Post on 16-Jan-2016
MoosePresented by Lauren N. Watine
What is a moose?• Introduction• Ecology• Management• The Future
Introduction• Origins
– Bering Land Bridge from Siberia• End of Pleistocene
– Great Plains– Eastern US
Introduction• Origins
– “Moose”• Algonquin “he strips off”• “Elk” in Europe
• Classification and Taxonomy– Order: Artiodactyla– Family: Cervidae– Genus: Alces– Species: alces
Introduction
• Classification and Taxonomy– 5 subspecies recognized globally, 4 in NA
• Alces americanus americanus– Eastern moose
• Alces americanus andersoni Peterson– Northwestern moose
• Alces americanus gigas Miller – Alaska moose
• Alces americanus shirasi Nelson – Shiras moose
Introduction
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Skull characteristics
• Upper jaw without incisors• Upper canines almost always absent• Short pedicels
– 1st antlers appear 4-6 months after birth
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– General Appearance• Massive body• Long and slender legs• Shoulder hump• Long nose
• Large/flexible overhanging upper lip • Dewlap at throat
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– General Appearance• Length
– 2.74 m
• Height – 1.83 m
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– General Appearance• Front hoof widths
– Male» ~13 cm
– Female» ~10 cm
– Calf» ~8 cm
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Pelage• Newborn Moose
– Light red reddish brown– Shades of grey black on lower abdomen, chest,
legs, muzzle, hooves, eye rings, and ears– Replaced in 2-3 months by darker coat
» Shed in spring» Replaced by short, fine, nearly black, hair
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Pelage• Adult prime coats
– Nearly black
What is it?
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Male vs. Female• Females
– White hair around vulva – Brown face and dark body
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Male vs. Female• Males
– Black face– Antlers
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Male vs. Female• “Bells” skin flaps on neck
– Cow: looks like tuft of hair– Bull: larger, rounder
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Glands• Lachrymal glands • Tarsal glands
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Antlers• PALMICORN• Males
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Antlers• Velvet• Antler “sheds”
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Antlers• Size and spread
– 35 kg– 205 cm
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Antlers• Size and spread
– Spread rarely >16.51 cm » 13.97 cm = good
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Antlers• Calves
– Small buds by late September
Introduction
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Antlers• Maximum development
– 5 y/o– Declines in teens
Introduction• Physical Characteristics
– Weight (live)• Moose Research Center (MRC), Alaska
– Males» With antlers before the rut: 771 kg» Large bulls: >454 kg
– Females» 573 kg
Introduction• Distribution and Abundance
– Circumpolar• 72 °N latitude and south to about 40 °N
latitude• Europe, Asia, and North America
Introduction• Distribution and Abundance
– North American range• Northern spruce and boreal forests
• Numbers (1978)– 0.8-1.2 million– Little change in 30+ years
Introduction• Distribution and Abundance
– North American range• Alaska Colorado
– South through Rocky Mountains
• East Newfoundland • South to New Hampshire, northern Wisconsin, and northern North Dakota
Introduction• Distribution and Abundance
– North American range• Limitations
– North– Western mountain ranges– South and West– Southeast
Introduction• Distribution and Abundance
– North American range• Local limitations
– Successional vegetation stages
Introduction• Population trends
– Decreased as Europeans spread• Food value• Firearms!
– Current• Stable or increasing
– Local declines?
Introduction• Conservation and Legal Status
– Global Status: G5 (secure)• National Status: N5 (secure)
– Varies throughout US
– IUCN: Least Concern
Introduction• Value
– Historical• Food, clothes, tools, recreation
– Meat/organs
Introduction• Value
– Historical• Food, clothes, tools, recreation
– Peak hunting periods: native Americans» The rut» Deep and crusting snow» Summer on open rivers and lakes
Introduction• Value
– Historical• Food, clothes, tools, recreation
– Dung– Hide– Bone/antlers
• European immigrants: utilitarian value
Introduction• Value
– Current• Food • Traditional hunt
• Wildlife viewing/photography
Introduction• Value
– Current• More aesthetic
– “culturally evolved”
• Alaska: activities associated with hunting – $31million annually
Ecology: Natural History
• Survival and longevity– Late teens– Rarely past 20
• Cows = 8 years• Bulls = 7 years
Ecology: Natural History
• Survival and longevity– Female maximum reproductive potential
• 4-12 years
Ecology: Natural History
• Survival and longevity– Male data limited
• One MRC bull: 11.5 years• Another: 14 years• Peak reproductive age: 4-8 years
Ecology: Natural History
• Diet selection– Browsers with variable diet– Use early successional woody browse
regrowth• Following disturbances
– Fire, flood, logging
Ecology: Natural History
• Diet selection– Winter
• Twigs from shrubs
– Summer• Leaves from deciduous species
Ecology: Natural History
• Diet selection– Renecker and Schwartz
• Sampled 164 different plant species in NA– Only aspen, birch, and willow eaten in large
numbers throughout range
Ecology: Natural History
• Diet selection– Reproductive performance peaks when
preferred species are abundant and available
• Eastern range– Balsam fir
• Mid-continent– Maples and beaked hazel
• Aquatics wherever lakes occur
Ecology: Natural History
• Physiological Ecology – Continuous growth– 3 phases
1. Prenatal2. Suckling3. Maturity
Ecology: Natural History
• Physiological Ecology – Single calves are larger than twins at
birth• NO mass difference between sexes• 12-17 kg at birth
– Can walk/swim soon after
Ecology: Natural History
• Physiological Ecology – Calves gain ~1-3 kg/day until October
• 160-180 kg by Fall• October May,
– LOSE mass
• High natural mortality – Some areas: >75% die in first 6 months
Ecology: Natural History
• Physiological Ecology – Maximum mass
• Females – 4 years, 500 kg
• Males– 7-9 years, 700 kg
Ecology: Natural History
• Physiological Ecology – Gain/lose weight seasonally
• Abundance and quality of forage • Reproductive status
Ecology: Natural History
• Physiological Ecology – Gain/lose weight seasonally
• Female minimum annual mass – Postpartum
» Lactating: need >66lbs of browse/day!– Males are gaining mass
Ecology: Natural History
• Physiological Ecology – Gain/lose weight seasonally
• Male minimum annual mass– The rut
» Lose 12-18% of mass
Ecology: Natural History
• Reproductive strategy– The rut: early September late October
• Peaks late September and early October• Young males generally excluded from
breeding • Mean gestation: 231 days, 8 months
– Polyestrous
Ecology: Natural History
• Reproductive strategy– Calving: mid-May mid-June– Cows have first calf at 2 years, most by
3• Yearling females• Productivity in teens?• Maternal strategy?
Ecology: Natural History
• Reproductive strategy– Single calf vs. Twins
• Twinning – 5%: Jackson Hole, WY, 1960s
» Static – 72%: Kenai Peninsula, 1980s
» Expanding
Ecology: Natural History
• Reproductive strategy– Single calf vs. Twins
• Function of nutrition and population condition
– Rates can be used to asses population status
• Triplets rare
Ecology: Natural History
• Reproductive strategy– Tundra vs. Taiga Moose
• Harem vs. pair-breeding
Ecology: Natural History
• Reproductive strategy– Sex ratios
• 20-30 bulls per 100 cows– Synchronous breeding of all females during 1st
estrus
Ecology: Behavior• Social structure
– The rut: males• Mock battle• Low-stretch posture and flehmen to detect
pheromones– Approach cows
• Yield or fight• Victory?
Ecology: Behavior• Social structure
– The rut: females• Aggressive towards other females• Tundra females• Taiga females
Ecology: Behavior• Social structure
– Individualistic, or quasi-solitary • Def: large groups uncommon• Female with calves • Large aggregations?
– Yarding
Ecology: Behavior• Social structure
– Cow-calf bond• Constant contact in first week• Within visual and vocal distance• “lying-out” vs. “hiding” • Cow highly protective/aggressive
Ecology: Behavior• Interspecific interactions/relationships
– Spatially and temporally• Caribou• Mule deer• White-tailed deer• Elk• Bison• Musk-oxen
• Rocky-Mountain/Dall’s sheep
Ecology: Behavior• Interspecific
interactions/relationships– Boer: 4 forms of interactions between
moose and other species1. Direct competition 2. Parasite-mediated competition3. Multi-prey systems4. Commensalism
Ecology: Behavior• Movements, migration, and home-
range– Move within seasonal ranges– Migrate between seasonal ranges– Remain year-round residents in an area– Disperse to new range
Ecology: Behavior• Movements, migration, and home-
range– Move within seasonal ranges
• Home-ranges where normal activities occur• Patterns: food and cover
– Shelter from weather and predation» Thermal cover
Ecology: Behavior• Movements, migration, and home-
range– Move within seasonal ranges
• Summer: low lying areas with stagnant water
– 25-30 kg aquatic plants/day – Cool down
• Winter: upland areas with dense habitat cover
– Twigs and shrubs– Less active
Ecology: Behavior• Communication
– Olfactory cues • Pheromones and vomerones
– Bubenik: visual discrimination of antler rank by females
– Excellent hearing and echolocation
Ecology: Behavior• Predator response
– Learned behaviors: Joel Berger, UMT, study
– Aggressive– Run away
Ecology: Behavior• Response to humans
– Aggressive if startled/frightened– North America: injure more people than
any other mammal• Worldwide: only hippos injure more
Ecology: Behavior• Response to humans
– During the rut– With calves
• Population trends and status– Fluctuations are the norm– Populations increase gradually
• NOT rapid, even with good conditions
Ecology: Population Biology
• Population trends and status– Naturally regulated by predation and K
• Food: ultimate K component!• Predation
– Increased K with limited-to-no predation– Habitat decline/loss with high predation– In between?
Ecology: Population Biology
• Population trends and status– Causes of variation
• Reintroduction• Fire• Range expansion• Habitat changes• Snow• Conditions• Forestry practices
Ecology: Population Biology
• Productivity and recruitment– Ideal conditions
• Exceed 1:1/year – Twinning rates– Yearling breeding– Conception rates
Ecology: Population Biology
• Productivity and recruitment– Nelchina, AK
• Estimated calves per 100 cows in fall– 1972: 13:100
» Due to calf mortality» Would NOT sustain populations!
– 1953: 90:100
Ecology: Population Biology
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Predation– Severe winters– Hunting– Poaching– Disease– Old age– Accidents
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Predation
• 3 notable direct factors1. Alternative prey2. Predator-prey ratios3. Multi-predator systems
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Predation
• Boertje et al, 1996– 20 year effects of wolf control on wolf, moose,
and caribou abundance
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Winter mortality factors
• Snow depth, density, hardness and persistence
– Mobility– Food availability– Resulting energy balance/reserves
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Winter mortality factors
• Koenai Peninsula, AK– 100% calf mortality 1971-1972– 85% calf mortality 1989-1990 and 1994-1995
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Harvest
• Unregulated vs. regulated hunting – Can benefit from culling as a population
regulation» Especially selective harvest!
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Harvest
• Additive or unsustainable– Depends
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Harvest: Michigan Case Study
• Unsustainable cow harvest• Additive bull harvest
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Disease
• Meningeal/brainworm • Winter ticks• Arterial worm• Lung worm• Possibly brucella
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Disease
• Meningeal/brainworm – eastern North America
– Parelaphostrongylus tenuis» Parasitic nematode/roundworm
– Fatal neurological disease– Weakness, circling, blindness, and paralysis– Often die
Ecology: Population Biology
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Disease
• Transmissible to humans/make moose inedible
– Toxoplasmosis and brucellosis– Hydadid cyst tapeworm
» Human risk» Moose = intermediate host
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Disease
• Biggest threats: domestic and game farm animals
– Brucellosis and TB» Bacterial
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Natural mortality in “adult” phase is low– Old age
• Lose weight• Decrease in antler size
Ecology: Population Biology
• Mortality factors– Accidental mortality
• Moose annually from roadkills:– Vehicles: 3500– Trains: 1500
» 70% decline in local populations along a road/rail-road Alaskan corridor
• Combination of harvest and roadkills account for 2000-2500 deaths/year in Maine
Ecology: Population Biology
Ecology: Habitat
Habitat is the ULTIMATE limiting factor for moose!
Ecology: Habitat• Habitat = ultimate limiting factor
– Food • Quantity AND quality
– Climate
Ecology: Habitat• Habitat = ultimate limiting factor
– Need large quantities of forage to maintain rumen
– Intake varies seasonally • Sex and age• Availability, digestibility, and rate of passage
Ecology: Habitat• Habitat = ultimate limiting factor
– Subsist on browse • Leaves and twigs of woody plants• Year-round species
– Wood, aspen, birch, maple, pincherry, and mountain ash
Ecology: Habitat• Habitat = ultimate limiting factor
– Subsist on browse • Leaves and twigs of woody plants• Important winter species
– Balsam fir » Leaves absent from hardwoods in winter» Lower nutritive value
Ecology: Habitat• Habitat = ultimate limiting factor
– Subsist on browse • Leaves and twigs of woody plants• Year-round species• Important winter species
Fire, wind throw, insects, and forest practices promote disturbance and regrowth of these important species!
Ecology: Habitat• Habitat = ultimate limiting factor
– Aquatic plants • Sodium requirements
– Pondweed, water lily
Ecology: Habitat• Summer Requirements
– Male vs. Female• Males: cooler temperatures
– Higher elevation in mixed and hardwood stands– Less food– Shade
Ecology: Habitat• Summer Requirements
– Male vs. Female• Females: raising calves
– Lower elevations » Regenerating stands and adjacent softwoods
– Food more concentrated
Ecology: Habitat• Fire-dependent systems
– Successional stage of burned boreal forests
• 11-30 years post-fire• Peaks near 15 years
– Kelsall et al 1977, Schwartz et al 1989
Ecology: Habitat• Non or limited fire-influenced
habitats– Above timberline– River delta systems – Extreme northern shrub communities– Coastal forests– Riparian willow communities
Ecology: Habitat• Non or limited fire-influenced
habitats– Aquatic habitats
• Spring Fall• Highly digestible and nutritious forage
– High mineral content
• Escape insect pests• Cool themselves
Ecology: Habitat• Depth, density, and hardness of
snow– Habitat or vegetation availability
• Limited
– Activity regulated by snow conditions
Ecology: Habitat• Depth, density, and hardness of
snow – Activity regulated by snow conditions
• 71-97 cm limits travel• Metabolic demands for movement increase
Ecology: Habitat• Depth, density, and hardness of
snow – Activity regulated by snow conditions
• Winter in coldest regions when adequate shelter from wind is available
– High elevations» More hardwood browse» Feed on regenerating stands» Mature softwoods = cover when snow depth >
3 ft
Ecology: Habitat• Temperature limitations
– >27 degrees Celsius• No shade• No lake/water
– No moose!
How do we manage moose?
• Habitat management• Harvest management
Habitat Management
• Necessary habitat components
– Abundant high quality winter food
– Shelter near food– Isolated calving
sites– Aquatic feeding
areas– Mineral licks
– Seral forest stands with deciduous shrubs and forbs in summer
– Mature forests for shelter from snow and heat
– Travel corridors
Habitat Management
• Necessary habitat components– Seral forest stands with deciduous
shrubs and forbs in summer• Young and mature forest mix• Highest moose densities
Habitat Management
• Necessary habitat components– Seral forest stands with deciduous
shrubs and forbs in summer• Open up forest• Allow light to hit forest floor • Promote growth of young trees and shrubs
– Primary food!
Habitat Management
• How to create seral vegetation– Wildfire = ultimate habitat creator– Logging has historical benefits
Habitat Management
• How to create seral vegetation– Logging has historical benefits
• Timber harvest– Creates habitat in some areas– Can be destructive if:
» Habitat components lost» Uncontrolled logging road access» Large areas converted to monotypic stands
Habitat Management
• How to create seral vegetation– Logging has historical benefits
• Recommended forest cut size– 24-250 ha
» Depends on site productivity– Made considering greatest vegetative
regeneration benefits and components of good habitat
Habitat Management
• Non-forestry practices that create good seral vegetation – Prescribed burns– Selected land clearing– Abandonment of farmsteads– Mechanical rehabilitation– Wind-throw– Insects
Habitat Management
• Managing for mortality– Vehicular collisions
• Speed limits• Signs• Lighting• Clearing of vegetation• Fencing• Media awareness
Habitat Management
• Managing for mortality– Vehicular collisions
• McDonald 1991: Moose movement and mortality
– Glenn Highway expansion, Anchorage, AK– 65% Decrease in mortality
» Moose-proof fencing» One-way gates» Underpasses» Lighting
Harvest Management
• How do we manage harvest?– Data required
• Limited harvest• Optimum sustained yield
– Cow and bull
Harvest Management
• How do we manage harvest?– Data required
• License sales• Controlled access• Controlled method and means of take• Special announcements
– Opening and closure
Harvest Management
• Michigan Case Study– 1889, completely protected in Michigan
• No legal harvest since then
– Michigan: Public Act 366 of 2010• Allows 1st moose hunting season since late
1800s• MHAC Moose Hunting Advisory Council
The Future• Climate change
– Increased temperatures• Southern-most moose distribution appears
to be temperature-controlled• Easily heat-stressed
The Future• Climate change
– May impact recreational harvest
The Future• Distribution and population trends
– Unrestricted hunting– Clearing of forests for farms
• White-tailed deer
Current Event
http://www.pressherald.com/news/increase-of-ticks-has-biologists-worried-about-moose_2013-07-07.html
Questions?
Sources• Ecology and Management of Large Mammals in North America, Demarais and Krausman• Big Game of North America, Wildlife Management Institute• Dr. Giuliano’s Wildlife Ecology and Management class
• http://www.maine.gov/ifw/wildlife/species/moose/• http://www.pressherald.com/news/increase-of-ticks-has-biologists-worried-about-moose_2013-07-07.htm• http://www.therepublic.com/view/story/03277c173e6343f7a317193928c452ba/NH--Moose-Population-NH• www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/FW/2ColumnSubPage/STDPROD_090208.html• http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/FW/2ColumnSubPage/STDPROD_090559.html• http://www.michigan.gov/documents/dnr/Moose_white_paper_28_Feb_2011_Final_350494_7.pdf• http://www.mooseworld.com/mooseman/index.htm• http://www.maine.gov/ifw/pdfs/species_planning/mammals/moose/assessment.pdf• http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?
sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=792092&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=881533&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=881533&selectedIndexes=792092&selectedIndexes=792132
• http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/mammal/alam/all.html• http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/02/0208_moose.html• http://www.mooseworld.com/ecology.htm• http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?A=2723&Q=326044• http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-
US:official&channel=fflb&hl=en&authuser=0&biw=1680&bih=853&tbm=isch&tbnid=qPRBMeX-IzwuBM:&imgrefurl=http://fineartamerica.com/featured/moose-male-and-female-during-the-rut-philippe-henry.html&docid=KKxjeGU5f_FQHM&imgurl=http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large/moose-male-and-female-during-the-rut-philippe-henry.jpg&w=900&h=599&ei=xwI3UuCNIZPa9QSG24CIBw&zoom=1&ved=1t:3588,r:20,s:0,i:148&iact=rc&page=1&tbnh=183&tbnw=264&start=0&ndsp=26&tx=161&ty=83
• http://www.bullseyetaxidermy.com/Gallery.html