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First generation computers (1957 - 58)
They were large, not reliable and use of vacuum tubes
1) Tremendous heat caused more failures.
2) Punched cards were used to feed data and instructions.
3) Instructions were coded in binary system, which was cumbersome. And timeconsuming.
4) Assembler was used to translate Assembly language program in binary languagerequired
5) Chore space proer and heat generation high second generation Computer ( 1959 1964)
Second Generation Computers (1959-64)
Vacuum tubes were replaced with Transistors. This resulted in
1) Less heat generation, lesser space and power required.
2) More reliable and faster processing.
3) Higher Storage capacity.
4) Punch card used.
5) Magnetic tape were used as Storage media
6) Programming techniques were refined resulting in new high level languages likeFortran Cobol
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Third generation Computer (1965 1971)
Transistors were replaced by Integrated Circuits (IC) Which consisted of hundreds ofelectronic components, put on a Silicon Chip.
1) Smaller Size of Computer
2) Cheaper Computers
3) Lesser power required
4) Faster Processing
5) More reliability
IBM first introduced with system 360 series. This technology change introducedconcept of mini Computers and remote terminal. Remote Terminals allowedprocessing from distant locations by connecting terminals to center computer andusing its capabilities. This concept was known as time-sharing and many users wereable to run separate programs simultaneously.
Forth generation Computers (1972 till sate)
IC were further integrated calling it large scale Integration
(LSI) which is also called Microchip, which further helped in development ofMicroprocessor.
With Lesser Cost of Computer its usage increased at home, education and business.
Fifth generation Computers (Future)
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This is in development stage to build intelligent computer, which will be able to
converse with humans in natural language. Computer will be able to take decisionson learned experience (Attificial Intelligence) and memory capabilities
Computer will be able to learn, make inferences, and make decisions.
An Overview of Software
Computer program - sequences of instructions for the computer
Documentation - describes program functions
Systems software - coordinates the activities of hardware & programs
Applications software - helps users solve particular problems
What is Software?
Various kinds of programs used to operate computers and related devices
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Application Software
Performs information processing tasks for end users
Business Applications - accounting, sales management, transaction processing, electronic commerce,
etc.
Science and Engineering Applications research and development
Personal Applications finance and home management
1. Education and Entertainment Applications schools, learning institutions, DVD movie
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Application Software2. General-Purpose programs that perform common information processing jobs for end users
3. Application-Specific support specific applications of end users in business and other fields
General-Purpose Application Software
Software Suites
Web Browsers
Electronic Mail
Word Processing
Spreadsheets Database Managers
Presentation Graphics
Personal Information Managers
Groupware
Software Suites
-Are a combination of the most widely used productivity packages that come bundled
together
Advantages of software suites:
These software tools can be used to increase your productivity, collaborate with your colleagues, and
access intranets, extranets, and the Internet.
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Suites integrate software packages for web browsing, word processing, spreadsheets,
presentation graphics, database management and more.
Suites cost a lot less than the total cost of buying their individual packages separately.
All programs use a similargraphical user interface, which gives them the same look and feel, and
make them easier to learn and use.
Suites also share common tools, such as spell checkers and help wizards to increase their
efficiency.
Programs are designed to work together and import each others files or transfer data between
applications.
Disadvantages of software suites:
Critics argue that most end users never use many software suite features.
Suites take up a lot of disk space and may require significant amounts of memory.
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Definition:
Icons, tool and status bars, menus, and so on, which gives an application its look and feel
Web Browser
Definition:
Software interface used to browse the web pages using internet.
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Web Browsers are used by end users as the universal software platform, which they use to:
Launch information searches
E-mail others
Participate in discussion groups and workgroup collaboration
Many other Internet, intranet, and extranet applications
Watch a video
Make a phone call
Download software
Electronic Mail software used to send and receive electronic messages and file attachments via the
Internet, intranets or extranets
E-mail is stored on network servers until you are ready. Features of E-mail include:
Route messages to one or many individuals
Route messages to multiple end users based on predefined mailing lists
Provide password security
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Automatic message forwarding
Allow users to store messages in folders with provisions for adding attachments to message files
Edit and send graphics and multimedia as well as text
Provide bulletin board and computer conferencing capabilities
Filter and sort incoming messages and route them to appropriate user mailboxes and folders
Word Processing & Desktop Publishing
Word Processing software that supports the creation, editing, revision and printing of documents
Word processingpackages computerize the creation, editing, revision, and printing ofdocuments byelectronically processing text data. Some of the features of these packages include:
Desktop publishing capabilities
Can be used to convert documents to HTML format for publication as web pages on corporate
intranets or the World Wide Web.
Advanced features such as spell checker, thesaurus, grammar and punctuation capabilities.
Electronic Spreadsheets
Definition:
Software that supports the development of electronic worksheets consisting of rows and columns
used for business analysis, planning and modeling
A spreadsheet package can also be used as a decision support tool to perform what-if analysis.
For example: What would happen - If you did something else.
Presentation Graphics
Definition:
Software that helps convert numeric data into graphics displays and prepare multimedia presentations
including graphics, photos, animation, and video clips
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System Software
manages and supports operations of computer systems and networks
Programs that manage and support the resources and operations of a computer system as it
performs various information processing tasks.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
An operating system is an integrated system of programs that:
Manages the operations of the CPU
Controls the input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer system
Provides various support services as the computer executes the application programs of users
Primary purpose of the operating system is:
Maximize the productivity of a computer system by operating it in the most efficient manner.
Minimize the amount of human intervention required during processing.
Helps your application programs perform common operations such as accessing a network, enteringdata, saving and retrieving files and printing or displaying output.
Operating System Functions: An operating system performs five basic functions in the operation of a
computer system. It provides:
User Interface
Resource Management
Task Management
File Management
Utilities and Support Services
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Operating System Functions
The User Interface:
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The user interface is the part of the operating system that allows the end user to communicate with
the operating system so they can load programs, access files, and accomplishes other tasks. Threemain types of user interfaces are:
Command Driven
Menu Driven
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Resource Management:
An operating system uses a variety of resource management programs to manage the hardware and
networking resources of the computer system, including its:
CPU
Memory
Secondary Storage Devices
Telecommunications processors
Input/output Peripherals
Memory management programs:
Keep track of where data and programs are stored.
May also subdivide memory into a number of sections and swap parts of programs and data
between main memory and magnetic disks or other secondary storage devices.
Provide a computer system with a virtual memory capability, which is larger than the actual main
memory of its primary storage circuits.
File Management:
File management programs of an operating system:
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Control the creation, deletion, and access of files of data and programs.
Keep track of the physical location of files on magnetic disks and other secondary storage devices.
Task Management:
Task management programs of an operating system:
Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end users.
Allocate CPU time to tasks and interrupt tasks being executed to substitute other tasks.
May involve a multitaskingcapability where tasks of several programs can process at the sametime. Multitasking may involve multiprogrammingwhere the CPU can process the tasks of several
programs at the same time, ortime-sharing, where the computing tasks of several users can be
processed at the same time.
MS-DOS - for many years was the most widely used microcomputer operating system.
Characteristics:
- A single user, single-tasking operating system
- Was given a graphical user interface and limited multitasking capabilities by combining it with
Microsoft Windows.
Windows 95 - Microsoft began replacing its DOS/Windows combination in 1995 with the Windows
95 operating system.
Characteristics:
- Advanced operating system
- Graphical user interface
- True multitasking capabilities
- Networking capabilities
EX: UNIX - a popular operating system that is available for micros, minis, and mainframe computer
systems.
Characteristics:
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- Originally developed by AT&T, UNIX is now offered by other vendors, including Solaris by
Sun Microsystems and AIX by IBM.
- Multitasking and multi-user system, network-managed operating system whose portability
allows it to run on mainframes, midrange computers, and microcomputers.
LINUX - is a low-cost, powerful, and reliable Unix-like operating system that is rapidly gaining
market share as a high-performance operating system for network servers and web servers in both
small and large networks.
Characteristics:
- Linux Torvald of Finland and millions of programmers around the world developed Linux as a
free or low-cost shareware or open-source software over the Internet in the 1990s.
- Linux is still being enhanced in this way, but is sold with extra features and support services
by software vendors such as Red Hat, Caldera, and VA Linux.
- PC versions of Linux are available which support office software suites, web browsers, and
other application software.
Mac OS X - is the latest operating system from Apple for the iMac and other Macintosh
microcomputers.
Characteristics:
Mac OS X has a new graphical user interface having advanced multitasking and multimedia
capabilities, along with a new suite of Internet services called iTools.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
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Aprogramming language allows a programmer or end user to develop the sets of instructions that
constitute a computer program.
Low-Level Language
Machine Languages
Assembler Languages
High-Level Languages
Networks: Meaning
A computer network is a connected set of autonomous computers.
A network can be defined as a group of stations (computers, telephones or other devices)
connected by communication facilities for exchanging information. A network can be connected
to other network thus making a bigger network. For example, local telephone exchanges connect
to the city main exchange, which itself connects to the main national telephone exchange.
Sometimes a network can be a part of other networks; such network is called a sub-network
Networks1)Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databaseseither of the same organization or from other enterprises or public sources.
2)Computer networks provide communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because ofthese optimal information and communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the
organizational learning rate, which many authors declare as the only fundamental advantage in
competition.
Local Area Network (LAN)A network that connects a group of computers in a smallgeographical area such as in a building or office is called Local Area Network (LAN).
LAN is the most common type of network used in an organization. LANs are typically high
speed networks that connect computers, printers and other network devices together in an
organization.
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Example of an office LAN
As shown in the Figure all computers in an office is connected to each other by cable through central
hub. All computers can communicate, share information and hardware resources.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a backbone networkthat connects Local Area Networks (LANs) in a metropolitan area such as a city or town.
It handles many communication activities or traffic.
Typically a MAN includes one or more LANs, covering a larger geographical area than LAN but
smaller geographical area than a Wide Area Network (WAN) which is discussed next.
Example of MAN
Large universities and colleges have their own networks spread over city or town connecting all
the branch campuses.
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Wide Area Network (WAN)A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network coveringbroad geographical areas such as state or country
The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet
InternetInternet is global network of computers, working as servers & clients to exchangeinformation.
Internet is distributed and connected thru network.
Any computer loaded with TCP/IP protocol automatically becomes a member of internet.
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It is platform independent.
It uses Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) for its communication. The
commonly used information system on internet is the World Wide Web (WWW).
Hardware & software of internetModem: (Modulator-Demodulator)Its a device that enables two computers to communicate with one another through
transmission media.
Computer: Computer should be loaded with TCP/IP
Browsers: Internet explorer, Mozilla etc..
Application of InternetSearch Engine: Search to get information. Download files and software's
Mailing list: Receive/Send messages to group.
Voice & video conferencing
Chatting
E-Business
WWW- World Wide WebIT is a way of accessing information over the medium of internet. It is information sharing model
Web uses HTTP protocol
Web uses browsers to access web pages.
Internet handles connectivity and web handles information across the internet.
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Intranet
It is internal company network that uses internet standards namely HTTP, HTML, TCP/IP.
An Intranet is a network of set of computers (Servers) connected through TCP/IP communication
protocols that stores data in various locations accessed by computers (Clients) distributed at
various locations.
The existing network (LAN/WAN) when loaded with these standards becomes Intranet for the
organization.
It is meant for the users of the organization.
ExtranetWhen we extend intranet to outside authorized users using same internet technology isit Extranet.
Outside users are trusted partners
Ex1: Auto industry spare parts manufacturer have access to inventory database and production
schedules used to plan and ship the required spares to factory
EX2: A student who subscribes to an online course can access to all the learning materials for the
course by logging into the organization's network. In this case, the student acts as the organization's
trusted external party.
Virtual Private Network (VPN) A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is private data network that makes use of the public
telecommunication infrastructures.
It is also a WAN but it is private and only company people have access to it.
It maintains the data privacy through the use of security procedures
The idea of the VPN is to give the company the capabilities of full access at much lower cost by
using the shared public infrastructure like public telephone lines or Internet rather than their own.
Figure VPN
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Network Topology
Network topology describes the method used to do the physical configuration of cables, computerand network devices.
The following are network topologies:
Linear Bus
Star
Ring
Mesh
BUS Topology
All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone.
It has a single cable with terminators at each end.
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Advantages:
Inexpensive
Easy to install
If one of the computers fails, it will not affect the entire network.
Disadvantages:
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
Star TopologyA star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be anactual hub or a switch.
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Many office networks use the star topology.
Advantages:
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts
Easy to install
No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices
Disadvantages:
Requires more cable length than a linear bus topology.
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If the hub or concentrator fails, computers attached are disabled.
Ring TopologyIn ring topology terminals are connected on the ring like cable layout. In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes.
All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (effectively either "clockwise" or
"counter clockwise")
Disadvantages:
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A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
Difficult to detect faults
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by a separate cable.
Advantages:
If one computer encounters a problem, the entire network still works. Difficult to detect faults
Disadvantages:
Requires more cabling
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Network Devices
Network devices are the building blocks of a computer network. To build a house, bricks, cement and
iron rods are needed. Similarly to build a successful computer network we need networking devices
like Hub, Switch, Router, Cable etc.
A network interface card (NIC) is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a computer so
that it can be connected to a network. NIC can be internal (inserted on the motherboard slot), or
external, (attached to PC via USB/Serial/Parallel port).
A hub/Switch is a network device that is used for connecting computers on a Local Area Network
(LAN). Its main function is to forward the data it receives to all its ports. It is also known as a
concentrator.
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A repeater boosts a signal in order to allow the signal
to travel farther and prevent attenuation
A TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK MODELa communications networkis any arrangement
where asendertransmits a message to a receiverover a channelconsisting of some type ofmedium
TerminalsTerminals are any input/output devices that use telecommunications networks to transmit or
receive data. They include:
1. Video Terminals
2. Microcomputers
3. Telephones
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4. Office Equipment
5. Transaction Terminals
Telecommunications Processors
Support data transmission and reception between terminals and computers.
They include:
1. Modems
2. Switches
3. Routers
Telecommunications Channels
/Transmission Media
Telecommunications channels are the part of a telecommunications network that connects the
message source with the message receiver.
They include the physical equipment used to connect one location to another for the purpose oftransmitting and receiving information.
Data are transmitted and received over channels, which use a variety of telecommunications
media. Media include:
1. Copper Wires
2. Coaxial Cables
3. Fiber Optic Cables
4. Microwave Systems
5. Communications Satellites
Transmission Media
Transmission media can be categorized into two:
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1. Guided Transmission Media
Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a specific
path.
Ex: Twisted Pair Cable , Coaxial Cable, Fibre Optic
2. Unguided Transmission Media
unguided Media consists of a means (e.g. air, space) for the data signals to travel, however there is
nothing to guide them along a specific path, like in wires.
Unbounded media is electromagnetic waves in form of radio, microwave, infrared or others.
Twisted pair:
Two insulated copper wires twisted together in a regular spiral pattern; one pair establishes one
communication link; it transmits electromagnetic signals.
Twisted pairs are distinguished between shielded and unshielded twisted pairs according to their
protection against electromagnetic fields
Coaxial cable:
A single insulated inner wire is surrounded by a cylindrical conductor which is covered with a
shield; it transmits electromagnetic signals.
Coaxial cable is basically a copper cable, mostly used by Cable TV Companies to distribute TV
signals from antenna to users home.
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Coaxial cable is classified into two categories: baseband (uses digital signals) and broadband
(uses analog signals) coaxial cable
Optical fibre:
Fibre optic cable consists of a centre glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials
It transfer data in the form of light
Fibre optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair.
It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speed compared to other
transmission media.
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cost is high as well as difficulty in installation.
ComputersTelecommunications networks interconnect computers of all sizes and types.
They include:
1. Host Computers (mainframes)
2. Front-End Processors (minicomputers)
3. Network Servers (microcomputers)
Telecommunications Control Software
Consists of programs that control telecommunications activities and manage the functions of
telecommunications networks.
They include:
1. Telecommunications Monitors (mainframe host computers)
2. Network Operating Systems (microcomputer network servers)
3. Communications Packages (microcomputers)
Client/Server Networks
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Characteristics of a client/server network:
End user PC or NC workstations are the clients.
Clients are interconnected by local area networks and share application processing with
networkservers, which also manage the networks.
Introduction to TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the basic language or protocol used
for the Internet.
In a general sense, protocols are formal rules of behaviour.
TCP/IP was first developed by U.S. Department of Defence, as a research project for its
Advanced Research Projects Agency network (ARPAnet) in the late 1960s.
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when computers communicate, it is necessary to define a set of rules to govern their
communications among different computers and devices created by different vendors. In datacommunications these sets of rules are also called protocols.
The four layer of TCP/IP are:
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Network Interface Layer
Wi-Fi
The name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless
high-speed Internet and network connections.
The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns the Wi-Fi (registered trademark) term specifically
defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based on the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards."
Uses of Wi-fi
Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, video game console, mobile phone, MP3 player or PDA can
connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to the Internet.
Wireless network
Wireless internet
Uses of Wi-fi
Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, video game console, mobile phone, MP3 player or PDA can
connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to the Internet.
Wireless network
Wireless internet
Bluetooth
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Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and
mobile devices, creating personal area networks (PANs).
Bluetooth is a standard and a communications protocol primarily designed for low power
consumption, with a short range (power-class-dependent: 1 metre, 10 metres, 100 metres) based
on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Bluetooth makes it possible for these devices
to communicate with each other when they are in range.
Wi-MAX
WiMAX, meaning Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
It is a telecommunications technology that provides wireless transmission of data using a variety
of transmission modes, from point-to-multipoint links to portable and fully mobile internetaccess.
WiMAX is a wireless digital communications system
WiMAX can provide broadband wireless access (BWA) up to 30 miles (50 km) for fixed stations,
and 3 - 10 miles (5 - 15 km) for mobile stations.
WiMAX can be used for wireless networking
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