Post on 07-Mar-2018
589
Note: page numbers in italics refer to Figures, those in bold refer to Tables.
Abbreviations used in this index include:
AFNOR, Association Française de Normalisation CHA, chlorhexidine diacetate DHA , EDTA, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid GEMS, genetically engineered
microorganisms MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration MOTT, mycobacteria other than tuberculosis MRSA, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus QACs,
quaternary ammonium compounds PHMB, polyhexamethylene biguanide TDEs, transmissible degenerative encephalopathies UV, ultraviolet
AbTox Plazlyte™ sterilization system 338
Acanthamoeba castellanii 79, 159, 161, 162, 163,
165, 166, 167, 170
fl ow cytometry 242
PHMB 20
Acanthamoeba culbertsoni 162, 166
Acanthamoeba hatchetti 162, 166
Acanthamoeba keratitis 39, 157, 162, 532
contact lens solution 535
propamidine 18
Acanthamoeba palestinensis 168
Acanthamoeba polyphaga 162, 164, 165, 166,
167
heat sterilization 279
Acanthamoeba spp. 39, 157, 158, 161, 162, 163,
164, 165, 167, 168, 170
contact lenses 302
cysts 161
eye drops 390
accelerated hydrogen peroxide (AHP) 373
acetic acid (ethanoic acid) 13, 14–15
as antifungal agent 144
acetylethyleneimine 221
β-N-acetylglucosaminidase 489
N-acetylmuramidases, endopeptidases 573
N-acetylmuramoyl- alanine amidases 573
Acholeplasma laidlawii
fi ltration sterilization 348
liquid sterilization 362
Acholesplasma spp.
removal by fi ltration 355
acids
as antifungal agent 144
as virucides 196
Index
Russell, Hugo & Ayliffe’s: Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, Fifth Edition. Edited by Adam P. Fraise, Jean-Yves Maillard,
and Syed A. Sattar.
© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
acidulants 14
Acinetobacter baumannii 569
effl ux 112
surface contamination 419
triclosan resistance 110
triclosan susceptibility 112
Acinetobacter spp. 158
diarrhea in hospitals 446
on skin 418
acridine dyes 29–30
chemistry 29, 29effects on nucleic acids 100
mode of action 29–30
structure 29
uses 30
acrifl avine 30
Acticoat™ 516
acylated homoserine lactones (AHLs) 489
adenoviruses
QACs 22
effect of temperature 196
adipaldehyde (hexanedial) 24
advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) 317
aerial disinfectants 53–54
Aerobacter aerogenes, DHA 16
aerosols 23
dental 542
dental unit water lines (DUWLs) 541
afl atoxin 391
AFNOR 237
AFNOR test NF T 72–150, 238
African swine fever viruses 577
Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans 489
AgION® 489
Agriphage™ pesticide 572
Agroterrorism 577
AIDS see HIV/AIDS
air
sterilization 452
ajoene 553
alanine
stimulation of spore germination 585–6
Alcaligenes faecalis
Dowicil 200 48–9
alcohol dehydrogenase 554
alcohols 36–38, 194
as antifungal agent 145
hand hygiene products 419
handrubs 420–421, 433–434
mode of action 36
protozoa 166
safety issues 434
skin reaction to 433
as virucide 419
aldahol III 28
aldehyde dehydrogenase 88–89
aldehyde lyase 88
aldehydes 24–29, 77, 100
as antifungal agent 145
mode of action 24
protozoa 166
as virucide 190–192
capsid proteins 190–191
ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) 192
viral antigens 190
viral markers 191
viral nucleic acid 191
viral structures 190
Index
590
alexidine 20
contact lens solution 531–532
structure 19
alginates 394
alkalis
as antifungal agent 145
alkylating agents
mode of action 102
in gaseous sterilization 307, 308–315
allergic contact dermatitis 433–434
allicin (allyl-2-propene thiosulfi nate) 553, 554
alliin 553
allyl alcohol 553
Alternaria spp. 144
Alzheimer’s disease 224
American Association of Offi cial Analytical
Chemists see AOAC International
American Society for Testing and Materials see
ASTM International
aminacrine 30
aminoacridine
4-aminoquinaldine 22
4-aminoquinaldinium derivatives 35
ammonia 166
ammonium sulfi de 2
amphotericin 150
amoebae 157–158, 160–161
amoebic meningoencephalitis 483
AMSCO V-Pro1 process 317, 222
β-amyloid 224
amyloidosis 224
anaesthetic equipment 453
angioscope 461
anilides 44–5, 44
mode of action 45
anthraquinones 31
anthrax see Bacillus anthracis
anthroquinone 492
antibiotics 507–578
discovery, important dates 570resistance to 108–109, 569
antifungal agents 142–151
chemicals 144–150
microbicide resistance in fungi 150
safety, handling and discharge measurements
150–151
standards 143–144, 144suspension tests, and in vitro and in vivo carrier
tests 143
antimicrobial combinations 508
antimicrobial devices 500–512
biomaterials 501
development 506–508, 506
emerging strategies 511–512, 511medical device applications 501
in medical device manufacture 501–503
clinical management infections 505–506
conditioning fi lm, colonization and biofi lm
formation 505, 505
defi nition of medical device 501
healthcare-associated infections 504
indwelling medical devices, complications
503–504
biocompatibility 503
infectious complications 503–504
mechanical complications 503
infections following device implantation
504–505
medical implants, number of, in USA 501antimicrobial metals 488
antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) 491, 550–551, 551
antimicrobial surfaces 485–495
passive surfaces 486–487
bacterial interference 486–487
diamond-like carbon 486
polyethylene oxide brush coatings 486
reactive surfaces 487–494
antimicrobial agent release on command
491–494
antimicrobial delivery systems 488–489
biofi lm formation disruption 489
cationic surfaces 491
responsivity to electricity 492–493
programmable release of active agents from
implants 494
magnetically controlled drug delivery 493
microbicide impregnation 489–490
microorganisms killed on contact 489–491
natural antimicrobial agents 490–491
photocatalytic activity 492
temperature and pH responsivity 493–494
ultrasound activated release of antimicrobial
agents 493
antiseptics 249–253, 507
AOAC International (Association of Offi cial
Analytical Chemists) 71, 133, 237
disinfectants 237
hard surface carrier test (HSCT) 241
use-dilution test 241
Apicomplexans 159–160
argon
in gas plasma sterilization 340
peracetic acid gas plasma sterilizers 338, 339
argon–oxygen mixtures
in TSEs 222
Aspergillus brasiliensis see Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus candidus, hydrogen peroxide 148
Aspergillus fl avus
acetic acid 144
biosurfactant 150
bleach 146
chloramine-T 147
hydrogen peroxide 148
ozone 148
Aspergillus fumigatus 143
alcohols and 145
azole tolerance 150
ergosterol 150
iodophor 147
myristamidopropyldimethylamine 149
resistance 150
spores 146
Aspergillus keratitis 532
Aspergillus niger (brasiliensis) 373
acetic acid 144
ATCC 16404 in European fungicidal test 143
Bronidox 46
fungicides against conidia 144
DHA 16
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
Dowicil 200 49
phenols 149
sorbic acid 15
spores 146
triazines 49
Aspergillus parasiticus
spores 147
surfactants 149
Aspergillus spp.
airborne 452
biofi lms 150
copper 147
copper-8-quinolinolate 147
parabens 144
Aspergillus terreus
acetic acid 144
amphotericin B tolerance 150
Association for the Advancement of Medical
Instrumentation (AAMI) 409
Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR)
179, 182, 238
NF-T 72–170 test 239
NF T 72–171 test 238
NF T 72–190 test 241
asthma
dental care professionals (DCPs) and 542–543
trichloramine and 482
ASTM International (American Society for Testing
and Materials) 71, 133–134, 133, 237, 247
disinfectants 237
atomic force microscopy 97
Attest TM 314–315
‘atypical mycobacteria’ 131
autolysins
automated endoscope reprocessor (AER) 132
contamination of 461
avian infl uenza 577
virus H5N1 300
bacillomicin D 150
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens 150
Bacillus anthracis 2, 13, 577, 578, 579
bacteriophage targeting 586, 586
decontamination 584
letter attack 582, 585
effect of ozone 100
exosporium 122
spore resistance 127
spores 579–580, 580
Bacillus atrophaeus (Bacillus subtilis var. globigii)
327, 579–580
as biological indicator 414
ethylene oxide 309, 311
hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization 336
liquid peroxide 379
ozone 320, 321
spores, sterilization 375
Bacillus cereus
DHA 16
exosporium 122
peracetic acid 318
sonication 377
spores 374
Bacillus globigii
povidone-iodine 32
Bacillus licheniformis, sonication 377
Bacillus macerans
propionic acid 15
591
Index
Bacillus megaterium
hydrogen peroxide resistance 127
phenoxyethanol 38
Bacillus mesentericus, peracetic acid 318
Bacillus pumilus
as biological indicator 414
radiation dose 298
spores 375
Bacillus spp.
benzoic acid 16
glutaraldehyde resistance 25
nisin 381
supercritical carbon dioxide 127–128
Bacillus subtilis 77
antimicrobial activity of light 3
biosurfactants 149–155
chlorocresol 286
Dowicil 200 49
ethyl alcohol (ethanol) 37
Germall 46
luminescent cells 243
SASPs 301
sorbic acid 15
transcriptional profi ling 98
see also Bacillus subtilis spores
Bacillus subtilis spores 121
inactivation by acid and alkali 127
coat 122
‘coatless’ spores 127
DNA damage 124, 288
germination prevention 125
hydrogen peroxide resistance 127
inactivation 289
inner membrane 123
small acid-soluble spore proteins (SASPs) 123
Bacillus subtilis var. niger 312
bacterial resistance 108–115
cross-resistance to unrelated chemicals 115
defi nitions 109
dissemination 113
growth kinetics 115
measurement 113, 114, 114
mechanisms 110–13, 111bacterial biofi lms 113
changes in bacterial cell permeability 111
changes in bacterial populations 113
biosynthetic pathways 112
effl ux pump 111–112, 112
enzymatic degradation 112
gene expression conferring resistance 113
target site mutations 112
occurrence 109–10
overview 110
principles 109
spores see bacterial spores
see also individual antimicrobial agents; individial
species
bacterial spores (endospores) 77, 121–128
chemicals, mechanisms of killing 124–125, 124by damage to inner membrane 125
by DNA damage 124–125
by inactivation of spore core enzymes 125
by preventing germination 125
Clostridium species 128
hospitals 449
microbicide susceptibility 579–580, 579
structure 121–123, 122
coat 122
core 123
cortex and germ cell wall 122
exosporium 122
inner membrane 122
outer membrane 122
variables affecting 123–124
species/strain 123
spore purity 124
spore storage and recovery conditions 124
sporulation conditions 123
bacteriocins 551–552
bacteriophage technology, applications 565–574
agriculture and animal health 571–573
control of bacteria on foods 572
treatment of infections in animals 572–573
applications 568–569
bacterial identifi cation 568
phage display and therapeutic antibodies,
production 569
phage-typing 568
vaccine production 568–569
characteristics 565–567, 566
lysogenic conversion 567, 567lysogenic cycle 566, 566
lytic infection cycle 566–567, 567
persistence 567
human bacterial infections 569–571
adverse reactions 571
bacteriophage therapy 569–571
mechanism of action 571
phage specifi city 571
pharmacokinetics 571
as platform technology 571
lysins 573
safety 570–571
toxin delivery 573
bacteriophages 380–381, 586
antimicrobial surfaces 490–491
genetic modifi cation of 586
phi X174 immunization 570
Bacteroides fragilis
phage B40-8 183
taurolin and 27
Bactigras™ 517
Balamuthia encephalitis 157
Balamuthia mandrillaris 157, 158, 161, 163, 167,
170
Balantidium coli 156, 159, 164
Bardac (QAC) 113
baths 452
bedpans 452
bee venom 558
Belimed Plasmater™ series 338
benzalkonium chloride (BAK) 22, 396, 398
adverse reactions to 402
contact lens solution 532
resistance to 22–23
structure 21
uses 22–23
benzethonium chloride 23
structure 21
1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (BIT) 47, 47, 48
benzoic acid 2, 13, 14, 15–16, 74
as antifungal agent 144
1,4-benzoquinon 31
benzoquinones 31
benzyl alcohol (phenylmethanol) 36, 37, 37
adverse reaction 402
Berkefeld fi lters 3
Betadine ™ in dressings 517
betaines 24, 24
beta-lactam antibiotics 88
beta-lactamase 88
beta-propiolactone 100
biguanides 18–20
mode of action 18
polymeric 20–21
protozoa and 162
resistance to 109
substituted biguanides 193–194, 194as virucides 193–194
bioavailability of microbicides 75
bioburden 79
‘biofi lm-associated phenotype’ 113
biofi lms 79–80, 552, 581
formation disruption 489
recalcitrance 87–92, 98
cellular phenotype as moderator of 89
drug-resistance phenotypes 90
highly selective environments 91–92
matrix 88–89
quiescence and persistence 90–91
biological indicators (BIs) 411, 584–585
in gaseous sterilization 308
biological thermocouples 286
bioluminescence 242–243
Bioscreen C Microbial Growth Analyzer 80
Bioscreen optical plate reader 143
biosurfactants 149–150
biosurgery 559–560, 560bioterrorism 576
birthing pools 480
bisoxonol 100
bisphenol triclosan see triclosan
bisphenols 101
bisquaternary compounds 22
bisulfi tes 16
Blastocystis hominis 156, 157, 159, 164
Blastocystis spp. 165
bleach
sporicidal activity 126–127
bloodborne viruses (BBVs)
in dentistry 538
in hospital 449–450
bloodstream infections (BSIs) 504
Bordeaux mixture 42
Botrytis cinerea
nonionic surface-active agents 23
botulinum toxin, microbicide susceptibility to 581
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
209–210, 300, 450, 537, 540, 579
alkylating agents 221
Bowie-Dick test 283, 284, 413
Brettanomyces bruxellensis, ozone 148
Brevundimonas diminuta
fi ltration 355
fi ltration sterilization 348, 349
liquid sterilization 362
Brevundimonas spp. 542
brilliant green dye 30, 30
Index
592
British Dental Association (BDA) 537, 543
British Standards Institution (BSI) 237, 239, 241
bromine 31, 35
activity against protozoa 162–164
as virucide 193
N-bromo-N-chlorodimethylhydantoin (BCDMH)
35, 35
bromodichloromethane (BDCM) 481
bromoform 482
bromonitroethanol 38
bronchoscopies 459
bronidox (5-bromo-5-nitro-1,3-dioxane) 45–46,
46
bronopol (2-bromo-2-nitropropan-1,3-diol) 36,
37, 38, 38,99, 395
bubble-point test 362–363, 363
Burkholderia cepacia
contamination from ultrasound gel 391
in dentistry 541
povidone-iodine 32
microbicide resistance 78
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHT) 398
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHA) 398
butyric acid 15
cadexomer iodine (Iodosorb TM) 32, 517
calcium dipicolinate, in heat resistance 288, 289
calicivirus 180, 373
Campylobacter jejuni
phage treatment 572
triclosan 112
Canada see Health Canada
Candida albicans
alcohol and 145
resistance to amphotericin 150
ATCC 10231, in European fungicidal test 143
Bronidox 46
copper compounds 42, 150
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
effects of garlic 554
electric pulse inactivation 375
ethanol and inhibition of biofi lm formation 145
fungicides against 144
iodophor 147
myristamidopropyldimethylamine 149
ozone 320
phenols 149
polyquaternium-1 149
QACs 22 149
sodium dodecylsulfate 149
sodium hypochlorite 146
superoxidized water 56
surfactants 149
Candida parapsilosis 145
Candida spp.
chlorine dioxide 379
keratitis 532
parabens 144
capacity tests 238
caprylic acid 15
capsid proteins 190–191
Captan (N-(trichloromethylthio)cyclohex-4-ene-1,2-
dicarboximide) 50, 50
carbanilides 187
carbon dioxide 53
carbonyl cyanide-3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP)
100
carpets 451–452
carrier tests
fungicidal 143
in vitro carrier tests 132–133
quantitative 134–135, 134
cartridge fi lters 350–351, 351
carvacrol 51
catalase 124
catechins 555
catelin 559
cathelicidins 559
catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI)
507
catheter-related blood stream infections (CRBSIs)
504
catheters for neurosurgery, antimicrobial 510–511
cationic microbicides 162
cationic detergent 21
cationic surfaces 491
cefsulodin 88
ceilings, hospital 451
cell membrane
as a target 99–100
cell wall
as a target 99
cellulosic fi lters 347
CEN/TC 216 see European Committee for
Standardization (CEN)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
271, 489
alcohol-based handrub 420
central venous access devices/catheters 509, 509,
510cervid (deer, elk, moose) chronic wasting disease
209, 579
cetomacrogols 23
cetrimide 20, 144
effect on nucleic acids 100
structure 21
uses 23
cetyldimethylammonium bromide (CDAB) 149
cetylpyridinium chloride 23, 42, 98
structure 21
cetyltrimithyl ammonium bromide see cetrimide
Chaetomium spp., chlorine dioxide in 147
Chamberland candles 343
Chamberland fi lters 3
chelating agents 39–41
properties 40chemical disinfection (see disinfection)
chemical sterilants 3
Chick–Martin test 238, 239
Chick–Watson law 237
chitosan 98
Chlamydomonas spp.,
alcohol ethoxylates 23
chloramine-T 33, 34, 146, 147
chloranil (tetrachloro-1,4-benzoquinone) 31
chlorbutanol 36
chlorhexidine 3, 18–20, 97, 98, 113, 150, 162, 193,
396
bacteriostatic activity 19dressings 517
hand hygiene products 419
mechanism of action 95–96, 95
medical equipment disinfectant 448–449
skin reaction 433
structure 19
as virucide 419
chlorhexidine digluconate
contact lens solution 531
chlorhexidine gluconate (CHL-G) (Hibitane)
144
in dressings 517
chlorinated lime 2
chlorinated phenol 286
chlorinated soda solution (Dakin’s solution) 33
chlorine
as antifungal agent 146–147
historical use 306
protozoa 162–164
recreational water venues 480–481
chlorine compounds 33–35
as virucides 192
chlorine dioxide 3, 34, 146, 147, 151, 164, 379
sporicidal activity 126–127
decontamination technologies 583–584
in gaseous sterilization 322–323
hospital equipment disinfectant 448
in TSEs 222
chlorine gas 33
chlorine-releasing agents (CRAs) 146, 448
chlorine-releasing compounds 33–35
chlorine water 2
N-chloro compounds 33, 146
5-chloro-2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (CMIT)
47, 47, 48
chlorobutanol (1,1,1-trichloro-2-methyl-propan-
2-ol) 37, 38, 395
adverse reaction 402
chlorocresol
adverse reaction 402
effect of temperature 286
chlorofl uorocarbon (CFC) 310
chloroform 31, 34–35, 482
chlorosulfamate 98
chloroxylenol
adverse reaction 402
skin reaction to 433
hand hygiene products 419
chlorquinaldol 35, 36
choledochoscope 461
cholera 2
chronic wasting disease (CWD), cervid 209, 579
1,8-cineole 556
ciprofl oxacin 89
CISA SPS™ series 338
citric acid 13, 14, 41, 196
as antifungal agent 144
as chelator 72–73
as fungal carbon source 145
Cladosporium spp.
Cladosporium cladosporioides
Cladosporium resinae 20
biofi lms 150
spores 146
Clarus C™ generator 317
clean room classifi cations 358
593
Index
‘cleanyourhands’ campaign 434
clinical waste 474–476
accidents and incidents 475
alternative technologies 476
color coding of containers 475
dental 543–544
fi nal disposal method 475–476
incineration 476
infectious waste 475
offensive waste 475
segregation 474–475
storage 475
transfer documentation 475
types of disposal 476
clioquinol 35, 36
Clostridium botulinum 299
12D process of inactivation of spores 286
combination treatment 285
inactivation by heat 284
inactivation kinetics of spores 278, 279
pressure and 374
storage and 285
Clostridium diffi cile 77
copper 488
diarrhea in hospitals 446
germination stimulation 586
hydrogen peroxide vapor 317
on skin 419, 420
surfaces 382
Clostridium perfringens
chemical resistance of spores 128
Clostridium spp.
chemical resistance 128
nisin 381
spores 121, 122
Clostridium tetani, dry heat 288
Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum
heat sterilization 279
inactivation by heat 284
clove oil 51
co-resistance 109
coal tar as wound dressing 2
coccidians 159–160
Cochliopodium bilimbosum 166
cold oxygen plasma 302
colicin 552
coliphages 183
colonoscope 461
Comité Européen de Normalisation see European
Committee for Standardization (CEN)
concentration 73–74, 73, 74concentration–dependence of the disinfection
239
confocal fl uorescence microscopy 97
conjunctivitis 482
consumer products 230
contact lens care solutions 531–552
active ingredients 531–522
alexidine 531–532
benzalkonium chloride (BAK) 532
chlorhexidine digluconate 531
complications 532–533
ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) 532
formulation constituents 532
hydrogen peroxide 165, 531
infections 532–533
amoebic 532–533
bacterial keratitis 532, 535
fungal keratitis 532, 535
viral 533
iodine 532
polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB)
(polyaminopropylbiguanide (PAPB)) 531,
532
polyquaternium-1 (PQ-1) 531
quantifi cation 533–535
ISO preservative effi cacy/discard date test
532
ISO Regimen test 534
ISO Stand-Alone Test procedure 533–534,
533, 535
testing 535
thiomersal 532
contact lenses 530–536
categories of 530, 531continuous-wear lenses 530
daily-wear lenses 530
extended-wear lenses 530
lens care 531
lens care alternatives 532
patient-operated microwave disinfection 302
rigid gas-permeable (RGP) lenses 530
rigid lenses 530
soft contact lenses 530
contact time 77
contagium abnimatum 2
containment of infectious agents 578
continuous tunnel washing machines (CTWMs)
472, 473
copper
as antifungal agent 147
surface 381–382
tolerance in fungi 150
as virucides 195–196
copper acetate 147
copper carbonate 147
copper compounds 42, 488
copper sulphate 2, 42, 147
copper-8-quinolinolate 147
Cordyceps 142
cortex lytic enzymes (CLEs) 122
Corynebacterium acne
Germall 46
cosmetics, preservation of 230, 388–402, 389adverse reactions 401–402
consequences of microbial contamination
390–391
effi cacy 392–395, 400–401, 400microbial growth, effects 391–392
nature 388–390
preservatives 395–398
quality of non-sterile dosage forms 396regulatory aspects 399
test requirements for selected raw materials 395,
395Council of Europe’s European suspension test
(1987) 236
coxsackievirus
QACs 22
creams, medical preservatives 397
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) 224, 300, 391,
450, 540, 579
gamma and UV irradiation 216
iatrogenic 537
critical micelle concentration (CMC) 77
crockery 452, 453cross-resistance 109
cryotherapy 168
Cryptococcus neoformans 150
Cryptosporidium oocyst wall proteins (COWPs)
160
Cryptosporidium parvum 155, 157, 160,164, 165,
167, 168, 170
UV resistance 300
hydrogen peroxide 324
ethylene oxide 308
Cryptosporidium spp. 79, 155, 156, 157, 160, 162,
163, 164, 165, 167, 170
biofi lms 150
biofi lms, sodium hypochlorite and 146
ozone and 100
hydrogen peroxide 316
crystal violet dye 30, 30
CT-value
decontamination technologies 583
culture
age of 72
composition and physical parameters 72
quantitative real-time PCR (cc-qPCR) 161
for test inocula 72
cutlery 452, 453cyclodextrins 394
cyclopropane 52
Cyclospora cayetanensis 168
Cyclospora spp. 156, 157, 165
cytomegalovirus, in dentistry 541
cytopathic effects (CPEs) 180
cytoplasm interaction 100–101
D-value (decimal reduction time (DRT)) 279,
287
Dakin’s solution 33
Dantoin 46, 46
decontamination
containment requirements 582
effi ciency of decontamination process, 584–585
large-area decontamination technologies 582–4
chlorine dioxide 583–584
CT-value 583
formaldehyde 584
hydrogen peroxide 583
temperature 583
UV light 583
surface decontamination technologies 582–583
dehydroacetic acid (DHA) 16, 74
Deinococcus radiodurans
5,6-dihydroxy-5,6-dihydrothymine as
photoproduct 300
dose-response curve to radiation 297
radiation resistance 296
Delisea pulchra 489
delivery systems 488–489
dental impression materials 541
dental instruments 543
dental unit water lines (DUWLs) 542–543
Index
594
dentistry 537–545
cross-infection 538–542, 539
bloodborne viruses (BBVs) 538
hepatitis B and C viruses 538–540
HIV 540
transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
540–541
dental hygiene 544–545
ozonated liquids 544–545
photodynamic therapy 545
infection control measures 544
training in infection control 544
working environment contamination
542–544
aerosols and splatter 542
clinical waste 543–544
dental unit water lines (DUWLs) 542–543
impressions, prosthetics and dental
instruments 543
dequalinium 22
dequalinium chloride 35, 36
Desulfotomaculum nigrifi cans
heat sterilization 279
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
hexamine 48
triazines 49
development of formulation 72–73
culturing for test inocula 72
growth medium and physical parameters 72
pretreatments 72–73
DGHM 238
dialdehydes
sporicidal activity 127
dialkyl quaternaries 22
diallyl disulfi de (DADS) 553
diallyl trisulfi de (DATS) 553–554
diamidines, aromatic 17–18, 167
mode of action 18
structure 17
4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole 242
diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating 486
diatomaceous earth fi lters 343
diazolidinyl urea 47, 47
1,2-dibromo-2,4-dicyanobutane (Tektamer 38)
50, 50
dibromochloromethane (DBCM) 482
dibromopropamidine 18
microbicidal properties 18structure 17
dibutyl phthalate (DBP), recreational water
482
dichlone 31
dichloramine-T 33, 34
2,4-dichlorobenzyl alcohol 38
dichloroisocyanuric acid 33, 34
didecyl dimethylammonium bromide 22
2,3-dihydroimidazoles 46
5,6-dihydroxy-5,6-dihydrothymine 300, 301
1,3-di(hydroxymethyl)-5,5-dimethyl-2,4-
dioxoimidazole, 1,3-di-hydroxymethyl-5,5-
dimethylhydantoin 46, 46
Diketocyclohexadienes 31
dimethoxane (2,6-dimethyl-1,3-dioxan-4-ol acetate)
45, 46
dimethylhydantoin (DMH) 35, 35, 481
2,4-dinitrophenol 100, 187
dioctadecyldimethylammonium 149
dioctyl dimethylammonium bromide 22
dioctylphthalate (DOP) smoke test 364–365
1,3-dioxane derivatives 45–46
dioxanes 46
2,4-dioxotetrahydroimidazole 46
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 44–45, 44
dipicolinic acid (DPA) 72, 123, 301
structure 123
Diplomonads 160
direct epifl uorescent fi ltration technique (DEFT)
242, 361
discriminatory counting techniques 242
disinfectants 236–243
sporicidal activity 125–126
classifi cation 237
disinfection
defi nition 236, 255
history of 1, 2–3
hospital 447, 448–449
laundry 473
non-standard methods 241–243
biochemical methods 242
bioluminescence 242–243
discriminatory counting techniques 242
fl ow cytometry 242–243
physical methods 242
quantitative optical density (OD) 243
disinfection by-products (DBPs) 481
disinfection tests 237
capacity tests 240–241
classifi cation 237–238
primary and secondary methods: suspension
238–241
reproducibility of suspension testing 239–240
surface (carrier) testing 241
disodium dinaphthylmethane disulfate 42
dispersin B 489
DNA denaturation
DNA vaccination 568–569
dodecyl-β-alanine 24
dodecyl-β-aminobutyric acid 24
dodecyl-di(aminoethyl)glycine 24
dodecyl dimethylammonium chloride 22
dodecyl pyridinium chloride 22
n-dodecyl trimethylammonium bromides 22
dodecyl trimethylammonium chloride 22, 149
domiphen bromide, structure 21
Dowicil 200 48, 49
dressings 514–518
chlorhexidine dressings 517
desired properties of modern wound dressings
515evaluation and safety of 518
honey dressings 518
iodine dressings 517
moist heat 282–283
polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) 515
silver dressings 515–517, 516dry cleaning 474
dry eye syndrome 397, 402
duck hepatitis B virus 324
Dutch quantitative carrier test 241
Dutch standard suspension test 238
DVV (Deutshe Verinigung zur Bekampfung der
Viruskrankheiten), virucide effi cacy testing
179, 182
E-beam (electron beam) 294, 295
EBI Food Safety 572
Ebola virus 192
echovirus
QACs 22
type 25 190
EDTA 72, 373, 396, 398
action on cell wall 99
effl ux pumps 90, 115
classes of 111
Eimeria spp. 160
Eimeria acervulina 168
Eimeria colchici 165
Eimeria maxima 159
Eimeria tenella 159electron microscopy (EM) 96
electrostriction 373
Encephalitozoon spp. 159, 161
Encephalitozoon cuniculi 159, 165, 166, 168
Encephalitozoon hellem 159, 168
Encephalitozoon intestinalis 158, 159, 162, 164, 165,
166, 168endoscopes 454, 459–468
automated endoscope reprocessors 464–466,
465decontamination procedure 461
automated cleaning 462
drying of channels and surfaces 463
fi nal rinse 463
high-level disinfection (HLD) 462–463
leak testing 462
manual cleaning 462
personal protective equipment (PPE) 462
pre-cleaning or bedside cleaning 461–462
selection of chemical disinfectant for HLD
463–464
standard operating procedures (SOPs) 462
fl exible endoscopes , 461
reprocessed, cleaning verifi cation 466–468, 467rigid endoscopes 459, 460–461
staff training 468
training programs 468
written procedures 468
washer disinfectors 464–466
accessories 466
connection systems 464
contamination 464
documentation 466
facilities 466
storage 466
traceability 464–466
treatment of incoming water supply 464
verifi cation of all-channel irrigation 464
endoscopic retrograde pancreatography (ERCP)
461
endotracheal tubes 509–510
energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDAX) 97,
193
Entamoeba spp. 157, 163
Entamoeba dispar 167
Entamoeba histolytica 157, 158, 159, 160, 167
Entamoeba invadens 159, 160Enterobacter aerogenes
Alcohols 36
595
Index
Enterobacter (Cronobacter) sakazakii
caprylic acid 15
Enterobacter spp. 158
diarrhea in hospitals 446
Enterococcus cloacae, ERCP and 461
Enterococcus faecalis
as biological indicator 286
in dentistry 542
superoxidized water 56
tea tree oil 51
Enterococcus faecium 373
dose-response curve to radiation 297
Enterococcus hirae
triclosan 72
Enterococcus spp.
QACs
Enterocytozoon bieneusi 158, 159
enteroviruses, QACs 22
Environ® LpH 222
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (US) 135,
136, 179, 180, 182, 269, 270, 372
antimicrobial testing program (ATP) 274
BEAD Lab 135
classifi cation of disinfectants 237
antimicrobial pesticides overview 270–274
devices 275
labels 274
minimum risk pesticides 275
nanotechnology 275
OECD antimicrobial effi cacy methods 275
pesticide determination 271–272
pesticide registration 272
fi le registration 272
purchase an existing registration 272
supplemental registration process 272
registration process 272–274
changes to registrations 274
citing data 273
conducting data studies 273
EPA review process 273–273
fulfi lling data requirements 273
waiver requests 273
registrant obligations 274
state pesticide registration 274
treated articles 274–275
environmental toxicity/emerging resistance
229–233
antimicrobial resistance in bacteria 232–233
expression and overexpression of effl ux pumps
233
physiological and metabolic changes 233
bacterial susceptibility 231–232
differences/similarities in antimicrobial actions
231
epicatechin (EC) 555
epicatechin gallate (ECG) 555
Epidermophyton fl occosum
salicylanilide 45
epigallocatechin (EGC) 555
epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) 555
epoxyethane see ethylene oxide
ergosterol 150
Escherichia coli 327
AcrAB effl ux pump in 91
adherence to surfaces 486
alcohols 36
alexidine 20
antimicrobial resistance 232
bacteriophages 566
benzalkonium chrloide (BZC) 75, 76
biocidal activity test 242
bioluminescence 242–243
Bronidox 45
cetrimide 89
chlorhexidine 96, 97
colicin 552
constant pressure 373
Dowicil 200 48
EDTA 39
effl ux 112, 113
electric pulse inactivation 375
enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (FabI)
100
formic acid 15
Germall 46
mar locus 90
parabens 16
phage M13 573
propionic acid 15
QACs 22
silver nitrate 42
silver resistance 382
sorbic acid 15
superoxidized water 56
surfaces 382
taurolin 27
tea tree oil 51
temperature 374
tobramycin 89
triclosan 72, 101, 233
Escherichia coli O157:H7
bacteriophage treatment 572
copper 488
hydrogen peroxide 324
essential oils 50–51, 555–556
esters 13
ethanoic acid see acetic acid
ethanol 37, 37, 145, 166, 194
medical equipment disinfectant 448
ethyl alcohol see ethanol
ethylene imine 52
ethylene oxide (EtO) 3, 51, 52
sporicidal activity 126
effects on nucleic acids 100
gaseous sterilization 306–307,
308–312
apparatus 310
background 308
controls and load release 311
desorption control 311
packaging of medical devices 311
properties 308
safe conditions for staff 311–312
sterilization management 311–312
sterilization parameters 310
sterilization process 310–311
typical cycles 310–311
viruses 196
N,N′-ethylenebis(2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-
glycine (EHPG) 41
ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) 39–40,
40, 573
contact lens solution 532
ethylenedioxybis(ethyliminodi(acetic acid)) (EGTA)
39, 40, 40
Eucalyptus oil 51
European and International Standard
EN ISO 10993-7 311
EN ISO 10993-17-2002 315
EN ISO 11135-1 310
EN ISO 11138-2 311
EN ISO 14180-2003 314, 315
EN ISO 14937 308, 317, 326
EN ISO 15883 part 4 464
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) 258
European Commission
Biocidal Products Regulation 258, 527
Cosmetic Product Regulation 398
Cosmetics Directive 230
Directive 91/414/EEC 255, 258
Directive 98/8/EC 248
Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) 231
Framework Directive 1999/2/EC 299
Medical Devices Directive 135
Standing Committee on Biocides 257
Sustainable Use Directive (2009/129/EC) 258
TNsG on Data Requirements 248–249
TNsG on Product Evaluation 249, 253
see also European Commission Biocide Products
Directive
European Commission Biocide Products Directive
(BPD; 98/8/EC) 56, 231,236, 253, 255–258,
372
defi nitions and scope 255
evolution of legislation 258
operation of 255–256
active substances 255–258, 257
biocidal products 258
products types and descriptions 256European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
135, 136, 247
CEN TC216 disinfection tests 143, 144, 236,
237, 238, 240
guidance on testing and registration of chemicals
135–136
Technical Committee (TC) 236
European Food Safety Authority BIOHAZ panel
231
European fungicidal test 143
European Norm (EN) 71
EN285 282, 412
EN550 310
EN556-1 409
EN556-2 409
EN868-6 and EN868-7 311
EN1040 (bactericidal) disinfection tests 237
EN1275 (fungicidal) disinfection tests 143, 237
EN1276 241
EN1499 238, 253
EN1500 238, 253
EN1657 144
EN12054 253
EN12791 253
EN13624 (directive 93/42/EEC) 144
EN13697 143–144, 241
Index
596
EN14065 474
EN14562 144
EN15424-2007 315
EN15883 448, 452
European Union (EU) 253, 253regulatory process 248–249
Eusol 33
Evans Medical disaster 390
experimental use permit (EUP) 273
eyedrops
Acanthamoeba 390
autoclaving 282
heating with a bactericide 286
preservatives 396–397
F-value 279, 287
familial Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (fCJD) 208
fatal familial insomnia (FFI) 208, 450
feline calcivirus 192
fennel oil 17
fentichlor 100
fi brous pad fi lters 344
fi eld use 73–80
bioavailablility of microbicides 75
concentration 73–74, 73, 74contact time 77
environmental temperature 75–76
factors inherent to microorganisms 77–79
formulation 75
microbial biofi lm 79–80
number of microorganisms (bioburden) 79
oxygenation 76
pH 74, 74relative humidity 76
soiling 76–77
treatment conditions 75–77
type of microorganism 77, 78type of surface 76
fi lters
membrane 344, 350–354, 352
advantages and disadvantages of 354–355
cartridge fi lters 350–351, 351
characteristics 354hydrophobic fi lters 352
pleated-membrane cartridge 351, 352
polymers used in 353testing 361–365
gas sterilization 364–365
liquid sterilization 361–364
types
cellulosic 347
diatomaceous earth 343
fi brous pad 344
membrane see above
sintered or fritted ware 344
fi ltration sterilization 343–366
applications and limitations 357
air and other gases 358–360
clean room classifi cations based on airborne
particulates 358laminar air fl ow (LAF) conditions 357,
359–360, 360
liquids 357–358
microbiological safety cabinets 360
non-sterilizing uses 360–361
solid products 358
cross-fl ow fi ltration 349–350, 349
fi lter diameter 350historical introduction 343
mechanisms (screen fi lters) (depth fi lters)
345–349
infl uence of structure on fi ltration process
346–348
removal of microorganisms from liquids 348
media manufacture 344–345
anodic oxidation of aluminium 345
expansion process 344
gelling and casting process 344
track-etch (irradiation-etch) process 344, 346
media types 343–344, 347
multiple-plate fi ltration system 351
removal of viruses, prions and endotoxins
355–357
system design 365–366
fi xed-time equilibrium binding studies 98–99
fl avonoids (polyphenols) 553
fl oors
hospital 451
surgical ward 451
fl ow cytometry 97, 242–243
fl uorine 31
fl uorochrome 5-cyano-2,3-ditolyl tetrazolium (CTC)
98
fl uorosilicone acrylate 530
food preservation 230–231
history 1
foot-and-mouth disease 13, 577–578
acids 196
formaldehyde 3, 24, 26–28, 51–54, 52, 102, 145,
166
adverse reaction to 402
as antifungal agent 145–146
chemistry 26
decontamination technologies 584
effects on nucleic acids 100
gaseous sterilization 312–315
hexamine (methenamine) 27
historical use 306
interactions 26
low-temperature steam formaldehyde (LTSF)
312
mode of action 26
taurolin 27, 27
uses 27–28
formaldehyde-releasing agents 27, 51–52
formazan 242
formic acid (methanoic acid) 15
formulation optimization 373
free available chlorine (FAC) 480, 481
French Association of Normalization see AFNOR
fungi 78–79
ecology 142–143
microbicide resistance 150
see also antifungal agents
fungicidal activity see antifungal agents
furanones 489
Fusarium, ‘Quorn’ production 142
Fusarium keratitis 532
contact lens solution 535
Fusarium moiliforme
acetic acid 144
ozone 148
Fusarium oxysporium
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
methyl iodide 147
β-galactosidase detection 242
gamma rays 294, 295
protozoa and 168
Ganoderma 142
garlic (Allium sativum) 553–555, 554, 559
gas plasma sterilization 4, 333–341, 377–378
applications for decontamination 334–335
future perspectives 341
gas plasma 338–340, 340
hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization
335–338, 336, 339
mechanisms of action 340–341
peracetic acid gas plasma sterilizers 338, 339
sterilization systems 335–340
gaseous disinfectants 51–53, 52mode of action 53
gaseous sterilization 306–326
agents
ideal gaseous sterilizing 307, 307mechanisms of action 307, 307types 307, 307
alkylating agents 308–315
biological indicators 308
equipment 308
oxidizing agents 315–323
plasma sterilization 323–328, 327gases, fi ltration sterilization 358–360
gastrointestinal infections, recreational water venues
482
gastroscope 461
gene transfer medicinal products (GTMPs) 179
General Dental Council 544
general stress response (GSR) 90
genetically modifi ed microorganisms (GEMs)
79
gentamicin 56
Geobacillus stearothermophilus 28
as biological indicator 284, 317, 414
heat sterilization 279
hydrogen peroxide 316, 324
hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization 336,
339
inactivation by heat 284
LTSF-treated 285
microwaves 377
ozone 320, 321
peroxide gas 379
pressure and 374
spores 327, 583
steam sterilization 283
sterilization 375
sterilization monitoring 315
Germall (N,N′-methylene-bis-(5′(1-hydroxymethyl)-
2,5-dioxo-4-imidazolidinyl urea)) 46, 46
German Society for Hygiene and Microbiology
(DGHM) 237, 241
German Veterinary Society 237
germination endoprotease (GPR) 301
Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome (GSS)
208, 450
Giardia duodenalis, inhibition by propolis 558
Giardia intestinalis 159
597
Index
Giardia lamblia 163, 164, 167, 168, 170
UV resistance 300
Giardia muris 163, 164, 165, 167
Giardia spp. 155, 156, 157, 160, 163, 167
cysts, viability of 242
hydrogen peroxide 316
Gigasept 28
gluconic acid 13, 41
glucoprotamin 50
glucoprotamines 381
glucosaminidases 573
β-δ-glucuronidase detection 242
Glugea anomala 164
γ-d-glutaminyl-l-lysine endopeptidases 573
glutaraldehyde (pentanedial) (GTA) 3, 24–26, 77,
78, 102, 145, 166
as antifungal agent 146
chemistry of 24–25
germination prevention 125
hospital equipment disinfectant 448
interactions 25
microbicidal activity 25mode of action 25
pH 74
scrapie 221
structure 24, 25
uses 25–26
glutaraldehyde phenate 146
glycidaldehyde 52
Glydant 46, 46
Glyoxal (ethanedial), malonaldehyde (propanedial)
24, 28–29
good manufacturing practice (GMP) 395, 411, 416
granulomatous amebic encephalitis (GAE) 157
green microbicides 585
green tea (Camellia sinensis) 555
greenbottle (Lucilia sericata) maggots 560
green fl uorescent protein (GFP) 98
growth medium 72
guanidine hydrochloride (GdnHCl)
in TSEs 223
guanidine thiocyanate (GdnSCN)
in TSEs 223
H1N1 virus
hand hygiene 419
infl uenza pandemic 538
Haemophilus infl uenzae, tea tree oil 51
N-halamines 382, 382
halane 33, 34
halazone 33, 34
halogen compounds
protozoa 162–164
as virucides 192–193
halogen-releasing compounds
halogenated fl uorescein (hydroxyxanthene) 31
halogenating agents, actions of 102
halogens 31–35
as antifungal agent 146–7
see also bromine, chlorine, iodine
halquinol 35, 36
hand gels, effi cacy 422
hand hygiene 179
adverse events 433–434
antisepsis products and methods 419–422
compliance 425–427, 426
handrub procedure 421
healthcare workers 424–425
healthcare-associated infections (HAIs)
transmission 418–419, 419
monitoring 422–424
direct observation methods 423–424
indirect monitoring 424
automated monitoring 424
programs 427–432, 428–431WHO guidelines 433, 434–436
Hartmannella 157, 161
Hartmannella vermiformis 163
Hawthorne effect 423
hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP)
systems 474
Health Canada (HC) 135, 179, 247–248, 248,
250–251Access to Therapeutic Products: the Regulatory
Process in Canada 267
antiseptics 135, 136Consumer Chemicals and Containers Regulations
(2001) 263
Consumer Product Safety Act (CCPSA) 263
Consumer Product Safety Directorate 263
Controlled Products Regulations (CPR) 263
disinfectants 135
vs sanitizers 262–264, 263Drug Identifi cation Number (DIN) 248, 262,
264
Drug Product Database 267
emerging pathogens 267
Food and Drug Regulations (F&DR) 247, 262,
263, 264
Food and Drugs Act (F&DA) 262, 263, 264
General Standards Board (CGSB) Document
CGSB-2.161–97 265
Guidance Document: Disinfectant Drugs 262
Guidance Document: Human-Use Antiseptic Drugs
249
premarket review process for hard surface
disinfectants 264–266
Hazardous Products Act (HPA) 263–264
Health Products and Food Branch (HPFB) 247
Health Products and Food Branch Inspectorate
(HPFBI) 264, 267
legislative and regulatory authority 264, 264
Marketed Health Products Directorate (MHPD)
267
Natural Health Product Regulations (NHPR)
262
New Drug Submission (NDS) Regulations 248
Pest Control Products Act (PCPA) 263
Pest Control Products Regulations (PCPR) 263
Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA)
262
postmarket regulatory activities 267
Regulatory Authorization of Hard Surface
Disinfectants in Canada 262–263
Therapeutic Products Directorate (TPD) 262,
263
healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) transmission
418–419, 419
heat–moisture exchangers (HMEs) 453
heat sterilization 3, 277–289
combination treatments 285–286
delivery and control 286–287
dry heat 287–288, 287D-value (decimal reduction time (DRT))
287
F-value 287
lyophilization 288
z-value 287
food processing 284–285
hospital disinfection 447–448
kinetics 277, 278
D-value (decimal reduction time (DRT)) 279
F-value 279
z-value 279
microbial inactivation 288–289
microbial susceptibility 279
moist heat 279–284
dressings 282–283
lumened devices 284
non-parenteral products 281–282
parenteral products 280–281
steam sterilization 279, 279steam sterilizers, types of 283superheated steam 279
time-temperature relationships 280uses 280
spore resistance 289
heavy metal derivatives 41–44
hedaquinium chloride 22, 35
Helicobacter pylori
garlic 554
gastroscopy 461
hydrogen peroxide 324
virino theory of prion diseases 211
helium in gas plasma sterilization 340
HEPA fi ltration system 310, 325, 359, 360, 364–5,
585
hepadnaviruses 180
hepatitis A virus 183, 373
glutaraldehyde 190
heat 196
hospitals 449–450
hydrogen peroxide 324
ozone 320
structural protein VP1 190
hepatitis B virus (HBV) 178, 179, 180
alcohol 194
‘Dane particles’ 190
dentistry 537, 538
duck 180
hand hygiene 419
heat 196, 279
hospital 449–450
medical equipment 446
recreational water venues 483
sodium hypochlorite 192
hepatitis B virus surface (HBsAg) 190
hepatitis C virus (HCV) 178, 179, 180
dentistry 537, 538
haemophilia 390
hand hygiene 419
hospital 449–450
medical equipment 446
hepatitis non-A, non-B viruses hospital 449–450
2-heptadecyl-2-imidazoline 46
herpes simplex virus
dentistry 541
keratitis 533
Index
598
ozone 320
QACs 22
herpesvirus 419
spread by tonometers 454
hexachlorophene 149
adverse reaction 402
hand hygiene products 419
hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide 149
n-hexadecyl trimethylammonium bromides 22
hexahydro-1,3,5-triethyl-s-triazine 49, 49
hexamidine 167
hexamidine diisethionate 18
hexamine derivatives 48–49
hexanedial 24
hexylresourcinol 53
Hibitane see chlorhexidine gluconate (CHL-G)
high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) 168
high-effi ciency particulate air see HEPA
high-intensity light 376
high-level disinfectants (HLDs) 237
for endoscopes 462–463
for MIS endoscopes 460
high-temperature short-time(HTST) processing
286
high-voltage electric pulses 375–376
history 1–4
HIV/AIDS 178, 179, 419
dentistry 537, 538
heat sterilization 279
hemophilia and 390
hospitals 450
hydrogen peroxide 324
irradiation dose in bone transplants 298
medical equipment 446
ozone 320
PHMB and 193
recreational water venues 483
sodium hypochlorite 192
spread by tonometers 454
superoxidized water 56
hive products 556
honey 556–557
as cleansing agent 1
impregnated dressings 557
hospitals 445–454
cleaning 446
contaminated disinfectant solutions 450–451
disinfectant policy 446–449
objective 446–447
risk categories 447
requirements 447
disinfection method 447–449, 448implementation 449
disinfection 446
environment and equipment 451–454
air 452
anaesthetic equipment 453
babies’ incubators 453
baths, washbowls and toilets 452
bedpans and urinals 452
carpets 451–452
cleaning equipment 453
crockery and cutlery 452, 453endoscopes 454
fl oor of surgical ward 451
heat–moisture exchangers (HMEs) 453
respiratory ventilators and associated
equipment 453
stethoscopes and sphygomamanometer cuffs
454
tonometers 454
vaginal specula and other vaginal devices 454
walls of operating theater 451walls, ceilings and fl oors 451
microorganisms 449–450
bacterial spores 449
bloodborne viruses, hepatitis A virus and
prions 449–450
hepatitis B virus 449–450
hepatitis C virus 449–450
hepatitis non-A, non-B viruses 449–450
HIV/AIDS 450
mycobacteria 450
Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare 450
Mycobacterium chelonae 450
Mycobacterium tuberculosiss 450
prions 450
sterilization 446
hot springs 480
hot tubs 480
human defense peptides 559
human immunodefi cieny virus (HIV) see HIV/AIDS
Human Mediteck HMTS series 338
Humira (adalimumab) 569
‘hurdle technology’ 285
hydrazinoquinolines 35
hydrochloric acid 13
hydrochlorofl uorocarbon (HCFC) 310
hydrogen peroxide 3, 38–39, 98, 101, 164, 165, 195
as antifungal agent 148
gas see vaporized hydrogen peroxide
germination prevention 125
hepatitis C virus 324
liquid 378–379
synergism with peracetic acid 373
in TSEs 222
UV radiation and 302
hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization
315–317, 335–338, 336, 339
hydrophobic fi lters 352
N-hydroxyethylethylenediamine-NN′N′-triacetic
acid (HDTA) 39, 40, 41
Hygiene Institute of Mainz 241
hypobromous acid (HOBr) 35
hypochlorites 33, 33, 74, 98, 101
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) 35
p-hydroxybenzoic acid, esters of (parabens) 14,
16–17, 172-hydroxymethyl-2-nitro-1,3-propanediol 38
8-hydroxyquinoline (oxine) 35, 41
8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives 35, 36
Hydroxyxanthene 31
imidazole derivatives 46–47
imidazolidones 46
imidazolines 46
iminodiacetic acid (IDA) 39, 40, 41
imipenem 89
implants, programmable release of active agents
from 494
impressions, dental 543
in TSEs 222
Inadine™ in dressings 517
incineration of clinical waste 476
incubation temperature 80
incubators, baby 453
infection control measures
in dentistry 544
Infection Prevention Society 449
infl uenza
pandemic 538
QACs 22
viruses 419
infrared irradiation 302
injury repair 80
inorganic acids 13–17
chemistry 13–14
mode of action 14
International Colloquium on the Evaluation of
Disinfectants in Europe, Committee of 238
International Standards Organization (ISO) 71, 248
ISO 14729:2001 143
ISO 11138-5-2006 315
ISO 14937-2009 315
ISO 10993 503
ISO 11135 416
ISO 11138 series 413 414
ISO 11140-1 412, 413
ISO 13485 415
ISO 14161 414
ISO 17665-1 413
ISO 20743 525, 526
iodine
as antifungal agent 147
contact lens solution 532
dressings 2, 517
free iodine 31–32
hand hygiene products 419
protozoa 162–164
skin reaction to 433
iodine compounds 31–33, 31mode of action 33
as virucides 192–193
iodoform 31
iodophors 32, 147
hand hygiene products 419
hand washing 420
skin reaction to 433
as virucide 419
Iodosorb 32, 517
Iodozyme™ 517
ionization constant 13
‘iontophoretic’ approach 492
irritant contact dermatitis 433
iseganan 381
isoniazid 100
isopropanol (propan-2-ol) 37, 37, 145, 166, 194
medical equipment disinfectant 448
isoquinoline 36
isoquinoline derivatives 35, 36
Isospora belli 156, 157
Isospora suis 157
isothermal adsorption 99, 99
isothiazolines, adverse reactions to 402
isothiazolinones 99, 395
599
Index
isothiazolones 47–48, 47, 101, 166–167
mode of action 47
iturin-A 150
katadyn silver 42
Kelsey–Sykes (capacity method) test 143, 238, 240,
241
keratinases
in TSEs 223
Klebsella pneumoniae, ERCP and 461
Klebsiella spp.
diarrhea in hospitals 446
hand hygiene 432
in skin 418
Klenzyme® 221
kuru 208, 209, 300, 450
gamma and UV irradiation 216
lactic acid 14, 15, 41, 53
as fungal carbon source 145
Lactobacillus plantarum, DHA 16
Lactococcus lactis 381, 491
nisin synthesis 552
lactoferrin 41, 72, 73, 559
laminar air fl ow (LAF) conditions 357, 359–360, 360
lamivudine (3TC) 540
lantibiotics 552
Lassavirus 192
latex
in medical devices 502
laundry 471–474
categorization 472–473
infectious linen 473
thermolabile linen 473
used linen 473
chemical disinfection 473
continuous tunnel washing machines (CTWMs)
472, 473
decontamination 473
dry cleaning 474
quality assurance systems 474
routine 471–472
staff uniforms 473
tunnel washer 472
washer extractors 472–473
washing machines in acute clinical areas 474
laurolinium 22
laurolinium acetate 35, 36
lecithin 22
Legionella micdadei 483
Legionella pneumophila 163
bromine 35
in dental unit water lines 542
in dentistry 541
ozone 100
silver nitrate 42
Legionella spp. 158
Airborne 452
in dental unit water lines 542
legionnaires’ disease 483
Leptospermum, honey and 557
Leptospermum scoparium (Manuka oil) 518
Leptospira spp., fi ltration sterilization 348
Leuven test 241
light, antimicrobial activity 3
light emitt ing diodes (LEDs) 545
lime sulfur 16
linezolid and quinupristin/dalfopristin 572
lipids, interactions 102
liquids, fi ltration sterilization 357–358
Listeria monocytogenes 72
copper 488
electric pulse inactivation 375
heat treatment 285
Listeria monocytogenes-specifi c phages 572, 586
Listex™ 572
ListShield™ 572
LIVE/DEAD BacLight bacterial viability kit stain 97
log reduction value (LRV) 348
log removal factor 348
Loma salmonae 159, 164
low-temperature steam (LTS) 285
formaldehyde (LTSF) 285, 312
sterilizer 315
lubrols 22
lumened devices moist heat 284
lyophilization 288
lysins 573, 586
lysogeny 567
lysozyme 552
magainins 559
maggot therapy 559–560, 560magnetic fi elds 376–377
magnetically controlled drug delivery 493
malachite green dye 30, 30
malic acid 13, 41
as chelator 73
manuka honey 556, 557, 557
mar effl ux system 90
mar operon 92
mechanisms of action 95–103
on cell membrane 99–100
inhibition of energy processes 100
leakage of cell constituents 99–100
on cell wall 99
classes 101–103, 102alkylating and halogenating agents 102
interactions with lipids 102
metal ion-binding agents 102
nucleic acid-binding agents 102
oxidizing agents 101
protein denaturants 102
cytoplasm interaction 100–101
enzymes 100
microbial transcriptome and proteome 101
nucleic acids 100
protein denaturation and coagulation 100
methods for study 96–98
molecular approaches 98
physical and biochemical approaches 96–98
variable parameters 98
site of action 96
uptake, binding and penetration 98–99
medical equipment 445–454
medicines, preservation of 388–402, 389adverse reactions 401–402
consequences of microbial contamination
390–391
effi cacy 392–395, 400–401, 400
microbial growth, formulation effects 391–392
nature 388–390
preservatives 395–398
quality of non-sterile dosage forms 396regulatory aspects 399
test requirements for selected raw materials 395,
395Melaleuca alternifolia see tea tree oil (TTO)
melamine formaldehyde 52, 52
melamine 558
melittin 558
membrane fi lters 344, 350–354, 352
meningitis 15
mercuric chloride 2, 43
mercurochrome 43, 43
mercury compounds 43
meropenem 89
mesoporous silica 56
metal ion-binding agents, actions of 102
metal ions 75
metal nanoparticles 490
metallic salts as virucides 195–196
metals as antifungal agent 147–148
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus see
MRSA
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis
(MRSE) strains 30
methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA)
bacteriophages 568
ozone 320
methoctramine 99
methyl alcohol (methanol) 37
methyl bromide 52, 147
methyl iodide 147
2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (MIT) 47, 47
N,N′-methylene-bis-(5′(1-hydroxymethyl)-2,5-
dioxo-4-imidazolidinyl urea 46, 46
methylene bisthiocyanate 50, 50
Meveol® 559
microbicidal activity, factors affecting
development of formulation 72–73
culturing for test inocula 72
growth medium and physical parameters 72
pretreatments 72–73
fi eld use 73–80
bioavailablility of microbicides 75
concentration 73–74, 73, 74contact time 77
environmental temperature 75–76
factors inherent to microorganisms 77–79
formulation 75
microbial biofi lm 79–80
number of microorganisms (bioburden) 79
oxygenation 76
pH 74, 74relative humidity 76
soiling 76–77
treatment conditions 75–77
type of microorganism 77, 78type of surface 76
post-exposure viability 80
incubation temperature 80
injury repair 80
neutralization of microbicidal activity 80
recovery media 80
Index
600
microbicidal agents, commonly used 372microbicidal dyes 29–31
microbicidal effect (ME) 238
microbicidal peptides 381microbicidal surfaces 381, 382–383
microbicide susceptibility of infectious agents
578–581
microbicides 55
microbiological safety cabinets 360
microbistatic agents, uses 54–55
regulatory requirements 55
selection 55
microcalorimetry 242
microcidin J25 381
Micrococcus luteus 77
microelectrophoresis 97
microplate fl uorescence 97
Microsporidium spp. 158–159, 161, 165
Microsporum audovinii
Salicylanilide 45
Microsporum gypseum
Dantoin 46
microwave irradiation 287, 302, 377
midazolidinone N′,N′-dihalamine 33
minimally invasive surgical (MIS) devices 459,
460
minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) 114,
232
minimum effective concentration (MEC) testing
463
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) 2, 74,
91, 150, 232, 249
of antifungal drugs 143
measurement 109, 113–114
molluscum contagiosum 482
Monilinia laxa spores, peracetic acid 149
monoquaternary compounds 22
morphological alteration and disintegration test
(MADT)
with hepatitis B virus 96
most probable number (MPN) method 180
MRSA 15, 30, 488
8-hydroxyquinoline (oxine) 35
bacteriophages 568
cadexomer-I2 32
in dentistry 541, 542
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
green tea 555
hand hygiene 424, 432
honey 557
in hospitals 445
hydrogen peroxide vapour 317
on linen 473
ozone 320
povidone-iodine 32
propolis 558
superoxidized water 56
on surfaces 485
tea tree oil 556
MS2 coliphages 183
Mucor piriformis
nonionic surface-active agents 23
multidrug resistance (MDR) 109
effl ux 150
multiple sclerosis 487
multiplicity of infection 566
mummifi cation 1
muramic acid-δ-lactam 122
‘mycobacteria other than tuberculosis’ (MOTT)
131
mycobacteria, environmental 78, 139
hospital 450
spread of 132
microbiocidesd 132
testing microbicides 132
Mycobacterium abscessus, recreational water 482
Mycobacterium avium 373
in dental unit water lines 542
recreational water 482
tea tree oil 51
Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis
(MAP) 568
Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare 450
Mycobacterium bovis 131, 132, 136
microwave exposure 288
transcriptome response to sodium hypochlorite
101
Mycobacterium chelonae 483
glucoprotamine 382
hospital 450
superoxidized water 56
Mycobacterium immunogenum 132
Mycobacterium leprae 131
Mycobacterium marinum 482
Mycobacterium massiliense
antimicrobial resistance 232antibiotic resistance
115
Mycobacterium smegmatis 133
enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (FabI) 100
Mycobacterium spp.
aliphatic alcohols 36
Tego 24
Mycobacterium terrae 136
Mycobacterium tuberculosis 131
in dentistry 541
disinfection 446
hospital 450
identifi cation by bacteriophage technology 568
registered products claiming activity against M.
tuberculosis 135
superoxidized water 56
Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis 136
mycocystins 391
mycolic acid 132
myristamidopropyldimethylamine 149
in contact lenses 531
Naegleria fowleri 157–158, 161, 166
Naegleria gruberi 161, 164, 168
Naegleria jadini 161
Naegleria lovanensis 163, 165, 168
Naegleria spp. 159, 162, 163, 164, 167
nanocrystalline silver 515–516
nanodiamonds 585
nanosilver coatings 490
nanotechnology 56–57
naphthaquinones 31
naphthylacetylspermine 99
natron 1
natural antimicrobial agents 55, 490–491
natural products 550–560
of animal origin 556–558
antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) 550–551, 551
bacterial 551–552
of bacterial origin 551–552
of plant origin 552–556, 553natural pools 480
necrotizing enterocolitis 15
nelfi navir 540
Neocallimastix 143
neutralization of microbicidal activity 80
Newcastle disease virus 182, 577
nisin 55, 381, 491, 552
nitric oxide 380
nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) 39, 40, 41
nitrogen in gas plasma sterilization 339
nitrogen dioxide 380
nitromersol 43, 43
nitrosamine 38
nitrous oxide 380
non-parenteral products 281–282
‘non-tuberculous mycobacteria’ (NTM) 131
norovirus 180
North American regulatory process 247–248
Norwalk virus, aggregation and chlorination
resistance 196
Nosema apis 159
Nosema bombycis 164
Noxyfl ex 27
noxythiolin (oxymethylenethiourea) 27, 27
nucleic acid-binding agents, actions of 102
nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
540
nucleotide excision repair (dark repair) 300
nucleotide reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NtRTI)
540
Nuosept 95 49, 49
nylon 66 fi lters 344
octamidine 167
2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (Skane) 47–48, 47
OECD 182
on antimicrobial-treated textiles 523
ohmic heating 287
Omnilytics 572
optical density (OD), quantitative 243
organic acids 13–17, 13
chemistry 13–14
mode of action 14
organosilicon-substituted (silicon-bonded) QACs
22
ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) 3, 24, 26, 28, 77, 166,
192
chemistry of 28
prevention of germination 125
hospital equipment disinfectant 448
interactions 28
mode of action 28
structure 28
uses 28
orthopedic devices, antimicrobial 510
otitis externa 481
oxazolo-oxazoles 49–50
oxidizing agents
actions of 101
601
Index
as antifungal agent 148–149
Bacillus subtilis 585
bacterial spores 127
in gaseous sterilization 307, 315–326
protozoa and 164–166
as virucides 195
oxine 34
oxygen 76
in gas plasma sterilization 338–339
oxyrane see ethylene oxide
Oxyzyme™ 5, 7
ozone 53, 164–165, 195, 380
as antifungal agent 148
sporicidal activity 126–127
in dentistry 544–545
effect on nucleic acids 100
in gaseous sterilization 319–322
background 319
properties 319–321, 321
sterilization process and management
321–322
recreational water venues 481
parabens 75, 144, 395
adverse reaction 402
paraformaldehyde 51–52, 146
Paravahlkampfi a francinae 158
parenterals
products 280–281
preservatives 396
Parkinson’s disease, parallel with prion diseases
224
Pasteur, Louis 2
pediocin 55
Penicillium brevicompactum, spores, chlorine and
146
Penicillium chrysogenum, chlorine dioxide 147
Penicillium expansum
DHA 16
nonionic surface-active agents 23
Penicillium glaucum
triazines 49
Penicillium notatum
triazines 49
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
Penicillium oxalicum spores of, chlorine and 146
Penicillium rubrum spores, methyl bromide 147
Penicillium spp.
acetic acid 144
biofi lms 150
chlorine dioxide 379
parabens 144
peptidoglycan 99
peracetic acid (PAA) 3, 39, 101, 164, 165–166,
195
as antifungal agent 148–149
sporicidal activity 126–127
in gaseous sterilization 317–319
hospital equipment disinfectant 448
synergism with hydrogen peroxide 373
performic acid 39
peritoneal catheters, antimicrobial 510
permeabilizers 41, 72
peroxides, bacterial spores 126
Peroxone 317
peroxygens 3, 38–39
Perozone 321
personal protective equipment (PPE) for endoscopes
462
pexiganan 381
pexiganan acetate cream 559
PGLYRP series 381
pH 74, 74culture 72
microbial growth 392
preservative effi cacy 393–394
recreation water 380
responsivity 493–494
phenanthrenequinones 31
phenol 72, 74
as antifungal agent 149
dressing 2
limitations 371
toxicity and tolerance 101
as virucide 194
phenoxyethanol (phenoxetol) 36, 38, 100, 398
2-phenoxyethanol 37
phenylethanol (phenylethyl alcohol) 38
2-phenylethanol 37
phenylmercuric acetate (PMA) 43, 44
effect of temperature 286
phenylmercuric nitrate (PMN) 43–44, 43
effect of temperature 286
phenylmethanol see benzyl alcohol
o-phenylphenol 98
3-phenylpropanol 22
phospholipids 22
phosphoric acid 196
Photobacterium (Vibrio) fi scheri 242
photocatalytic activity 492
photocatalytic oxidation reaction modules 585
photodynamic therapy 55
in dentistry 545
photoreactivation (light repair) 300
photosensitive dyes 492
physical microbicides, protozoa 167–70
picornavirus 183
α-pinene 556
plague 1 2
plaque assay 180
plasma
bacterial spores 127
defi nition 334
plasma sterilization 323–328, 327Plazlyte® 336
pleated-membrane cartridge 351, 352
Pluronic F68 24
pneumonia (PNEU) 504
polihexanide see polyhexamethylene biguanide
(PHMB)
poliovirus 182, 190, 373
bromine chloride 193
QACs 22
superoxidzed water 56
poliovirus type 1
iodine 192
ozone 320
sodium hypochlorite 192
poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) hydrogel 493
poly-l-lysine 41, 41
polyaminopropylbiguanide (PAPB) see
polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB)
poly(ethylene imine) (PEI) polymers 492
poly(N)isopropyl acrylamide) (PNIPAM) 493
poly(oxyethylene (dimethylimino)ethylene)
dichloride 22
polycations 41, 72
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) 502
polyethylene glycol (PEG) 394, 486
polyethylene oxide (PEO) brush coatings and
polymers 486
polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB) 20–21, 75,
98, 100, 113, 162, 193–194, 194contact lens solution 531, 532
dressings 515
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 180, 216
polymeric biguanides 20–21
polymeric QACs 22
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), contact lenses
530
Polyquad 23
polyquaternium-1 (PQ-1) 149
contact lens solution 531
polysorbates 75
polytetrafl uoroethylene (PTFE, Tefl on)
fi lters 344
in medical devices 502
polyurethane
in medical devices 502
polyvinyl chloride
in medical devices 502
polyvinylidine fl uoride (PVDF) fi lters 344
polyvinyl-pyrrolidone iodophores (PVP-I) see
povidone-iodine
Pontiac fever 483
post-exposure viability 80
incubation temperature 80
injury repair 80
neutralization of microbicidal activity 80
recovery media 80
potassium dichloroisocyanurate 33
potassium hydroxide 145
potassium permanganate in TSEs 223
povidone-iodine (PVP-I)) 32, 32, 42
in dressings 517
medical equipment disinfectant 448–449
ppApp 90
pppApp 90
prEN14476 protocol 182
pressures, high, protozoa 168
pretreatments 72–73
primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) 158
prion 373
prion diseases see Transmissible Spongiform
Encephalopathies (TSEs)
prions 77, 210, 211, 450
ethylene oxide 309
heat sterilization 279
hospital 449–450
inactivation 54
microbicide susceptibility 578–579
process optimization 372–373
profl avine 30, 102
profl avine hemisulfate 30
pronase in TSEs 223
Index
602
propamidine 18
microbicidal properties 18structure 17
n-propanol 37, 145, 166
propan-2-ol see isopropanol
propidium iodide (PI) dye 98
β-propiolactone 52, 221
propionic acid 14, 15
as antifungal agent 144
propolis (bee glue) 557–558
propylene glycol 53
propylene oxide 52, 53, 100
propyl-p-hydroxybenzoic acid 14
prosthetics, dental 543
proteases in TSEs 223
protein denaturants 102
proteinase K in TSEs 223
Proteus mirabilis
biofi lms 486, 488
in skin 418
triclosan inhibition 113
Proteus spp., chlorhexidine 19
Proteus vulgaris
Bronidox 46
Dowicil 200 48
proton-motive force (PMF) 100
protoplasts, study of action of microbicidesn 97
protozoa 155–170, 169amoebae 157–158, 160–161
general descriptions and life cycles 155–161, 156microbicidal resistance
dormant-form cell wall structures 159–161
sensitivity and resistance to 161–170
microsporidia 158–159, 161
waterborne parasitic 155–157
Providencia spp., chlorhexidine 19
PrPc 210, 211–212, 214
PrPres 210–212, 214
Pseudoloma neurophilia 164
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1, 170
2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (Skane) 48
adherence to surfaces 486
antibiotics 569
antimicrobial resistance 232
benzalkonium chloride 22
biofi lm 87, 88, 98
Bronidox 45
cadexomer-I2 32
CDTA 41
cetrimide 23
chlorhexidine 20, 101
copper compounds 42, 488
in dentistry 541
DHA 16
diarrhea in hospitals 446
disinfectants in recreational waters 54
disinfection of 238, 239
Dowicil 200 49
EDTA 39
effl ux 112, 113
effl ux pumps 233
ERCP and 461
gastroscopy 461
honey 557
IDA 41
keratitis 532
MexAB operon 90, 91
mutidrug effl ux pump 90
NTA 41
ortho-phenylphenol 101
parabens 16
phage F116 96
phenoxyethanol 38
PHMB in 20
pretreatment with polysorbate-80 72
QACs 22, 74
recreational water 481
resistance 78
resistance to QACs 111
respiratory ventilators 453
sigma factors, RpoS and AlgU 91
silver compounds 42
superoxidized water 56
tea tree oil 51
sodium hypochlorite 101
triazines 49
triclosan 72
urinary tract infection, recreational water venues
483
Pseudomonas aeruginosa F116 bacteriophage
GTA and 190, 191
phenol 194
Pseudomonas aureofaciens
Germall 46
Pseudomonas fl uorescens
Bronidox 46
Pseudomonas ovale
Germall 46
Pseudomonas putida
Germall 46
phenol and, whole-cell proteome in 101
Pseudomonas spp. ATCC 19146 see Brevundimonas
diminuta
Pseudomonas spp. 158
acetic acid 15
in antiseptic cleaning solutions 391
chlorhexidine 20
eye drops 396
manganese ions 75
Pseudomonas vulgaris
PHMB in 20
Pulsed electric fi elds 168
PuriLens® system 532
Pyridazinoquinoline 35
QacA-G 90
quantitative (real-time) polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) 96
quantitative carrier tests 134–135, 134
quantitative surface disinfectant test (QSDT) 241
quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) 3, 20,
22, 100, 194, 231
chemistry 21–22
detergent and cationic properties 95
fungi 149
hand hygiene products 419
mode of action 22
pH 74
protozoa 162
resistance in environment 232
resistance to 109
skin reaction 433
structure and examples 21
uses 22–23
quillaia bark 2
quinacrine 102
quinoline derivatives 35, 36
quinones 30–31, 31
quorum sensing 503
quorum-sensing antagonists 489
radiation sterilization 3, 294–302
applications 299, 299D-value 297
sources 295–296
classifi cation 295, 295source 295–296
units 295
microorganisms, sensitivity/resistance 296–298,
296dose-response aspects 296–297, 296
mechanisms of lethal action 297–298
microbial target site 297
DNA damage 297
DNA repair 297–298
dose 298
sterility assurance level (SAL) 298
effect on product 298
standards and control procedures 298–299
ISO 11137 298, 299
ISO 14937 298
verifi cation dose (VDmax) method 299
high-intensive broad-spectrum, pulsed light
302
Ralstonia 572
Ralstonia pickettii
in dental unit water lines 542
fi ltration sterilization 348
recombination repair (post-replication repair)
300–301
recovery media 80
recreational water venues, treated 478–483
disinfection 480
engineering design 478–480
health effects 481–483
management and reporting 483
water chemistry 480
registration, evaluation, authorization and
restriction of chemicals (REACH) 259–261
Community Rolling Action Plan 260
defi nitions and scope 259
development 259
downstream users 260–261
legislation evolution 261
operation of 259–260
authorization 260
chemical safety report (CSR) 259
evaluation 260
registration 259–260
restriction 260
safety data sheets 261
timeline 260
regulations 247–254
see under countries and names
regulatory requirements 55
603
Index
relative humidity 76
respiratory syncytial virus 419
respiratory ventilators 453
reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) 161
reverse transcription to quantify messenger RNA
96
rhinovirus, organic acids 196
Rhizopus nigricans, DHA 16
rhodamine 123 100
Rhodotorula biofi lms 150
Rhodotorula rubra. biofi lms, sodium hypochlorite
146
Rideal–Walker test 237, 238, 239
Rift Valley fever virus 577
risk analysis biocontamination control (RABC)
system 474
RNA polymerase 554
Rose Bengal dye 492
rotavirus
alcohol 194
royal jelly 558
Sabin live attenuated poliovirus 568
Saccharomyces bailii, sorbic acid and 374
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 327
biosurfactant 150
Bronidox 46
chlorhexidine 150
DHA 16
electric pulse inactivation 375
ethanol 145, 150
liquid sterilization 361
mercury compounds 43
Pluronic F68 24
test organism in EN1650 143
triazines 49
Saccharomyces spp.
chlorine dioxide
magnetic fi elds 376
parabens 144
salicylanilide 44, 44, 45, 187
salicylic acid 2, 13, 16
Salmonella enterica
antimicrobial resistance 232
triclosan resistance 233
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium 374,
375
acquired resistance in 110
bioterrorism 576
effl ux 112
phage typing 568
triclosan exposure 101, 112
Salmonella spp.
butyric acid 15
contaminants 392
egg shells 302
electric pulse inactivation 375
ERCP and 461
formic acid 15
gastroscopy 461
heat adaptation 278
high-intensity light 376
propionic acid 15
silver tolerance 382
Salmonella typhi 2
Bronidox 46
Dowicil 200 48
Salmonella typhimurium
Parabens 16
QACs 22
Sappinia spp. 157
Sarcocystis gigantea 165, 166, 168
Sarcocystis miescheriana 167
Sarcocystis neurona 157, 162, 164, 166, 167
Sarcocystis spp. 156
Sarcocystis suihominis 167
Savloclens 144
Savlodil 144
Savlon 20
scarlet fever 3
scrapie 209, 212, 224, 300, 450, 579
autoclaving 213
gamma and UV irradiation 216
septic shock syndrome 541
Serratia marcescens 2
diarrhea in hospitals 446
ERCP and 461
Bronidox 46
fi ltration sterrilization 348
hydrogen peroxide vapour 317
keratitis 532
liquid sterilization 361
QAC susceptibility 112, 233
Serratia rubidaea in dental impressions 543
Serratia spp. 158
Shinva PS™ series 338
sialadenitis 539
sick building syndrome 147, 358
Siculus 2
sigmoidoscope 461
‘silane-quat’ 522
silicone in medical devices 502
silicone acrylate, contact lenses 530
silver 487, 488, 507
as antifungal agent 147–148
dressings 515–517, 516surface 381–382
as virucides 195
silver-based nanotechnology 195
silver compounds 42
silver iodide 56
silver nanoparticles (nanosilver) 56
silver nitrate 42, 148, 382
dressings 515
silver sulfadiazine (SSD) 42, 148, 382
dressings 515
silver toxicity 517
sintered ware 344
Sjögren’s syndrome 539
small acid-soluble proteins (SASPs) 289, 301, 573
alpha/beta type 123, 126
gamma-type 123
repair 301
smallpox 578
sodium bicarbonate 145
sodium dichloro-s-triazinetrione 481
sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) 33–34,
146, 448
in TSEs 221
sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) 149
prions 220, 221
sodium hydroxide 145
scrapie 220
sodium hydroxymethylglycinate 50, 50
sodium hypochlorite 33, 146, 151
in TSEs 221
as virucides 192
sodium metasilicate 145
Sofl ens® 530
soiling 76–77
solar disinfection (‘SODIS’) technique 167
solar photocatalytic (TiO2) disinfection methods
167
sonication 377
sorbic acid (2,4-hexadienoic acid) 14, 15, 74, 144
‘sous vide’ products 285
spas 480
Spaulding classifi cation 230, 460
spheroplasts, study of action of microbiocides
97
Sphingomonas paucimobilis
in dental unit water lines 542
sphygomamanometer cuffs 454
spiroindoquinoline 35
Spiroplasma, virino theory of prion diseases 211
Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory Committee
(SEAC) 540, 541
sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (sCJD) 208,
211, 450
spore resistance, heat sterilization 289
sporicidin 28
Sporothrix 150
Sporothrix schenckii spores, iodine 147
Stachybotrys chartarum, chlorine dioxide 147
staff uniforms 473
standard operating procedures (SOPs) for
endoscopes 462
standard scrapie cell assay (SSCA) 216
Staphylococcus albus
Germall 46
Staphylococcus aureus 72, 327
adherence to surfaces 486
alcohol-based hand gels, resistance 110
antimicrobial resistance 232
Bronidox 46
BZC 76
cadexomer-I2 32
cell wall damage 99
chlorhexidine 20
copper compounds 42, 98
cosmetics 390
crystal violet 30
dental unit water lines 542
in dentistry 541
DHA 16
Dowicil 200 49
effl ux 111
electric pulse inactivation 375
formic acid 15
Germall 46
green tea and 555
hydrogen peroxide 101
8-hydroxyquinoline (oxine) 35
hydroxyxanthene and 29
Index
604
isothiazolones 47
keratitis
microbicide tolerance in 90
ortho-phenylphenol 101
propolis 558
salicylanilide 45
silver nitrate 42
skin 418, 419
triclosan 101
Staphylococcus epidermidis
adherence to surfaces 486
biofi lms 89
maggots 559
cosmetics 390
crystal violet 30
keratitis 532
susceptibility to ciprofl oxacin 89
Staphylococcus intermedius 77
Staphylococcus pyogenes
penicillin 91
tea tree oil 51
Staphylococcus spp.
eye drops 396
hexamine 48
nisin 381
ozone 320
tea tree oil 51
starch mucilage 394
steam sterilization 279, 279steam sterilizers, types of 283Stenotrophomonas 233
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, triclosan exposure
112
sterility assurance 408–417
bioburden estimation 416
equipment function tests 412
installation qualifi cation (IQ) 412
operational qualifi cation (OQ) 412
performance qualifi cation (PQ) 412
factors affecting 409–410, 410
parametric release of product in practice
416–417
performance verifi cation tests 412–413
biological indicators 413–414
chemical indicators 412–413
in practice 410
process monitoring and parametric release
411–416
process validation practices 412, 414–416
control of complete process 415–416
monitoring the sterilization cycle 415
selection and validation of sterilization process
415
sterility 409, 409
sterility testing 410–411, 411sterility assurance level (SAL) 409, 409
sterile barrier systems (SBS) 417
sterile, defi nition 408–409
sterilized, defi nition 408–409
Sterrad sterilization cycles 337, 337
Sterrad sterilizers 222, 323–328, 335–338, 378
stethoscopes 454
stigmasterol 150
Streptococcus faecalis
Bronidox 46
Streptococcus mutans 77
hydrogen peroxide and chlorhexidine 101
measurement of microbicidal effects 242
Streptococcus pneumoniae
tea tree oil 51
Streptococcus salivarius, adherence to surfaces 486
Streptococcus sanguinis 242
Streptococcus sanguis 77
Streptococcus thermophilus 376
succinaldehyde (butanedial) 24
sulfi tes 16
sulfur dioxide 16
sulfuric acid 13
supercritical carbon dioxide
bacterial spores 127–128
supercritical fl uids 373–375
superheated steam 279
superoxidized water 55–56
hospital equipment, disinfectant 448
surface-active agents 21–24
amphotetic (amphyolytic) agents 24
anionic agents 23
cationic agents 21–23
non-ionic 23–24
surfaces see antimicrobial surfaces
surfacine 56
surfactants as antifungal agent 149–150
surgical site infections (SSIs) 249, 504
suspension tests, fungicidal 143
Suttocide A 50
sutures, antimicrobial 511
swimming bath granuloma 482
swimming pools 479–480
swine fever 577
synergism 373, 585
SYTO9 dye 98
Syzygium aromaticum 51
tablets, medical, preservatives 397
taurine, formaldehyde 27
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil (TTO) 51,
555–556
Tego compounds 24
Tektamer 38 50, 50
temperature
culture 72
decontamination technologies 583
environmental 75–76
microbial growth 392
preservative effi cacy 393–394
protozoa 167
temperature responsivity 493–494
tenofovir (TDF) 540
terpinen-4-ol 556
α-terpineol 556
testing of mycobactericidal agents 131–136, 137–138
protocols 133–135
quantitative carrier tests 134–135, 134
types 132–133
ex vivo tests 133
in vitro carrier tests 132–133
in vivo tests 133
simulated use testing 133
suspension tests 132
testing techniques, antimicrobial 520–527
‘active’ microbial properties on textiles 524
qualitative test methods 525, 525quantitative test methods 525–526, 526
activity measurement 524–527
claim validation 526–527
odor control 526–527
using simulated microbial splash 527, 528
‘passive’ microbial resistance and preservative
testing 524
n-tetradecyl trimethylammonium bromides 22
textiles, antimicrobial 520–527
antimicrobial agents 522
benefi ts 520–521
global regulatory compliance 522
hospital and home 521–522
leaching and non-leaching agents 522
manufacturing and raw materials 521
microbiological growth on textiles 521
mode of antimicrobial action 522
natural and synthetic materials 521
objectives and principles 523–524
resistant bacteria generation 523–524, 524
testing vs. zone of inhibition studies 523–524
tiered antimicrobial testing 523
thambutol 73
thiomersal (merthiolate) 43, 43
contact lens solution 532
thioredoxin reductase554
5-thyminyl-5,6-dihydrothymine (TDHT) 300, 301,
302
thymol 51
time-kill kinetic tests 249
time-temperature relationships 280tin compounds (organotins) 44
titanium 44
titanium dioxide 383
coatings 492
tobramycin 88
toilets 452
tonometers 454
total viable counts (TVC) 396
Toxoplasma 157, 164, 165, 166
Toxoplasma gondii 156, 157, 160, 164, 167, 168, 170
oocysts 162, 164, 166
tragacanth 394
training in infection control 544
trans-1,2-diaminocyclohexane-NNN′N′-tetraacetic
acid (CDTA) 39, 40, 40–41
transcriptional analysis 98
transferrin 41, 72, 73
transmissible degenerative encephalopathies (TDEs)
see transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
(TSEs)
transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME) 209
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs)
208–224, 209, 446
agent characteristics 210–212
disease-causing agent 210–211
prion strain variation 211–212
chemical inactivation 219–223
acids and bases 219–220, 220alkylating agents 220–221
chaotropes 223
detergents 221
605
Index
halogens 221
organic solvents 221–222
oxidizing agents 222–223
oxidizing salts 223
proteolytic enzymes 223
sodium hydroxide 220
decontamination 213–216
in vivo models 214, 215
temperature 213–214
test methods 214–216, 215
dentistry 540–541
epidemiology 208
future perspectives 223–224
inactivation methods 216–223
chemical see above
physical see below
parallels with other protein-precipitating diseases
224, 224physical inactivation 216–219
dry heat 217
gamma and UV irradiation 216–217
microwave irradiation 217
moist-heat (steam) sterilization 217–219,
218, 219, 219survival in the environment 212
transmission 212–213
dentistry 537
virino theory 211
Tremell1 150
triazines 49
3,4’,5-tribromosalicylanilide (Tribromsalan) 44
tributyltin acetate 43
tributyltin benzoate 44
tributyltin oxide 44, 44trichloramine 482
trichloro-s-triazinetrione 481
trichlorocarbanilide 44, 45
trichloroisocyanuric acid 33, 34
Trichophyton asteroides, Dantoin 46
Trichophyton gypseum
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
Trichophyton inguinale
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
Trichophyton interdigitale
DHA 16
Dowicil 200 49
Trichophyton mentagrophytes 143, 144
ozone 148
salicylanilide 45
surfactants 149
Trichophyton rubrum
salicylanilide 45
Trichophyton tonsurans
salicylanilide 45
Trichophyton verrucosum 143
Trichophyton spp., parabens 144
Trichosporon 150
triclosan 3, 72, 98, 149
antimicrobial surfaces 489–490
bacterial population 113
effect on enzymes 100
environment 231, 232
FabI inhibition 95
hand hygiene products 419
resistance mechanism 109
skin reaction 433
transcriptome response 101
triethylene tetraamine 72
trihalomethanes (THMs) 482
3-(trimethoxysily) propyloctadecyldimethyl
ammonium chloride 22
triphenylmethane dyes 30, 30
triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) reduction by
bacteria 242
triphenyltin hydroxide 44
1,3,5-tris(2-hydroxyethyl)-s-triazine (Grotan) 49,
49
Triton 720 23
Triton X-100 24
tuberculosis 541
tunnel washer 472
Tweens 22, 23
twin chain quaternaries 22
typhus 3
ultrahigh pressure homogenization (UHPH)
373–375
ultrasound activated release of antimicrobial agents
493
ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) 54
ultraviolet radiation 3, 294–295, 299–300
decontamination technologies 583
effect on bacterial spores 301–302
protozoa 167–168
recreational water venues 481
repair mechanisms 300–301
sensitivity to 300
survival curves following 300, 300
target site and inactivation 300
undecanoic acid (undecylenic acid) 13, 15
United Kingdom
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Regulations (COSHH) 471
Department of Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs (DEFRA) 179
Department of Health 538
Hazardous Waste Regulations 474
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act (HSAWA) 471
Health and Social Care Act 2008 Code of Practice
474
Medical Devices Directorate 286, 288
Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory
Agency (MHRA) 464, 501, 570
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
(MAFF) 182
National Health Service Estates, Health Technical
Memoranda (HTMs) 280
United States of America
Antimicrobial Division (AD) 269
Department of Agriculture (USDA) 269
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA)
248, 269, 270
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA) 269, 270, 274
Food and Drug Administration 135–136, 179,
237, 248, 252, 270, 299, 311, 372, 396
Center for Devices and Radiological Health
(CDRH) 270
Quality System Requirement 415
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) 269, 270
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) 538
Offi ce of Pesticide Programs (OPP) 269, 270
Antimicrobial Division (AD) 270
Biopesticides and Pollution Prevention
Division (BPPD) 270
Registration Division (RD) 270
Pesticide Registration Improvement Act (PRIA)
269
see also Environmental Protection Agency (US);
US anitmicrobial pesticide regulation
universal precautions 472
urea formaldehyde 52, 52
urinals 452
urinary catheters 487–488
urinary tract infections (UTIs) 504
urofollitropin 179
urological devices, antimicrobial 508–509
US antimicrobial pesticides regulation 269–275
emerging pathogens 271
pesticide history 269–270
public health antimicrobial pesticide categories
270–271
disinfectants 271
sanitizers 271
sterilants 270
regulations 248
vaccinia virus 182, 419
mercuric chloride and p-chloromercuribenzoate
198
QACs 22
vaginal specula 454
van Leeuwenhock, Antonie 2
vancomycin resistant Enterococcus (VRE) 446, 488,
572
in dentistry 541, 542
diphenylurea (carbanilide) 45
vancomycin445
vanillic acid esters 17
Vannella 170
Vantocil 20
structure 19
vapor hydrogen peroxide (VHP) technology 317
vapor-phase gaseous disinfectants see gaseous
disinfectants
vapor-phase oxidants 378–380
VAPROX® cartridge 317
variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) 208–209,
210, 211, 212, 450, 537, 540–541
varicella zoster virus (VZV) keratitis 533
vegetative bacteria, microbicide susceptibility
580–581
ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) 504
viable-but-non-culturable (VBNC) cells 80, 90
vinegar 1, 13, 14
viral hemorrhagic fevers 450
virino theory of prion diseases 211
virolysins 552
virucidal activity 178–199
effi cacy 183–186, 184–186evaluation 179–183
approved tests 182–183
bacteriophage test systems 181, 183
carrier methods 181, 182
Index
606
dialysis 180
gel fi ltration 180
mammalian cell culture systems 180
plaque-suppression tests 181, 182
suspension tests 181–182
testing methods 181–182
tests 180–181, 181
ultrafi ltration 180
virus detection 180
virus enumeration 180
virus propagation 180
virus surrogates 180
heat 196
hygiene and 179
interruption of spread 178–179
irradiation 196
mechanisms of action 187–196, 187
relative humidity 179
resistance 196–198, 197
aggregation 197–198
multiplicity reactivation 198
viral adaptation 198
targets 187–188, 188
virucidal processes 196
virus interactions 189
virus structures 187–188, 188
viruses 79, 373
detection 180
enumeration 180
interactions 189
microbicide susceptibility 581
propagation 180
spread by tonometers 454
structures 187–188, 188
surrogates 180
effect of temperature 196
walls
hospital 451
of operating theater 451washbowls 452
washer extractors 472–473
washing machines in acute clinical areas 474
water
microbial growth 391–392, 391preservative effi cacy 394sterilization by fi ltration 3
water-intrusion tests 364
water parks 479–480
whirlpool baths 480
wine as cleansing agent 1
wipe test 232
wood tar as wound dressing 2
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information
System (WHMIS) 263, 264
World Health Organization (WHO) 419
Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care
424
Hand Hygiene Improvement Strategy 423,
423
recommendations for alcohol-based handrub
420
Xanthomonas species 572
XF-73 99
X-rays, in sterilization 3, 294, 295
energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDAX) 97,
193
xylitol 559
Yersinia enterocolitica, hydrostatic pressure–survivor
curves 374
zeolites 488–489
zidovudine (ZVT) 540
zinc chloride 2
zone of inhibition studies 523–524
z-value 279, 287