Post on 06-Apr-2018
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Chapter
7
Mr. Kevin A. BoudreauxAngelo State University
www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea
CHEM 3331Fundamentals of Biochemistry
1
Carbohydrates
Organic and Biochemistry for Today(4th ed.)
Spencer L. Seager / Michael R. Slabaugh
Biochemistry
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry ofbiomolecules and living organisms.
In organic chemistry, we organized our study ofcarbon-containing molecules byfunctional group(alcohol, alkene, ketone, carboxylic acid, etc.).
In the first five chapters, we will take a look atseveral groups of important biological molecules,many of which have more than one functional
group: carbohydrates (Ch. 7), lipids (Ch. 8),proteins and enzymes (Ch. 9 and 10), and nucleicacids (Ch. 11).
We will also examine the synthesis of proteins (Ch.11), nutrition (Ch. 12) and metabolism (Ch. 13, 14),and important body fluids (Ch. 15).
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Classification ofCarbohydrates
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Carbohydrates and Biochemistry
Carbohydrates are compounds of tremendousbiological importance:
they provide energy through oxidation
they supply carbon for the synthesis of cellcomponents
they serve as a form of stored chemical energy
they form part of the structures of some cells andtissues
Carbohydrates, along with lipids, proteins, nucleicacids, and other compounds are known asbiomolecules because they are closely associatedwith living organisms.
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates, or saccharides (saccharo is Greekfor sugar) are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones,
or substances that yield such compounds onhydrolysis.
C
C
O H
H OH
CHO H
C
C
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
glucose
COH H
C
C
C
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
O
CH2OH
fructose
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
-D-glucose
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include not onlysugar, but also the starches thatwe find in foods, such as bread,pasta, and rice.
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The term carbohydrate comesfrom the observation that when youheat sugars, you get carbon andwater (hence, hydrate ofcarbon).
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Classes of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides contain a single polyhydroxyaldehyde or ketone unit (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide unitslinked together by a covalent bond (e.g., sucrose).
Oligosaccharides contain from 3 to 10monosaccharide units (e.g., raffinose).
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Classes of Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides contain very long chains ofhundreds or thousands of monosaccharide units,which may be either in straight or branched chains(e.g., cellulose, glycogen, starch).
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The Stereochemistryof Carbohydrates
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Two Forms of Glyceraldehyde
Glyceraldehyde, the simplest carbohydrate, exists intwo isomeric forms that are mirror images of eachother:
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Stereoisomers
These forms are stereoisomers of each other.
Glyceraldehyde is a chiral molecule it cannot besuperimposed on its mirror image. The two mirror-image forms of glyceraldehyde are enantiomers ofeach other.
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C
CHO
CH2OH
HHO CH OH
CH2OH
CHO
L-glyceraldehyde D-glyceraldehyde
Chirality and Handedness
Chiral molecules have the same relationship to eachother that your left and right hands have whenreflected in a mirror.
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Chiral Carbons
Chiral objects cannot be superimposed on theirmirror imagese.g., hands, gloves, and shoes.
Achiral objects can be superimposed on the mirrorimagese.g., drinking glasses, spheres, and cubes.
Any carbon atom which is connected tofourdifferent groups will be chiral, and will have twononsuperimposable mirror images; it is a chiralcarbon or a center of chirality.
Ifany of the two groups on the carbon are thesame, the carbon atom cannot be chiral.
Many organic compounds, including carbohydrates,contain more than one chiral carbon.
14
Examples: Chiral Carbon Atoms Identify the chiral carbon atoms (if any) in each of
the following molecules:
CCH3 CH3
OH
H
CCH3 CH2CH3
OH
H
CCH3 CH2CH3
OO
HO
CCH3 CH2Cl
OH
H
HO
CH H
H
H
CH H
Cl
Cl
CH Cl
Cl
Cl
CH Cl
Br
F
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Examples: Chiral Carbons in Carbohydrates Identify the chiral carbons (if any) in the following
carbohydrates:
erythrose
CH
CHO
CH OH
CH2OH
OH
C
C
O H
H OH
CHO H
C
C
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
glucose
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
C
CH2OH
O
CH OH
C
CH2OH
OHH
2nRule
When a molecule has more than one chiral carbon,each carbon can possibly be arranged in either theright-hand or left-hand form, thus if there are nchiral carbons, there are 2n possible stereoisomers.
Maximum number of possible stereoisomers = 2n
CH Cl
Br
F
16
21
= 2 possible stereoisomers
CCH3 C
OH
H
CH2OH
H
OH
22 = 4 possible stereoisomers
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Fischer Projections
Fischer projections are a convenient way torepresent mirror images in two dimensions.
Place the carbonyl group at or near the top and thelast achiral CH2OH at the bottom.
C
CHO
CH2OH
HHO CH OH
CH2OH
CHO
CHO
CH2OH
HHO H OH
CH2OH
CHO
L-glyceraldehyde D-glyceraldehyde
L = Left R = Right
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Naming Stereoisomers
When there is more than one chiral center in acarbohydrate, look at the chiral carbon farthest fromthe carbonyl group: if the hydroxy group points toright when the carbonyl is up it is the D-isomer,and when the hydroxy group points to the left, it isthe L-isomer.
CHO
HHO H OH
CHO
CH2OH
HO H
CH2OH
OHH
D-erythroseL-erythrose
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Examples: Fischer Projections
Draw Fischer projectionsof D and L lactic acid:
CH
CO2H
CH3 OH
Draw Fischer projectionsof D and L alanine:
CH
NH2
CH3 CO2H
Given the structure
for D-glucose, drawthe structure of L-glucose:
CHO
OHH
HHO
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
D-glucose
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Examples: Fischer Projections Identify the following compounds as D or L
isomers, and draw their mirror images.
HO H
C
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
O
CH2OH
fructose
HO H
CH2OH
OHH
H
CHO
lyxose
HO
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Whats So Great About Chiral Molecules?
Molecules which are enantiomers of each other haveexactly the same physical properties (melting point,
boiling point, index of refraction, etc.) but not theirinteraction with polarized light.
Polarized light vibrates only in one plane; it resultsfrom passing light through a polarizing filter.
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Optical Activity
A levorotatory () substance rotates polarized lightto the left [e.g., l-glucose; (-)-glucose].
A dextrorotatory (+) substance rotates polarizedlight to the right [e.g., d-glucose; (+)-glucose].
Molecules which rotate the plane of polarized lightare optically active.
Many biologically important molecules are chiral
and optically active. Often, living systems containonly one of the possible stereochemical forms of acompound, or they are found in separate systems. D-lactic acid is found in living muscles; D-lactic acid is present in sour milk.
In some cases, one form of a molecule is beneficial, and the enantiomer is apoison (e.g., thalidomide).
Humans can metabolize D-monosaccharides but not L-isomers; only L-aminoacids are used in protein synthesis
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Monosaccharides
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Classification of Monosaccharides
The monosaccharides are the simplest of thecarbohydrates, since they contain only onepolyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit.
Monosaccharides are classified according to thenumber of carbon atoms they contain:
The presence of an aldehyde is indicated by theprefix aldo- and a ketone by the prefix keto-.
No. of Class of carbons Monosaccharide
3 triose4 tetrose5 pentose6 hexose
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Classification of Monosaccharides
Thus, glucose is an aldohexose (aldehyde + 6 Cs)and ribulose is a ketopentose (ketone + 5 Cs)
C
C
O H
H OH
CHO H
C
C
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
glucosean aldohexose
C
CH2OH
O
CH OH
C
CH2OH
OHH
ribulosea ketopentose
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Examples: Classifying Monosaccharides Classify the following monosaccharides:
C
CH2OH
CH2OH
OHH
O
CHO
CH2OH
HHO
HHO
C
CH2OH
OHH
O
CH2OH
HHO
CHO
HHO
HHO
CH2OH
OHH
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The Family of D-aldoses(L-forms not shown)
H OH
CH2OH
CHO
Aldotriose
21 = 2
D-glyceraldehyde
H OH
CHO
CH2OH
OHH
HO H
CHO
CH2OH
OHH
D-threoseD-erythrose
Aldotetroses2
2= 4
CHO
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
HO H
H OH
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
H OH
HO H
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
HO H
HO H
CH2OH
OHH
D-xyloseD-arabinose D-lyxoseD-ribose
Aldopentoses
23 = 8
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The Family of D-aldoses(L-forms not shown)
CHO
H OH
HO H
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
H OH
H OH
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
HO H
H OH
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
HO H
HO H
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
H OH
H OH
HHO
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
HO H
H OH
HHO
CH2OH
OHH
CHO
H OH
HO H
HHO
CH2OH
OHH
D-glucose
CHO
HO H
HO H
HHO
CH2OH
OHH
D-talose
D-gulose
D-idose D-galactose
D-mannoseD-allose D-altrose
Aldohexoses2
4= 16
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The Family of D-ketoses(L-forms not shown)
O
CH2OH
CH2OH
Ketotriose
20
= 1
Dihydroxyacetone
O
CH2OH
CH2OH
OHH
D-erythrulose
Ketotetroses2
1= 2
CH2OH
O
H OH
CH2OH
OHH
CH2OH
O
HO H
CH2OH
OHH
D-xyluloseD-ribulose
Ketopentoses
22 = 4
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The Family of D-ketoses(L-forms not shown)
CH2OH
O
H OH
HHO
CH2OH
OHH
CH2OH
O
H OH
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
CH2OH
O
HO H
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
CH2OH
O
HO H
HHO
CH2OH
OHH
D-Sorbose D-TagatoseD-Psicose D-Fructose
Ketohexoses23 = 8
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Physical Properties of Monosaccharides
Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructoseis sweetest; 73% sweeter than sucrose).
They are solids at room temperature.
They are extremely soluble in water:
Despite their high molecular weights, thepresence of large numbers of OH groups makethe monosaccharides much more water solublethan most molecules of similar MW.
Glucose can dissolve in minute amounts of waterto make a syrup (1 g / 1 ml H2O).
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SugarRelative
SweetnessType
Lactose 0.16 Disaccharide
Galactose 0.22 Monosaccharide
Maltose 0.32 Disaccharide
Xylose 0.40 Monosaccharide
Glucose 0.74 Monosaccharide
Sucrose 1.00 Disaccharide
Invert sugar 1.30 Mixture of glucose and fructose
Fructose 1.73 Monosaccharide
Table 7.2 The relative sweetness of sugars
(sucrose = 1.00)
Physical Properties of Monosaccharides
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Chemical Properties of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides do notusually exist in solution in
their open-chain forms:an alcohol group can addinto the carbonyl group inthe same molecule to formapyranose ring containinga stable cyclic hemiacetalor hemiketal.
OC
C
C C
C
CH2OH
H
H
HO
H OH
O
H
H
HOH
OC
C
C C
C
CH2OH
H
H
HO
H OH
HOH
OH
H
OC
C
C C
C
CH2OH
H
H
HO
H OH
HOH
H
OH
-D-glucose -D-glucose
D-glucose
cyclichemiacetals
-up -down
O
a pyranose ring
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Glucose Anomers
In the pyranose form of glucose, carbon-1 is chiral,and thus two stereoisomers are possible: one inwhich the OH group points down ( -hydroxy group)and one in which the OH group points up ( -hydroxy group). These forms are anomers of eachother, and carbon-1 is called the anomeric carbon.
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
C
C
O H
H OH
CHO H
C
C
OHH
CH2OH
OHH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
-D-glucose64%
-D-glucose36%
D-glucose0.02%
1
1
1
Haworthstructures
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Fructose Anomers
Fructose closes on itself to form a furanose ring:
O
a furanose ring
O
H
CH2OH
OCH2OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
HO
CH2OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
HO
OH
CH2OH
D-fructose
-D-fructose-D-fructose
-hydroxy
-hydroxy
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Drawing Furanose and Pyranose Rings
Monosaccharides are often represented using theHaworth structures shown below for furanose andpyranose rings.
The remaining OH groups on the ring point up ordown depending on the identity of the sugar.
O
CH2OHO
CH2OH
Furanosering
Pyranosering
always above ringfor D-saccharides
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Examples: Anomers
Identify the structures below as being the - or -
forms, and draw the structure of their anomers:
OHCH2OH
OH OH
O
ribose
OOH
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
galactose
With Friends Like These, Who Needs Anomers?
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Oxidation of Monosaccharides
Aldehydes and ketones that have an OH group onthe carbon next to the carbonyl group react with abasic solution of Cu2+ (Benedicts reagent) to forma red-orange precipitate of copper(I) oxide (Cu2O).
Sugars that undergo this reaction are calledreducing sugars. (All of the monosaccharides arereducing sugars.)
Reducing sugar +Cu
2+ oxidation
product+ Cu
2O
deep bluesolution
red-orangeppt
Benedicts Reagent
(blue)
Copper(I) oxide
(red-orange ppt)
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Formation of Phosphate Esters
Phosphate esters can form at the 6-carbon ofaldohexoses and aldoketoses.
Phosphate esters of monosaccharides are found inthe sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA, inATP, and as intermediates in the metabolism ofcarbohydrates in the body.
O
CH2
OH
OH
OH
OH
OP
O
O
O
glucose 6-phosphate
O
CH2
OH
HO
OH
CH2OH
OP
O
O
O
fructose 6-phosphate
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Glycoside Formation
The hemiacetal and hemiketal formsof monosaccharides can react withalcohols to form acetal and ketalstructures called glycosides. Thenew carbon-oxygen bond is calledthe glycosidic linkage.
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OCH3
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
+
OCH3
methyl -D-glycopyranoside
-D-glucose
methyl -D-glycopyranoside
+CH3OH H+
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Glycoside Formation
Once the glycoside is formed, the ring can no longeropen up to the open-chain form. Glycosides,
therefore, are not reducing sugars.
Glycoside + Cu2+
NR
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Examples: Glycoside Formation Identify the glycosidic linkage in each of the
following molecules:
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OCH2CH3
OHCH2OH
OH OH
O
CH2OH
OCH3
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Important Monosaccharides
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
-D-riboseForms the sugar backbone of
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
-D-deoxyribose
Forms the sugar backbone ofdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
-D-galactoseIncorporated with glucoseinto lactose (milk sugar)
OH
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Important Monosaccharides
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
-D-glucoseAlso known as dextrose and bloodsugar; present in honey and fruits.Glucose is metabolized in the bodyfor energy. Other sugars absorbedinto the body must be converted to
glucose by the liver.
O
CH2OH
OH
HO
OH
CH2OH
-D-fructoseAlso known as levulose andfruit
sugar. Fructose is the sweetest ofthe monosaccharides. It is presentin honey (1:1 ratio with glucose),fruits, and corn syrup. It is oftenused to sweeten foods, since lessfructose is needed to achieve the
same degree of sweetness.
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Disaccharides andOligosaccharides
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Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides can be linked togetherthrough a glycosidic linkage to form a disaccharide.
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
Maltose
+
-D-glucose -D-glucose
+
(1 4) glycosidic linkage
cyclic hemiacetal
H2O
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed into their mono-saccharide building blocks by boiling them with
dilute acids or reacting them with the appropriateenzymes.
Disaccharides that contain hemiacetal groups arereducing sugars.
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O
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
Maltose
O
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
H
reacts with Benedict's reagent
maltose + H2O D-glucose + D-glucoseH+
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Important Disaccharides
O
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
-D-glucose -D-glucose
MaltoseAlso known as malt sugar. It is
produced in germinating grain (suchas barley) as starch is broken down
during malting, and is formedduring the hydrolysis of starch to
glucose during digestion.
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
(1 4) glycosidic linkage
-D-galactose-D-glucose
LactoseAlso known as milk sugar. Lactose
constitutes 5% of cow's milk and7% of human milk. It is digested bythe enzyme lactase. Pure lactose is
found in whey, the waterybyproduct of cheese production.
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Important Disaccharides
O
CH2OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OHO
CH2OH
HO
OH
-D-glucose
-D-fructose
glycosidiclinkage
HOO
HO
OH
OH
OHO
OH
O
OH
OH
SucroseAlso known as table sugar. Both anomeric
carbons of glucose and fructose are tiedtogether in the glycosidic linkage; thus
neither ring can open, and sucrose is notareducing sugar. Sucrose is found in fruits,nectar, sugar cane, and sugar beets; maplesyrup contains about 65% sucrose, with
glucose and fructose present as well.Caramel is the solid residue formed fromheating sucrose. A flavoring agent called
invert sugaris produced by the hydrolysis ofsucrose under acidic conditions, which
breaks it apart into glucose and fructose;invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose because
of the fructose. Some of the sugar found inhoney is formed in this fashion; invert sugaris also produced in jams and jellies prepared
from acid-containing fruits.
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Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides contain from 3 to 10monosaccharide units.
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
-D-galactose-D-glucose
Raffinose
An oligosaccharide found in peas and beans;
largely undigested until reaching the intestinal
flora in the large intestine, releasing hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, and methane)
O
HOCH2
O
OH
HO
CH2OH
-D-fructose
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Polysaccharides
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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides contain hundreds or thousands ofcarbohydrate units.
Polysaccharides are notreducing sugars, since theanomeric carbons are connected through glycosidiclinkages.
We will consider three kinds of polysaccharides, allof which are polymers of glucose: starch, glycogen,and cellulose.
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Starch
Starch is a polymer consisting of D-glucose units.
Starches (and other glucose polymers) are usuallyinsoluble in water because of the high molecularweight.
Because they contain large numbers of OHgroups, some starches can form thick colloidaldispersions when heated in water (e.g., flour orstarch used as a thickening agent in gravies orsauces).
There are two forms of starch: amylose and
amylopectin.
StarchAmylose
Amylose consists of long, unbranchedchains ofglucose (from 1000 to 2000 molecules) connectedby (1 4) glycosidic linkages.
10%-20% of the starch in plants is in this form.
The amylose chain is flexible enough to allow themolecules to twist into the shape of a helix. Becauseit packs more tightly, it is slower to digest than otherstarches. 56
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OO
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
(1 4) glycosidic linkageAmylose
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StarchAmylose
Amylose helices can trap molecules of iodine,forming a characteristic deep blue-purple color.
(Iodine is often used as a test for the presence ofstarch.)
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58
StarchAmylopectin
Amylopectin consists of long chains ofglucose (up to 105 molecules)connected by (1 4) glycosidiclinkages, with (1 6) branches every24 to 30 glucose units along the chain.
80%-90% of the starch in plants is inthis form.
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
O
CH2
OH
OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
(1 4) glycosidic linkage
(1 6) branch point
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OO
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OO
Amylopectin
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Glycogen
Glycogen, also known as animal starch, isstructurally similar to amylopectin, containing both
(1 4) glycosidic linkages and (1 6) branchpoints. Glycogen is even more highly branched,with branches occurring every 8 to 12 glucose units.
Glycogen is abundant in the liver and muscles; onhydrolysis it forms D-glucose, which maintainsnormal blood sugar level and provides energy.
Starches (plants)
Amyloseunbranched
Amylopectinbranched
Glycogen (animals)highly branched
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Cellulose
Cellulose is a polymer consisting of long,unbranchedchains of D-glucose connected by
(1 4) glycosidic linkages; it may contain from300 to 3000 glucose units in one molecule.
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
(1 4) glycosidic linkage
Cellulose
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Cellulose
Because of the -linkages, cellulose has a differentoverall shape from amylose, forming extended
straight chains which hydrogen bond to each other,resulting in a very rigid structure.
Cellulose is the most important structuralpolysaccharide, and is the single most abundantorganic compound on earth. It is the material inplant cell walls that provides strength and rigidity;wood is 50% cellulose.
Plant cell wall
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Cellulose
Most animals lack the enzymes needed to digestcellulose, but it does provide roughage (dietaryfiber) to stimulate contraction of the intestines andhelp pass food through the digestive system.
Some animals, such as cows, sheep, and horses(ruminants), can process cellulose through the use ofcolonies of bacteria in the digestive system whichare capable of breaking cellulose down to glucose;
ruminants use a series of stomachs to allow cellulosea longer time to digest. Some other animals such asrabbits reprocess digested food to allow more timefor the breakdown of cellulose to occur.
Cellulose is also important industrially, from itspresence in wood, paper, cotton, cellophane, rayon,linen, nitrocellulose (guncotton), photographic films(cellulose acetate), etc.
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Nitrocellulose, Celluloid, and Rayon Guncotton (German, schiessbaumwolle) is cotton which has been treated
with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. It was discovered by ChristianFriedrich Schnbein in 1845, when he used his wifes cotton apron to
wipe up a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids in his kitchen, whichvanished in a flash of flame when it dried out over a fire. Schnbeinattempted to market it as a smokeless powder, but it combusted so readilyit was dangerous to handle. Eventually its use was replaced by cordite(James Dewar and Frederick Abel, 1891), a mixture of nitrocellulose,nitroglycerine, and petroleum jelly, which could be extruded into cords.
Celluloid(John Hyatt, 1869) was the first synthetic plastic, made bycombining partially nitrated cellulose with alcohol and ether and addingcamphor to make it softer and more malleable. It was used inmanufacturing synthetic billiard balls (as a replacement for ivory),photographic film, etc.; it was eventually replaced by less flammableplastics.
Rayon (Louis Marie Chardonnet, 1884) consists of partially nitrated
cellulose mixed with solvents and extruded through small holes, allowingthe solvent to evaporate; rayon was a sensation when introduced since itwas a good substitute for silk, but it was still highly flammable.
Dietary Fiber
Dietary fiber consists of complex carbohydrates,such as cellulose, and other substances that make upthe cell walls and structural parts of plants.
Good sources of dietary fiber include cereal grans,oatmeal, fresh fruits and vegetables, and grainproducts.
Soluble fiber, such as pectin, has a lower molecularweight, and is more water soluble. Soluble fiber
traps carbohydrates and slows their digestion andabsorption, thereby leveling out blood sugar levelsduring the day. Soluble fiber also helps to lowercholesterol levels by binding dietary cholesterol.
Insoluble fiber, such as cellulose, provides bulk tothe stool, which helps the body to eliminate solidwastes.
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apter 7 Carbohydrates
Chitin
Chitin is a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, anamide derivative of the amino sugarglucosamine, in
which one of the OH groups is converted to anamine (NH2) group. The polymer is extremelystrong because of the increased hydrogen bondingprovided by the amide groups.
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O
CH2OH
OH
OH
NH2
OH
Glucosamine
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
HN
OH
N-Acetylglucosamine
CH3
O
O
CH2OH
OH
HN
O
O
O
CH2OH
OH
HN
O
O
CH2OH
OH
HN
O
ChitinCH3
O CH3
O CH3
O
Chitin
Chitin is the main component of the cell walls offungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods such ascrustaceans and insects, and the beaks ofcephalopods. The chitin is often embedded in eithera protein matrix, or in calcium carbonate crystals.Since this matrix cannot expand easily, it must beshed by molting as the animal grows.
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67
How Sweet It Is!Sugar Substitutes
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Saccharin
The first of the artificial sweeteners, saccharin is noncaloric and
about 500 times sweeter than sugar. It was discovered in 1879by Constantine Fahlberg, a chemistry student at Johns HopkinsUniversity working for Ira Remsen; he noticed that the bread hewas eating was unusually sweet, and went back to his lab benchand tasted all of the compounds he had been working with that
day to find the compound responsible. It was marketedcommercially as a non-nutritive sweetener very quickly,
especially for use by diabetics. It was banned in some areas forsome time because it was a suspected carcinogen.
S
NH
O
OO
Saccharin
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apter 7 Carbohydrates
69
Aspartame (NutraSweet)
Aspartame (NutraSweet) is about 160 times sweeter than sugar; itis composed of the amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine,neither of which has a sweet taste. It was discovered at Searle byJames Schlatter in 1965, who was preparing intermediates for thesynthesis of a tetrapedtide for an anti-ulcer project. Schlatter had
spilled some of the dipeptide intermediate on his hands, andnoticed later that there was a strong, sweet taste; he went back tohis bench and tasted the dipeptide and found that it indeed wasextremely sweet. Aspartame is sensitive to heat, so it cannot be
used in cooked foods, and it decomposes slowly in liquids,reducing their shelf life.
OCH3O
N
O
NH2
O
OHHAspartame (NutraSweet)
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N
S
H
Cyclamate(Sodium N-cyclohexylsulfamate)Discovered by Michael Sveda in
1937, who noticed that a cigar thathe was smoking in the lab tastedespecially sweet. It is about 30-50
times sweeter than sugar, and isoften used in combination withother artificial sweeteners. It is
heat-stable. Cyclamate was bannedby the FDA in 1970, although it is
still used in other countries.
O-Na
+
O
OO
S
N
K+
O
CH3O
O
Acesulfame-K (Sunette, Sweet One)Discovered accidentally at Hoechst
AG when a chist accidentally dipped
his fingers into the chemicals that hewas working with, and later licked
his finger to pick up a piece of paper.It is 200 times sweeter than sugar,
noncaloric, and is heat-stable and canbe used during cooking. It is often
used in combination with otherartificial sweetners, so that each one
masks the others' aftertaste.
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O
CH2OH
Cl
OH
OH
"galactose"
Sucralose (Splenda)A non-caloric artificial sweetener
approved by the FDA in 1998.The glucose in sucrose is replaced
by a galactose, and three of theOH groups are replaced by Cl
atoms. It is about 600 timessweeter than sucrose, and is non-
caloric and heat-stable.
O
CH2Cl
O
OH
HO
CH2Cl
"fructose"
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
Sorbitol
A sugar alcohol; incompletely
absorbed during digestion, and
contribute fewer calories thancarbohydrates; found naturally in
fruits; used commercially in
sugar-free candies, cookies,
chewing gum, etc.
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Stevia
OH
O
HO Steviol
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
OH
HO
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
HO
OH
Stevioside(a steviol glycoside)
Steviol (Truvia, PureVia)Stevia rebaudiana (sweetleaf) is a plant inthe sunflower family widely grown for its
sweet leaves. The leaves contain acompound called steviol, which is
attached via glycoside linkages to glucosemolecules to form stevioside (250-300
times sweeter than sugar) andrebaudioside A (aka rebiana, contains anadditional glucose group, 350-450 times
sweeter than sugar). The FDA putrebaudioside A on the GRAS list in 2009.
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The Maillard Reaction
The Maillard Reaction occurs between foodscontaining carbohydrates and proteins under heating;
it results in a complex mixture of products and thedevelopment of a brown color. It is observed in thegrilling or browning of meats, the formation of cruston baked breads, the boiling of maple syrup, thebrewing of beer, the roasting of coffee and cocoabeans, the roasting of nuts, and other sources. Inaddition to the darkened colors, many complexflavors are developed. There are hundreds ofcompounds produced during these reactions, notmany of which are well-characterized.
O
H
OFurfural
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The End