Human Cancer: Known Causes and Prevention by Organ SiteIARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans and Handbooks of Cancer Prevention

Oral cavity Alcoholic beveragesBetel quid with tobaccoBetel quid without tobaccoHuman papillomavirus type 16Quitting smokingSmokeless tobaccoTobacco smoking

Pharynx (oro-, hypo- and/or NOS)

Alcoholic beveragesBetel quid with tobaccoHuman papillomavirus type 16Quitting smokingTobacco smoking

Salivary gland X-radiation, gamma-radiation

Nasopharynx Epstein–Barr virusFormaldehydeSalted fish, Chinese-styleWood dust

Nasal cavity and paranasal sinus

Isopropyl alcohol manufacture using strong acids

Leather dustNickel compoundsRadium-226 and its decay productsRadium-228 and its decay productsTobacco smokingWood dust

Larynx Acid mists, strong inorganicAlcoholic beveragesAsbestos (all forms)Opium (consumption of)Quitting smokingTobacco smoking

Lung Acheson process (occupational exposure)

Aluminium productionArsenic and inorganic arsenic compoundsAsbestos (all forms)Beryllium and beryllium compoundsBis(chloromethyl)ether; chloromethyl methyl ether

(technical grade)Cadmium and cadmium compoundsChromium (VI) compoundsCoal, indoor emissions from household combustionCoal gasificationCoal-tar pitchCoke productionDiesel engine exhaustsGamma-radiationHaematite mining (underground)Iron and steel foundingMOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen mustard-procarbazine mixture)Nickel compoundsOpium (consumption of)Outdoor air pollutionOutdoor air pollution, particulate matter inPainter (occupational exposure as)PlutoniumQuitting smokingRadon-222 and its decay productsRubber manufacturing industrySilica dust, crystallineSootSulfur mustardTobacco smoke, secondhandTobacco smokingWelding fumesX-radiation

Oesophagus Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of alcoholic beverages

Alcoholic beveragesAbsence of excess body fatness (adenocarcinoma)Betel quid with tobaccoBetel quid without tobaccoQuitting smoking (squamous cell carcinoma)Smokeless tobaccoTobacco smokingX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Stomach Absence of excess body fatness (gastric cardia)Helicobacter pyloriQuitting smokingRubber manufacturing industryTobacco smokingX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Colon and rectum Alcoholic beveragesAbsence of excess body fatnessRegular physical activityProcessed meat (consumption of)Screening with gFOBTScreening with FITScreening with sigmoidoscopyScreening with colonoscopyTobacco smokingX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Liver(hepatocellular carcinoma)

Absence of excess body fatnessAflatoxinsAlcoholic beveragesEstrogen–progestogen contraceptivesHepatitis B virusHepatitis C virusPlutoniumThorium-232 and its decay productsTobacco smoking (in smokers and in

smokers’ children)Gall bladder Absence of excess body fatness

Thorium-232 and its decay products

Pancreas Absence of excess body fatnessQuitting smokingSmokeless tobaccoTobacco smoking

Upper aerodigestive tract Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of alcoholic beverages

Uterine cervix Conventional cytology screening Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero)Estrogen–progestogen contraceptivesHuman papillomavirus nucleic acid (DNA or mRNA)

testingHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1Human papillomavirus types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45,

51, 52, 56, 58, 59Liquid-based cytology screeningQuitting smokingTobacco smoking

Corpus uteri (endometrium)

Absence of excess body fatnessEstrogen menopausal therapyEstrogen–progestogen menopausal therapyTamoxifen

Ovary Absence of excess body fatnessAsbestos (all forms)Estrogen menopausal therapyTobacco smoking

Vagina Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero)Human papillomavirus type 16

Vulva Human papillomavirus type 16

Pleura or peritoneum (mesothelioma)

Asbestos (all forms)ErioniteFluoro-edenite

fibrous amphibole Painter (occupational

exposure as)

Biliary tract 1,2-DichloropropaneClonorchis sinensisOpisthorchis viverrini

Multiple sites (unspecified)

CyclosporineFission products, including strontium-90X-radiation, gamma-radiation (exposure in

utero)

All cancers combined

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin

Tonsil Human papillomavirus type 16

Anus Human immunodeficiency virus type 1Human papillomavirus type 16

Liver (angiosarcoma) Vinyl chloride

Monographs 1-130, Handbooks 1-18, updated 11 November 2021Agents classified as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) (in red)Interventions with sufficient evidence of a cancer-preventive effect (in green)

Group 1 agents with less than sufficient evidence in humans

2,3,4,7,8-PentachlorodibenzofuranPolychlorinated biphenyls with a WHO TEF (“dioxin-like”)4,4′-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA)Alpha- and beta-particle emittersAreca nutAristolochic acid Benzidine, dyes metabolized toBenzo[a]pyreneEthanol in alcoholic beveragesEthylene oxide EtoposideIonizing radiation (all types)Neutron radiationN′-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(N-nitroso-methylamino)-1-(3-

pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)Ultraviolet radiation

Skin (other malignant neoplasms)

Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compoundsAzathioprineCoal-tar distillationCoal-tar pitchCyclosporineMethoxsalen plus ultraviolet AMineral oils, untreated or mildly treatedShale oilsSolar radiationSootX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Skin (melanoma)

Polychlorinated biphenylsSolar radiationUltraviolet-emitting tanning devices

Brain and central nervous system

X-radiation, gamma-radiationAbsence of excess body fatness (meningioma)

EyeHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1Ultraviolet emissions from weldingUltraviolet-emitting tanning devices

Thyroid Absence of excess body fatnessRadioiodines, including iodine-131

(exposure during childhood and adolescence)X-radiation, gamma-radiation

Bone PlutoniumRadium-224 and its decay productsRadium-226 and its decay productsRadium-228 and its decay productsX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Penis Human papillomavirus type 16

Leukaemia/lymphoma

Absence of excess body fatness (multiple myeloma)

AzathioprineBenzeneBusulfan1,3-ButadieneChlorambucilCyclophosphamideCyclosporineEpstein–Barr virusEtoposide with cisplatin and bleomycinFission products, including strontium-90FormaldehydeHelicobacter pyloriHepatitis C virusHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirusLindaneMelphalanMOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen

mustard-procarbazine mixture)PentachlorophenolPhosphorus-32, as phosphateRubber manufacturing industrySemustine [1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-(4-

methylcyclohexyl)-1-nitrosourea, or methyl-CCNU]

ThiotepaThorium-232 and its decay productsTobacco smokingTreosulfanX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Urinary bladder Aluminium production4-AminobiphenylArsenic and inorganic arsenic compoundsAuramine productionBenzidineChlornaphazineCyclophosphamideMagenta production2-NaphthylamineOpium (consumption of)Painter (occupational exposure as)Quitting smokingRubber manufacturing industrySchistosoma haematobiumTobacco smokingortho-ToluidineX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Renal pelvis and ureter

Aristolochic acid, plants containing

PhenacetinPhenacetin, analgesic mixtures

containingTobacco smoking

Kidney Absence of excess body fatnessQuitting smokingTobacco smokingTrichloroethyleneX-radiation, gamma-radiation

Endothelium(Kaposi sarcoma)

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus

Breast Alcoholic beveragesAbsence of excess body fatness

(postmenopausal)DiethylstilbestrolEstrogen–progestogen contraceptivesEstrogen–progestogen menopausal

therapyMammography screening (50–74 years)Regular physical activityX-radiation, gamma-radiation