador) by Ben Haase in 2005. (Picture Credit: Ben Haase).

Galapagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki)

Galapagos fur seal (Arctocephalus galapagoensis)

Marine Mammals: Galapagos Marine Mammals: Galapagos Pinnipeds (Otariids)Pinnipeds (Otariids)

Photos’ Credits: JJ Alava

Galapagos: Conservation and Management

• National Park (1959) = 97% terrestrial area (7900 km2)

• Worldwide Natural Heritage Site (UNESCO–1979)

• Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO–1984)

• Whale Sanctuary (1990)

• Special Law of Galapagos (1998)

• Galapagos Marine Reserve (1998):133,000km2

Photo Credit: JJ Alava

Pictures: J.J. Alava

Galapagos Biodiversity in Peril

Invasive species

Growing human population

Burgeoning tourism

Demographic Growth the Galapagos: 1979-2005Demographic Growth the Galapagos: 1979-2005

Source: INEC (Censuses:1974, 1982, 1990, 1998)/INGALA 2005 (cited by Taylor et al., 2006)Source: INEC (Censuses:1974, 1982, 1990, 1998)/INGALA 2005 (cited by Taylor et al., 2006)

Source: Charles Darwin Foundation, Annual Report 2010

Geographic Opening of the Islands-Continentalization of Galapagos Islands’ ecosystems

Galapagos Geographic Index (GGI):

Pervasive ecological and social

transformations caused in the

Galapagos Islands due to a

massive influx of human beings,

materials, and fuel and energy

inputs......

Coastal and Marine PollutionCoastal and Marine Pollution

• Chronic leaking of hydrocarbons (oil and

gasoline) from tourism, fishery boats and tankers

(transport/delivering operations)

• Oil Spills (e.g., Jessica oil spill-2001)

• Release of solid waste (e.g., plastic) from tourism

and fishery vessels

Photo CreditPhoto Credit : : Heidi SnellHeidi Snell

Jessica Oil Jessica Oil spillspill

Photo Credit : Heidi Snell

Wikelski et al., 2001 (Wikelski et al., 2001 (ScienceScience))

Wikelski et al., 2002 (Wikelski et al., 2002 (NatureNature))

0

5

10

15

20

25

Hooks Nylon Propeller Net Plastic Others Rope

% i

nte

ract

ion

s w

ith

sea

lio

ns

tourism 47%

fisheries 53%

Solid Waste PollutionSolid Waste Pollution

Alava and Salazar (2006)

Percent frequency of interaction between Galápagos sea Percent frequency of interaction between Galápagos sea lions and objects related to both fisheries and tourism lions and objects related to both fisheries and tourism

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

1977-1978 2001Survey periods

Sea

lio

n p

op

ula

tio

n

Z. wollebaeki

A. galapagoensis

40%

15-20%

Galapagos pinniped population trendGalapagos pinniped population trend

Alava (2004). Sea Lions of the World: Conservation and Research in the 21st Century. 22nd Wakefield Fisheries Symposium. September 30–October 3, 2004. Anchorage, Alaska, USA. Alaska Sea Grant/NOAA.

Coastal and Marine PollutionCoastal and Marine Pollution

• Sewage system from urbanized islands

• Overflow of septic tanks

• Biological pollution (diseases)

• Non-point sources: Run-off from agriculture field

(use of pesticides and fertilizers)

• Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

PCBs from electric transformer and facilities?

Organochlorine pesticides: DDT?

Rachel Carson (May 1907 — April 1964)

Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT):

“A Double-Edged Sword”

(Woodwell 1967, Scientic American)

Pic

ture

: Jo

hn

Sta

nm

eyer

; N

atio

nal

Geo

gra

ph

ic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Carson

Reproductive impairments (e.g. eggshell thinning) in raptors (Hickey and Anderson 1968; Blus 2003 )

Pic

ture

: V

lad

imir

Jan

Toxic Effects

Historical use of DDT in USA

Permission and courtesy from Dr. Russell Nicholson (Dept. Biological Sciences)

BY DDT

Chemicals can cause effects

Egg shell thinning

Early life stage mortality

Reproductive/ Sexual abnormalities

Immune suppression

Central nervous system

cognitive skills

respiratory decease

Tumors

Cancer….

Chemicals can cause effects

Egg shell thinning

Early life stage mortality

Reproductive/ Sexual abnormalities

Immune suppression

Central nervous system

cognitive skills

respiratory decease

Tumors

Cancer….

Chemicals can cause effects

Egg shell thinning

Early life stage mortality

Reproductive/ Sexual abnormalities

Immune suppression

Central nervous system

cognitive skills

respiratory decease

Tumors

Cancer….

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)

150,000−310,000 tonnes/year150,000−310,000 tonnes/year::

used as additives for

electronic devices, plastic,

textiles, furniture and paints.

Legacy PCBs versus emerging PBDEs

(Nylund et al., 1992; WHO 1994; de Boer et al., 1998; de Wit 2002; Alaee et al., 2003; de Boer et al. 2009)

(Source: Great Lakes Program Office, U.S. EPA, Chicago, Illinois.)http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/atlas/glat-ch4.html

PBDEs are POPs:

(treta, penta, hexa and

heptabromodiphenyl

mixtures)

Expeditions and Sampling sites:

Sample size (n)

GSL pups = 41

Mullets = 6

Thread herrings = 4

2005 = 21pups

2008 = 20 pups

Animal captures and biopsy sampling

Selection of site rookery Animal capture

Biopsy sampling Sample labeling/preservationBiopsy collection

Alava et al. (2011, MPB); Alava et al. (2011, Ambio)

DDT strikes back: Galapagos sea lions at risk

n = 13 n = 10n = 8 n = 10

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

2005 2008

Mea

n L

og

DD

T (

ug

/kg

lip

id)

Female

Male

*

n = 13 n = 10n = 8 n = 10

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

2005 2008

Mea

n L

og

DD

T (

ug

/kg

lip

id)

Female

Male

*

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

Southernelephant seal,

ElephantIsland,

Antarctica (a)

Galapagossea lion,

GalapagosIslands,

Ecuador (b)

Galapagossea lion,

GalapagosIslands,

Ecuador (b)

Hawaiianmonk seal,Hawaii, HI,

USA (c)

Harbor seal,NortheasternPacific Ocean,

BC, Canadaand WA, USA

(d)

California sealion-Baja

California,Mexico (e)

Northernelephant seal,

CA, USA (f)

Pacific harborseal, CA, USA

(f)

California sealion, CA, USA

(f)

Lo

g ∑

DD

T (

ug

/kg

lip

id)

Legend: (a) Miranda-Filho et al., 2007; (b) Alava et al., (2011); (c) Ylitalo et al., 2008; (d) Mos et al., 2010; (e) Del

Toro et al., 2006; (f) Blasius and Goodmanlowe 2008. Except for California sea lions from Baja California

(Mexico), used here as reference, all the individuals are pups. Error bars are standard errors (SE).

DDT Global comparisons

280 μg/kg lipid

525 μg/kg lipid

Alava et al. (2011, MPB)

-2.00

-1.50

-1.00

-0.50

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

Mullet Thread herring Galapagos sea lion

Lo

g P

OP

s

(μg

/kg

lip

id)

mirex dieldrin β-HCH ∑Chlordanes ∑PCB p,p'-DDE ∑DDT

*

* *

* *

*

*

*Significant differences (ANOVA/Welch ANOVA, Tukey-Kramer-HSD, p < 0.05)

POPs readily bioaccumulate in Galapagos sea lions

(TL = 4.1)

(TL = 3.1)

(TL = 4.2)

Alava et al. (2012, in press)

Galapagos sea lions are exposed to Pollutants

Alava et al. (2011)

Jessica oil spill impact in Galapagos sea lions (Salazar 2001)

Looming and potential threat of POPs in Galapagos sea lions (Alava & Salazar 2006)

Evidence of levels of PCBs, PBDEs and DDTs in Galapagos sea lions (Alava et al. 2009, ET&C;

Alava et al. 2011, MPB)

Global pollution by POPs-an issue of concernGlobal pollution by POPs-an issue of concern

Galapagos, Ecuador

Jurado et al., (2005)

British Columbia, Canada

http://brooklynbeforenow.blogspot.ca/2010_09_01_archive.html

American presence in the 1940s in the Galapagos1941-1946: Occupation by American military forces…….

…and DDT was used by Americans to eliminate introduced rats in the Galapagos (but, was it successful?)…….

Source: Woram, J. 2005, Charles Darwin Slept Here© Rockville Press, Inc. ISBN 0-9769336-0-8

Policy, Management & Control of POPsPolicy, Management & Control of POPs

REACH REACH (European Union)(European Union)

CEPACEPA(Canada)(Canada)

TSCA TSCA (USA)(USA)

Stockholm ConventionStockholm Convention(focused on Arctic Regions)(focused on Arctic Regions)

POPs

Persistence (P)

Bioaccumulation (B)

Toxicity (T)

PBT criteriaPBT criteria

“to protect human health and the environment from the harmful impacts of persistent organic pollutants…

ConclusionsConclusions

• POPs readily biomagnify in Galapagos sea lions (first evidence of tropical biomagnification in oceanic-equatorial islands)

• Conservation implications for endangered/endemic wildlife and Management of POPs in tropical marine regions

• Health Risks by POPs is low (< PCB immunotoxicity/endocrine disruption thresholds), but some concerns due to DDT

• This study provides a timely warning signal of the dangers of an increased reliance of DDT for malaria control in tropical countries

• Concentrations of DDT and associated health risks in wildlife are generally believed to be declining but this may no longer be the case in tropical countries where DDT is increasingly used.

Future generations: the hope of our blue Future generations: the hope of our blue planetplanet

Photo credit: J.J .Alava P. (my late Dad), November, 1991Photo credit: J.J .Alava P. (my late Dad), November, 1991

GRACIAS!!!

Photo Credit: JJ Alava

““We cannot let anyone forget that above all, We cannot let anyone forget that above all,

Galapagos is a place of conservation, which may Galapagos is a place of conservation, which may

have tourism and fisheries determined not upon have tourism and fisheries determined not upon

the convenience of anyone, but on Galapagos the convenience of anyone, but on Galapagos

sustainability. It is overall and foremost a sustainability. It is overall and foremost a

protected area, a National Park and Marine protected area, a National Park and Marine

Reserve, which means that in order to live in Reserve, which means that in order to live in

such a privileged and unique place, it implies such a privileged and unique place, it implies

accepting the restrictions as well as the accepting the restrictions as well as the

responsibilities. If the restrictions and responsibilities. If the restrictions and

responsibilities are not convenient, anyone can responsibilities are not convenient, anyone can

choose to leave. Not everyone has the choose to leave. Not everyone has the

right to live there, but everyone has the right to right to live there, but everyone has the right to

leave.” leave.”

Deborah Chiriboga Deborah Chiriboga H.H.

Ecuadorian Ecuadorian EnvironmentalistEnvironmentalist