MBA3810 ITO perception

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MBA3810

Individuals in the Organisation

The psychology of Perception

By the end of this session, you

should be able to:

Critically reflect on the impact of perceptual

differences

Understand how various strategies can

recognise this and address these issues

An orientation / approach for this

session ± student guidance

There is a substantial amount of µtheory¶ here. Itprovides you with a good understanding of thedevelopment of the various models and theories.

However, it is addressing real and important issuesfor organisations ie how do individuals perceiveorganisations and what they stand for. How and for what reasons do we develop different approaches

It is recognised that an understand of, and approachto diversity will underpin many of the discussions.This will be considered in more detail separately

Reflective exercise

Why do the perceptions and assumptionspeople hold matter so profoundly ?

Try to identify 4/5 areas where perceptionsheld by managers of various individuals /groups matter and impact on the business.

What are some of the business implications ±ie impact on the µbottom line¶

What can be done to address this ?

Possible comments / issues

Perceptions can include:

Attitudes to work / motivators

Ability to work in teams / interpersonal skills

How we learn

Commitment / not committed

Honesty / dishonesty / trustworthiness Capable of being promoted and taking responsibility

µCan¶t hack it¶ !

General intelligence

To address these:

Policies: Diversity / bullying / harassment

Positive support /action: eg women only groups

( Used extensively in Government )

Training ± line managers Support and sponsored groups sponsored by the

Organisation ( eg black managers )

Objective management and control ± eg use of competences to measure performance objectively

Transparent promotion possibilities. Assessmentcentres

Achieving objectivity

The following slides discuss the concept

of truth as a social construction

The discussion is around what we meant by µtruth¶ ?

Is there an objective µtruth¶ or is it something we

create in our own minds ± ie it is socially constructed

This is really important in research ± because we

need to recognise the various approaches. In science

there may be absolute truths ± but do they exist in

management / social science ± where we are dealingwith people and their attitudes etc

Carrying out research: Implications

Recognise need to consider this: whose truth

will you be examining?

EG: a µmanagement¶ statement ± µthis

Organisation has advanced people policies¶

What will be the perspective from:

employees: new / old etc

Truth is socially constructed

It is all about your individual paradigm!

Harman (1970) defines a paradigm as "the

basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and

doing associated with a particular vision of

reality..."

(Harman, W. (1970). An incomplete guide to the

future. New York: W. W. Norton.) NB ± paradigms are explained in the next slides ±but

are a way of thinking / a model

µParadigms¶ defined

Baker (1992) defines a paradigm as "a set of rules and regulations (written or unwritten)that does two things: (1) it establishes or

defines boundaries; and (2) it tells you how tobehave inside those boundaries in order to besuccessful.

(Baker, J. (1992). Par adigms: The business of

discovering the future. New York: Harper Business.

Paradigm cont.

Capra (1996) defines paradigm as "aconstellation of concepts, values,perceptions and practices shared by acommunity, which forms a particular vision of reality that is the basis of theway a community organizes itself"

(Capra, F. (1996). The web of life: A new scientific underst anding of living systems. New York: Anchor

Books.

Truth as a social construction ±

review: a summary

A critical factor in research and practice

There is no µobjective reality¶ - management /the social sciences are different from the

natural sciences. The µtruth¶ is socially

constructed

From µtruth¶ to values

The slides below discuss the concept of

µ values¶; and then the practical and

organisational implications.

Remember: values (individual and

organisational reflect perceptions of µtruth¶

What about values?

Categorisation of values according to Allport & Lindzey,

(1960) ± shows that we all µvalue¶ different things

1. the theoretical -- a scientist, for example, values truth

2. the economic -- a businessperson may value usefulness

3. the aesthetic -- an artist naturally values beauty

4. the social -- a nurse may have a strong love of people

5. the political -- a politician may value power

6. the religious -- a monk or nun probably values unity.

Also include

Professional values:

Eg a teacher; doctor; accountant; engineer

As a result of their socialisation

But then consider the implications for the

Organization

A social worker¶ values will include ?

This will impact on their attitude tomanagement and the organisation

generally

Reflective exercise:

How can managing hospital and

medical staff be different; but also

similar to managing private profitmaking companies ?

Focus on the µpeople issues¶

Differences:

Need to engage with and motivate

µprofessionals¶ - with their µvalues¶

Need to work collaboratively Need to provide appropriate training /

development activities

Similarities:

Need to achieve objectives

Need to performance management

people Need to address customer NOT

employee needs ( sometimes seen as

the same Need to manage costs effectively

Values contain a judgemental

element«

They carry an individual¶s ideas as to

what is right, good or desirable

Values have both content and intensityattributes

Values«

Lay the foundations for the

understanding of attitudes and

motivation Influence our perceptions

Can cloud objectivity and rationality

Influence attitudes and behaviour

Distinguish between µ terminal¶ and

µinstrumental µvalues

The slides below show the distinction

Terminal values

(Rokeach Value Survey)

A comfortable (prosperous) life

An exciting (stimulating, active) life

A sense of accomplishment (lastingcontribution)

A world of beauty (nature and the arts)

Equality

Family security

Freedom

Terminal values

Happiness

Inner harmony

Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)

National security (protection from attack) Pleasure (enjoyable, leisurely life)

Salvation (saved, eternal life) Self-respect (self-esteem)

Social recognition (respect, admiration)

True friendship

Wisdom (a mature understanding of life)

Instrumental values

Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring)

Broad minded (open-minded)

Capable (competent, efficient)

Cheerful (light-hearted, joyful) Clean (neat, tidy)

Courageous (standing up for your beliefs)

Forgiving

Helpful (working for the welfare of others)Honest (sincere, truthful)

Instrumental values

Imaginative (daring, creative)

Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient)

Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)

Logical (consistent, rational)

Loving (affectionate, tender)

Obedient (dutiful, respectful) Polite (courteous, well-mannered)

Responsible (dependable, reliable)

Self-controlled (restrained, self-disciplined) Source: M Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values

Mean value rankings of

executives

Terminal

1. Self-respect

2. Family security 3. Freedom

4. A sense of

accomplishment

5. happiness

Instrumental

1. Honest

esponsible 3. Capable

4. Ambitious

5. independent

Mean value ranking union

members

Terminal

1. Family security

2. Freedom Happiness

Self-respect

Mature love

Instrumental

Responsible

Honest Courageous

Independent

Capable

Mean value ranking activists

Terminal

1. Equality

2. A world of peace 3. Family security

4. Self-respect

5. Freedom

Instrumental

1. Honest

2. Helpful 3. Courageous

4.Responsible

5. Capable

Dominant work values

Stage Year

Entered

workforce

Approx.

current

Dominant

work values

Protestant

work ethic

1940s toEarly

55-75 Hard work,

conservative,loyalty to

the org.

Stage Year born Entered

workforce

Approx.

current

Dominant

values

existential 1945-

1960s to

45-55 Quality of

life, non-

conforming,

autonomy,

loyalty to

Stage Year

Entered

workforce

Approx.

current

Dominant

work values

Pragmatic 1955-

1970s to

35-45 Success,

achievement,

ambition,

hard work,

loyalty to

career

Stage Year born Entered

workforce

Approx.

current

Dominant

work values

Generatio

1980s to

present

Under 35 Flexibility, job

satisfaction,

balanced

lifestyle,

loyalty to

relationships

Reflective exercise and practical

example: From individual toorganisational values. The

importance of developing

organisational values In enforcing required behaviours / attitudes.

In providing clarity as to what is expected;

and what will not be tolerated Changing organisations through values

analysis

Group exercise ( Stage 1)

What are the key values of

organisations you have experienced ( 4

/ 5) Be careful to distinguish betweenvalues and policies ± values drive

policies

Group Exercise ( Stage 2)

To what extent do they support / detract from

the organisational goals ± you will have to

identify these ?

What policies could be adopted to drive

through the values you would want to have ?

( develop this carefully ± focus on wherethere can be changes to meet organisational

goals/ objectives )

alues associated with highperformance companies Respect for the interest of key organisational

stakeholders ± particularly customers

Respect and encouragement for the

assumption of leadership and entrepreneurial

behaviour by mid and lower level managers.

Respect for and willingness to supportchange efforts within the organisation.

Values of poor performing

companies

Arrogance, particularly to ideas from outside

the company

Lack of respect for key stakeholders such as

customers, employees, suppliers, and

stockholders

A history of resisting change efforts and

µpunishing¶ mid and lower level managerswho showed too much leadership.

Gert Hofstede¶s framework for

assessing culture: An international

perspective

Power distance

Individualism v collectivism Quantity v quality of life

Uncertainty avoidance

Long-term v short-term orientation

Some observations criticisms /

Highly µgeneralised¶ ± some

stereotypical assumptions

The emergence of an internationalmiddle / business class

An international business class?

Recent research supports (2009)

µdifferences¶ are reducing ?

An international vocabulary:

Eg talent management

Performance Management

Summary slides

Some key issues are considered and

summarised below

The most powerful influences

on perception seem to be«

Personality

Learning

And past experience

Much of perception can be describe as

classification or categorisation.

Some issues:

In the recruitment and selection process

± esp with interviews

Team working Perception of interpersonal skills

Emotional intelligence

A note on Emotional Intelligence ( EI)

The basis:

Which behaviours are valid ( cultural impact)

Developing EI

Different does not necessarily

imply wrong / better / worse

Problems arise when we act as if our

culture had a monopoly on µright

thinking¶ on such issues.

Reflects the debate on µ diversity¶ and

issues associated with this

A perceptual set is«

An individual¶s predisposition to respond

to particular events in a particular

manner. A perceptual set is also known

as a mental set. As we tend to perceive

what we expect to perceive, this can

also be called our perceptual

expectation.

The individual¶s perceptual

world is«

Simply their personal image, map or

picture of their social, physical and

organisational environment.

Unfortunately we tend to forget that our

own perceptual world is not the only

possible or correct one.

Remember the concept of

µselective attention¶«

This phenomenon applies to our perception of people.

It is a natural human response to µsizeup¶ new people and make judgementsabout them.

We tend to give more favourable

judgements to people who havecharacteristics in common with us.

The remedies«

Taking more time & avoiding instant or µsnap¶ judgements

Collecting & consciously using moreinformation

Developing self-awareness &understanding of how our personal bias

and preferences affect our perceptionsand judgements

The remedies«

Checking our attributions ± the

assumptions we make about the causes

of behaviour, particularly the links we

make between aspects of personality

and appearance on the one hand and

behaviour on the other

Perception is:

Perception is critical to our

understanding of each other¶s

behaviour, in organisational and social

settings

Exam Guidance and Practice

Preparing for the exam: getting

organised

Time management and planning: don¶tleave until the last moment !

Record your reading and research

Make a µlist¶ set up your own databaseof research and references

Exam guidance ( cont)

Be active ! Do as many exam questions

as possible

Please do the exam questions set inthe classes

You must always show theories and

models; but include your own

experience

Exam guidance (continued )

Answering questions:

1. Try to develop the ability / habit of mind

mapping2. Try to plan your answers ( rough plan )

Introduction: set the scene / show structure

main discussion / points

Conclusions / recommendations

3. Write up ± don¶t make your notes illegible

Try to be µreflective¶ / analytical

Do not reduce to bullet points ± there¶s

nothing for the examiner to mark !

Make sure you focus clearly on the question

± don¶t just µwaffle¶

Allocate your time carefully so you answer all

the required questions; and have a fewminutes at the end to check

Now try these:

Identify two of the most important motivation

theories and explain how they are relevant to

today's organisations

Why is it important for a manager tounderstand the importance of µperception¶,

what are some of the consequences of this

for both the manager and their staff ?

MBA3810 ITO perception

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