History of Forensic Science

Forensic Science

Application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system

The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve (separate) criminal cases

1235: Sung Tzu solved a murder by instructing all suspects to bring their sickles to one location. Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed.The book also offered advice on how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage).

Noticed no ashes in corpse, used pigs and set up experiment

Yi Yu Ji (A collection of criminal

cases)

1670First powerful microscope created by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

1784Lancaster, England, John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms' pocket.

Father of toxicology

1814: Scientific paper on poison published by Matthieu Orfila of Spain

•the first person to systematise the study and classification of toxic substances when he found traces of poison in the liver of a dead dog.

•Father of Forensic Toxicology

Identification of remains (odontology and anthropometry)

1879: System of measuring people by body measurements developed by Alphonse Bertillon of FranceKnown as Father of Criminal IdentificationMost accurate until 1900s when fingerprints are used

1850s-60sCrime photography was established Used to record criminals and crime scenes

Francis Henry GaltonFather of forensic fingerprint

identification1892: Published Fingerprints, which is used in the present day

Calvin Goddard

1889: Bullets were matched to gun they were fired from, the start of ballistics

Sherlock HolmesFictional character

Author: Scottish author and physician Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

Used forensics to solve crimes before police did

Brought forensics to public

Fingerprinting (cont’d)1902: First person was convicted on fingerprint evidence1903: NYC police began fingerprint files of arrested persons

Who is the main suspect (s)?

Someone was attacked yesterday. There was a 7.7cm sized bruise on the victim’s face. There were 24cm sized shoe prints spaced 38cm apart. Who is your main suspect?

1905

Theodore Roosevelt establishes FBI

Albert S. Osborn 1910Established process for questioning authenticity of documentsWrote Questioned DocumentsStill used today

Hans Gross 1893

Publishes “Criminal Investigation” Discusses all parts of criminalisticsStart of all forensic journals

1910 – Edmond LocardMed and law school backgroundConvinced police department in england to give him two assistant and attic for forensic evidence analysisStarted 1st forensics labLater started 1st forensic university

Locard’s exchange principle

When 2 objects come in contact with each other, a cross-transfer of materials occurs.

Leone Lattes 1915

Discovered the blood group of a dried blood stain

1923First crime lab established in conjunction with LA police by August Vollmer

1930

FBI sets up national fingerprint file in US

1950

American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) founded in ChicagoAlso introduction of computer chromatography, electrophoresis, and spectrophotometry

1974Electron microscopy of gunshot residue starts

1977Automated Fingerprint Identification System of computer scans introduced in FBI

Walter C. McCrone

Became the premier microscopist in forensics careerTaught thousands his analytical study method

1981

FBI opens “Forensic Science Research and Training Center”

Research new methodsTrain personnel

1984

Sir Alec Jeffreys develops DNA profiling tests1986 – DNA used to convict Colin Pitchfork of 2 murders and establish innocence of another suspect.

1986FBI starts databases on DNA, fingerprints, bullets, and shell casing

More emphasis on the evidence

Constitutional right to counsel has limited confessionsSatellites allow for sharing of information butNO national systems of forensics labs.Increase in drug crimes

1990s

Increase in DNA technologyIncrease in drug analysis outways DNA cases

FBI has largest crime lab in the worldDrug Enforcement Administration labsBureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and FirearmsUS Postal Inspection Service

Crime Labs

Some states have state crime labs and work with local crime labs to share info and complete testsNYC has the largest crime lab in the stateEngland and Canada have federal system of regional labs, that charge for services

Parts to a Crime Lab1. Physical Science Unit

• Examine trace evidence back at lab, compare crime scene evidence, chemists, physicists, geologists

2. Biology Unit

DNA profiling, compare wood and plants

3. Firearms UnitDetect residue, casings, shells, and firearms

4. Document Examination Unit

Determine authenticity of documents

5. Photography Unit

Photograph scene, use infrared, UV, x-rays

6. Toxicology UnitBodily fluids and organs for drugs and poisons

7. Latent Fingerprint Unit

Process and examine evidence of fingerprints

8. Polygraph UnitDetermine authenticity of witness testimony

9. Voiceprint analysis Unit

Tying the voice to the culprit

10. Crime-scene Investigation Unit

Collect and preserve evidence to be processed

11. Forensic Psychiatry

Human behavior to test competency, disorders and for criminal profiling

12. Forensic OdontologyDental evidence, bite marks

13. Forensic EngineeringAccident reconstruction, cause and origin of fire/explosions

14. Forensic Computer and Digital Analysis

Preserving digital information, cell phones, computers, etc.

15. Forensic AnthropologyUsing skeletal remains to identify information of victim

Scientific Method

1. Question: who committed the crime?

2. Hypothesis3. Experimentation4. If validated by experimentation, it

becomes scientific evidence

What type of evidence is the strongest?

PhysicalEyewitness accounts and confessions can be misconstruded

Determining admissibility of evidence

Must meet “Frye Standard”

1923

Frye vs. United StatesEvidence must widely accepted by the scientific community to be used at trial

1993

Daubert vs. Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals

Decided it was the judge’s decision to ensure that the testimony is based on evidence and proper techniques

Start of “Expert Testimony”

Someone who possesses a skill or knowledge not expected of the average layperson.Must ensure the testimony is impartial so as not to minimize significance of the analysis.