Revision 1 ITO

8/8/2019 Revision 1 ITO

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MBA Course Revision ITO

Dr. John W. Lang

This is the first of three documents that will be released in weeks8, 9 and 10 for revision purposes, for the ITO exam. They are not

sufficient in themselves as full documents for revision and you areexpected to read around the topics contained here.

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Distinction between process/content and cognitive/behavioural traditions

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A simple classification of motivation theories

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Other Job Performance Determinants

Skills and Abilities

Role Perceptions

Opportunities to Perform

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The job characteristics model (adapted from Hackman and Oldham 1980)

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Contextual factors affecting work motivation

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Structuring Interesting Jobs

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Managerial Implications

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Expectancy and needs theory: relationship

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Herzbergs satisfiers and dissatisfiers

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Herzbergs vertical loading factors

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A basic motivational model

A simplified illustration of the basic motivational model


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Basic model of expectancy theory

Basic model of expectancy theory


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Vrooms valenceexpectancy model

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The Porter and Lawler expectancy modelSource: Porter and Lawler 1968 Managerial Attitudes and Performance, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Goal setting (source: Latham and Locke 1979)

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The systematic reinforcement of desirableorganizational behaviour and non-reinforcement

of unwanted organizational behaviour

(Luthans and Kreitner 1985, p 303)

A Definition of Behaviour Modification

(OB Mod.)

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Simplified model of behaviour modification process

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LEARNING

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Factors influencing the learning process

Factors influencing the learning process


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The three sets of factors that affect learning (adapted from Bruner 1973)


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The features of the learning organization


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Importance of the individual

It is impossible to conceive of a learning organisation, however

defined, which exists without individual learners. The learning

organisation depends absolutely on the skill, approaches andcommitment of individuals to their own learning.

Mumford


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Behaviourist and cognitive perspectives on learning contrasted


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Behaviour modification options


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Learning

Operant Conditioning

Insert Figure 3.12 Here


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Learning

Reinforcement Contingencies

Insert Table 3.4 Here


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Applying operant conditioning to work

situations Reward:

What constitutes reward?

Importance of appropriate rewards for individuals.

Punishment:

What constitutes a punishment?

Problems of negative psychological outcomes.

Shaping:

Behaviour modification to suit organisational culture

Induction and training.


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Cognitive approaches: key stages

Active perception stage

Attention is given to stimuli from the environment

Mentally active stage

Processing and making sense of the information received

Restructuring and storage stage

Storing and organising processed information

Emphasis of cognitive theories of learning is the

focus on change


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MOTIVATION

or Expectancy

FEEDBACK

Person obtains knowledge of

resultsand gets rewards etc.

PERFORMANCEOR

APPLICATION

Learned material is applied in

practice

RECALL

Retrieve material from memory

RETENTION

Store knowledge in memory

ACQUISITION

Encode the material, make

sense of it, relate itto what is

already known

AWARENESS

Subjectperceivesmaterial and

distinguishesbetween it and

other stimuli that compete for

attention

COGNITIVE

MAPS AREEVERYWHERE

Adapted by Lang from Gange 1974


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Bandura Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and

emotional reactions of others.

Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on

the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.

Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea

of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22).

Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,

behavioural, an environmental influences.

The component processes underlying observational learning are:

(1) Attention, including modelled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value)

and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement),

(2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal),

(3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and

(4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.

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Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

People learn through observing others behaviour, attitudes, andoutcomes of those behaviours. Most human behaviour is learnedobservationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms anidea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions thiscoded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura).

Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuousreciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmentalinfluences.

Bandura believed in reciprocal determinism, that is, the world and apersons behaviour cause each other, while behaviourism essentially statesthat ones environment causes ones behaviour, Bandura, who wasstudying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so inaddition he suggested that behaviour causes environment as well.

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Link Between Motivation and Learning

Necessary conditions for effective modelling:

Attention various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid.Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functionalvalue. Ones characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set,past reinforcement) affect attention.

Retention remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding,mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal

Reproduction reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.

Motivation having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e.traditional behaviourism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeingand recalling the reinforced model)

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How Organisations Learn:Types of Organisational Learning I

Single-Loop Learning:

Occurs when errors are detected and corrected

and firms carry on with their present policies and

goals

Activities that add to the knowledge-base or firm-specific competencies or routines without

altering the fundamental nature of the

organisation's activities


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How Organisations Learn:Types of Organisational Learning II

Double-Loop Learning:

Occurs when, in addition to detection and

correction of errors, the organization is involved inthe questioning and modification of existing

norms, procedures, policies, and objectives

Involves changing the organization's knowledge-

base or firm-specific competencies or routines

Source: Argyris & Schn, 1978


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How Organisations Learn:Types of Organisational Learning III

Deutero Learning:

Occurs when organizations learn how to carry out single-loop and

double-loop learning

The first two forms of learning will not occur if the organizations are not

aware that learning must occur

Awareness of ignorance motivates learning - this means identifying the

learning orientations or styles, and the processes and structures(facilitating factors) required to promote learning.

Source: Argyris & Schn, 1978


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Information Interpretation:

CognitiveMaps and Framing

Cognitive maps (or belief structure/mental representation/frame ofreference) will shape a persons interpretation of information

How an information is framed or labelled affects its interpretation

Media Richness

Determinant of the extent to which information is given commonmeaning by the sender and receiver of a message

InformationOverload

Overload of information distracts from effective interpretation

Unlearning Process through which learners discard obsolete and misleading

knowledge

Source: Huber, 1991


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Components ofLearning

Organizations Systems thinking

Personal mastery

Mental models

Building shared vision

Team learning

The Fifth Discipline --> Systems Thinking


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Systems Thinking

The conceptual cornerstone that underlies all of thefive learning disciplines

A discipline for seeing wholes Seeing structures that underlie complex situations

Seeing interrelationships rather than linear cause andeffect chains.

Seeing processes of change rather than snapshots


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PersonalMastery

The Spirit of the Learning Organization

Organizations learn only throughindividuals who learn

Individual learning does not guaranteeorganizational learning, but without it no

organizational learning can occur Personal Vision


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A cognitive model of learning

A cognitive model of learningSource: From Atkins, M. J., Beattie, J. and Dockrell, W. B.,Assessment Issues in Higher Education, Department ofEmployment (October 1993) p. 51. Crown Copyright 1993.

Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majestys Stationery Office (HMSO)

Revision 1 ITO

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