Post on 17-Dec-2015
A. OBJECTIVES -TLWDTAT;
Describe the history of educational finance Illustrate policy issues and operating
practices that support the emergence of “modern” education finance
Specify what distinguishes “modern” finance from past paradigms
THREE THINGS WILL BECOME APPARENT AS WE LOOK AT THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION
1. SCHOOLS HAVE INCREASINGLY TAKEN OVER ROLES THAT WERE ONCE THOSE OF THE FAMILY, CHURCH AND COMMUNITY
2. THE SCHOOL CONTINUES TO SERVE AS A FOCAL POINT FOR LARGER ISSUES OF SOCIETAL NEEDS.
3. THERE IS LITTLE CONSENSUS ON THE MOTIVES FOR SCHOOL REFORMS.
4 Peabody College Series. Copyright ©
Allyn & Bacon 2009
Education Finance’s Three Historic Phases
Phase 1: Building a School System Phase 2: Building a Scholarly Base Phase 3: Seeking Equality
COLONIAL ERA
OLD WORLD INFLUENCE 1. EDUCATION OF ARISTOCRACY ONLY
2. MANY WENT TO EUROPE FOR COLLEGE
3. INCREASINGLY BEGAN TO STAY IN U.S. AS COLLEGES OPENED
• HARVARD 1636, RUTGERS 1766, PRINCETON 1746
• MODELED AFTER OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE
Getting Started: the colonial models New England Purpose of schooling
– Achieve literacy for comprehension and interpretation of biblical scripture
– Preserve law & order– Benefit industry and the economy– Further the Declaration of Independence’s call
for equality and equity
New England
Massachusetts act of 1642– The colonists needed to be educated to understand the
written religious and secular codes of the colony– Required parents and masters to tend to the educational
requirements of the colony’s sons.– “The child is to be educated, not to advance his personal
interest, but because the state will suffer if he is not educated.”
– Sons and servants learned to read and understand religious principles while they received training in “learning and labor”
Boys (10-16) were also instructed in “ye exercise of arms, as small guns, halfe pikes, bowes & arrows”
Girls stayed home and learned household tasks and embroidery
Selectmen were to ascertain if parents and masters were attending to “training in learning and labor and other employment”
New England cont’d
Formalized, legislated commitment to providing education to citizens– Massachusetts’ Ye Olde Deluder Satan Act
(1647) to keep the devil away
Ye Olde Deluder Satan Act (1647)
• Settlement of > 50 hoiusrehods required to hire a reading teacher and pay him what citizens deemed appropriate
• Settlement of > 100 required to establish and support a grammar (secondary) school to prepare students for university attendance
• Property owners were taxed to fund these schools– Land was considered to be a a valid measure of wealth
• Towns were fined for non-compliance
New England cont’d
Schools – Compulsory– Lay controlled– Financed by levied property taxes
• Property was considered a valid measure of wealth
– Education for public good is foundation of the system
NEW ENGLAND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS TAUGHT BY ELDERLY HOWSWIFE OFTEN
A WIDOW AND WERE CALLED DAME SCHOOLS
FEW SUPPLIES AND TEXTBOOKS ACCEPT FOR THE NEW ENGLAND PRIMER WHICH COMBINED THE TEACHING OF READING WITH RELIGION, OBEDIANCE AND CITIZENSHIP
LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS
A. NOT COEDUCATIONAL
B. SONS OF ELITE
C. ENTERED AT EIGHT AND STUDIED THERE FOR 8 YEARS
D. STUDIED CLASSICS
Precedents Set
– Compulsory education– Lay controlled– Financed by levied property taxes
• Still pays the greatest percentage of local school budgets – Abbott effect?
– Education for public good is foundation of the system
AFRICAN AMERICAN EDUCATIONA. INFERIOR QUALITY
B. SEPARATE FROM MAINSTREAM PUBLIC SCHOOLS
C. ROBERTS V. CITY OF BOSTON1. 1846
2. SCHOOL COMMITTEE HAD THE RIGHT TO ESTABLISH SEPARATE EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES - PRECEDENT
MIDDLE COLONIES
MUCH MORE DIVERSE AND EDUCATION REFLECTED THAT DIVERSITY
A. QUAKERS - HUMANE EDUCATION
B. BEN FRANKLIN1. UTILITARIAN & SECULAR RATHER THAN
RELIGION & THE CLASSICS
2. PEOPLE SHOULD BETTER THEMSELVES THROUGH EDUCATION
FRANKLIN CONT.
3. HIS IDEAS FOR THE ACADEMY BECAME THE PROTOTYPE FOR PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE MID 19TH CENTURY
4. CURRICULUM SHOULD BE CONCERNED WITH MASTERYOF PROCESS AND NOTROTE LEARNING AND SHOULD INCLUDE READING WRITING PUBLIC SPEAKING ART AS A MEANS OF UNDERSTANDING CREATIVE
EXPRESSION UTILITARINAN SUBJECTS – MATH, HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY,
POLITICS, NATURAL HISTORY (BIOLOGY), FOREIGN LANGUAGES
The Middle Colonies
Purpose of schooling:– Develop a leadership class– Only the basics funded through property taxes– Churches and parents funded further education
Middle Colonies cont’d
Formalized, legislated commitment to providing education for some of its citizens– 1779 Bill for the More General Diffusion of
Knowledge• Gifted are educated through public monies from
grammar to university level
SOUTHERN COLONIES –
EDUCATION WAS FOR THE UPPER CLASS 1. TOOK PLACE AT HOME ON THE
PLANTATION
2. TUTORS
3. CLASSICAL STUDIES FOR BOYS
4. MUSIC AND DANCING FOR GIRLS
5. SONS WERE OFTEN SENT TO EUROPE OR NORTHERN COLLEGES TO FINISH THEIR EDUCATION
6. Slaves were not educated – it was a crime to do so after Nat Turner’s revolt
7. Only the basics funded through property taxes
8. Churches and parents funded further education
THOMAS JEFFERSON
1. BEST SAFEGUARD FOR DEMOCRACY WAS A LITERATE CITIZENRY
2. PROPOSED FOR VA. FREE PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR THREE YEARS TO STUDY READING, WRITING & ARITHMATIC
3. ALL COULD THEN ATTTEND A GRAMMER SCHOOL BY PAYING TUITION TO STUDY LATIN, GREEK, ENGLISH GARMMER, GEOGRAPHY & MATHEMATICS FOR 2 OR 3 YEAR
4. 1 STUDENT FROM EACH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COULD ATTEND FREE
JEFFERSON, CONT.
5. THE BEST WOULD BE SELECTED TO CONTINUE STUDIES FOR 4 MORE YEARS.
6. EACH GARMMER SCHOOL WOULD THEN SELECT 10 OF THE BEST STUDENTS TO ATTEND WILLIAM & MARY FOR FREE.
7. HIS PROPOSALS WERE REJECTED AND EDUCATION REMAINED A PRIVATE MATTER FOR YEARS IN THE SOUTH
Constitution
Silent on Education 10TH AMENDMENT -
“THE POWERS NOT DELEGATED TO THE UNITED STATES BY THE CONSTITUTION, NOR PROHIBITED BY IT TO THE STATES, ARE RESERVED TO THE STATES RESPECTIVELY, OR TO THE PEOPLE.”
Federal Funding
Land Ordinance of 1785 – a part of the each new township in the Western Territories (16th section) to be sold to fund education.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also provided land grants for education and called for each state to support education
Followed by a number of similar acts
INDUSTRIALIZATION
1. 1820-1860 industrial revolution begins
2. Migrants and immigrants flock to urban areas to work in factories
3. Little education for the masses
4. High level of illiteracy
HORACE MANN
A. Mass., 1837
B. Lobbied for a state board of ed.
C. The first secretary (11years)
D. Worked for the establishment of free public education
E. Established first normal school in Lexington, Mass - 1839
OPPOSITION TO SCHOOL TAXES
1. PEOPLE WITHOUT CHILDREN
2. PRIVATE SCHOOL PARENTS
3. CATHOLICS THOUGHT THEY WERE PROTESTANT PLOT – STARTED THEIR OWN
– BY 1860 SUPPORT FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLING BECAME PREVALENT
– SECONDARY WAS FOR PRIVATE ACADEMIES
– EDUCATION FOR GIRLS WAS BECOMING MORE PREVALENT
Morrill Act -1862
Authorized the states to use public land grants to establish and maintain agricultural & mechanical colleges
28 yrs. Later Morrill Act II supported college teaching
Early Taxation Patterns
By 1890, all states in the union had tax supported public education.
About 25% supported ½ or more of the costs
Other sources (gifts, lotteries, bequests, etc.) began to vanish as taxation took over. (Oklahoma)
US Dept. of Ed.
Established by congress in 1867 Downgraded to Office of education in 1868 Became part of the Department of Health
Education and Welfare (HEW) 1953 Became a cabinet post in 1979 Reagan tried to downgrade it again
URBANIZATION
Turn of the century Large influx from southern & eastern
Europe Settled in cities to work in factories Schools began to teach socialization and
hygiene
Post WWI
Smith-Hughes Act – 1917– Provided the states with funds for vocational
education– Vocational Rehabilitation Act to help returning
soldiers – 1918– Act to Provide for Further Educational Facilities
– 1919 – Gov’t could sell surplus machine tools to schools for 15% of their original cost to acquire equipment for “real world” training
PROGRESSIVE IMPETUS ( 1900 – 1914)
1. JOHN DEWEYA. MEANINGFUL, INTERESTING
LEARNING
B. ACTIVE LEARNING – HANDS ON
C. INTEGRATION OF SUBJECT MATTER
D. TEACHER AS FACILITATOR OF LEARNING
G. STANLEY HALL
A. CHILD CENTERED REFORM
B. EDUCATION MUST TEND TO THE NEEDS AND INTERESTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD
EDWARD L. THORNDIKE
A. SOCIAL ENGINEERING REFORM
B. DETERMINE ABILITIES AND TALENTS THEN DEVELOP THEM
THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL
1. PRIOR TO 1875 RELATIVELY FEW STUDENTS ATTENDED PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL MOST IN PRIVATE ACADEMIES
2. COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS AND THE RIGHT TO LEVY SCHOOL TAXES LED TO A PROLIFERATION OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS BY TURN OF CENTURY
PROBLEM OF WHAT TO TEACH
A. CLASSICS Vs. MODERN SUBJECTSB. COLLEGE ENTRANCE
REQUIREMENTS DIFFEREDC. PREPARATION FOR LIFE Vs.
TRADITIONAL EDUCATIOND. CORE Vs. INDIVIDUALIZED
CURRICULUM
COMMITTEE OF TEN –
A. FORMED BY NEA (1892)
B. CLARIFY THE PURPOSE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
C. CHAIRED BY CHARLES ELIOT – PRES. HARVARD
D. PURPOSE TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR THE DUTIES OF LIFE
E. MODERN ACADEMIC COURSES BE AWARDED SAME STATURE AS TRADITIONAL
COMMITTEE OF TEN
F. CREATED FIVE MODEL CURRICULA
1. CLASSICAL AND MODERN LANGUAGES
2. ENGLISH
3. MATHEMATICS
4. HISTORY
5. SCIENCE
COMMITTEE OF TEN
G. RECOMMENDATIONS ACCEPTED BY NEA’S COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS – ALL STUDENTS SHOULD STUDY THIS CORE OF SUBJECTS
H. CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING - ADOPTED THE SAME CORE CURRICULUM – CARNEGIE UNITS
I. MISSING WAS ANY THOUGHT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.
CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (1918)
A. PROGRESSIVE RESPONSE TO COMMITTEE OF TEN
B. NEA’S COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS
CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONMAIN GOALS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
1. HEALTH
2. COMMAND OF FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES
3. WORTHY HOME-MEMBERSHIP
4. VOCATION
5. CITIZENSHIP
6. WORTHY USE OF LEISURE
7. ETHICAL CHARACTER
CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION HELPED IN DESIGNING EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMS FOR NON-COLLEGE BOUND
Depression 1930s
Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation – distributed food for school lunches
National Youth Administration and Civilian Conservation Corps were established to provide work and training for young people
Public Works Administration provided grants and loans for school construction
POST WORLD WAR TWO
1. GI BILL OF RIGHTSA. PROVIDED 16 MILLION OPPORTUNITY
FOR HIGHER ED.
B. RESULTS OF ARMY TESTING
C. JUST REWARD
D. AVOID MASS UNEMPLOYMENT
E. OPENED UP HIGHER EDUCATION – ACCESS
F. CRITICS – STANDARDS WILL FALL
POST SPUTNIK (1957)
A. NATIONAL COMMITMENT TO IMPROVE EDUCATION PARTICULARLY SCIENCE AND MATH
B. NATIONAL DEFENSE EDUCATION ACT (NDEA - 1958) – funding for math, science, foreign language
C. RETURN TO EARLIER STANDARDS – IF THEY EVER EXISTED.
Manufactured Crises?
US could have launched first Eisenhower did not want to launch first due to
fear of starting a war with USSR Khrushchev & China propaganda that US
schools were inferior & communism was better Scientific community used the opportunity to
convince congress to increase funding for education and research
Eisenhower got on board in a speech on November 13, 1957
Made claims that were exaggerated about Soviet education & called for– Nation-wide testing of high school students– Incentives for high aptitude students to study science– Programs to stimulate good quality teaching of math
and science– Measures to increase the output of qualified teachers
MID 1960’S
A. SHIFT BACK TO PROGRESSIVE
B. VIET NAM – EVERYTHING IN QUESTION
C. HIGHER ED CRISIS
D. PROLIFERATION OF ELECTIVES
3. MID 1960’S
E. SIGNIFICANT EXPERIMENTATION1. OPEN CLASSROOMS
2. NEW MATH
3. FLEX-MOD
4. STUDENT CENTERED EDUCATION
5. SUMMERHILL
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 1965)
– funded primary and secondary education, while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum
– the funds were authorized for – professional development– instructional materials– resources to support educational programs, and– parental involvement
– Title 1– Provides supplemental school program grants for
children of low income families
Education Consolidation and Improvement Act (ECIA) 1982 Changed Title I to Chapter I Eliminated many categorical programs i.e.
Title IVB Replaced with block grants
Hawkins-Stafford School Improvement Amendments 1988 ECIA was repealed Created a program for G & T students, HS
basic skills, dropout prevention, etc.
Goals 2000:Educate America Act & Improving America’s Schools Act -1994
Reauthorized ESEA
Help states meet 8 goals determined to be in the National Interest
Provide funding for Title I and other compensatory programs (Reading First)
President Clinton - 1997
State of the Union called for an educational bridge to the 21st Century with a 10-point program that went no where with congress,
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No Child Left Behind
The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA).
Signed by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002.
Signified a clear shift in federal role toward policy maker and reformer.
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NCLB (continued)
Three goals of NCLB:– Closing the achievement gap for disadvantaged students.– Improving the preparation of teachers and increasing their
compensation so as to have every classroom in America staffed by a “highly qualified” teacher by the end of the 2005–2006 school year.
– Instituting closely monitored systems of accountability for students, teachers, and schools.
NCLB mentions research 116 times, giving rise to controversy over the operational definition of scientifically-based research.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
1. PLESSY V. FERGUSON - 1896A. LAW OF SEPARATE BUT EQUAL
B. REMAINED A GUIDING PRINCIPLE OF LAW UP THROUGH THE 1950’S
C. NAACP BEGAN TO FIGHT FOR INTEGRATION IN THE 1930’S
2. BROWN V. TOPEKA
3. OTHER CASES
4. DE FACTO V. DE JURE
Developmental Stages of School Finance
1. Emphasis on Local Responsibility
2. Early Grants and Allocations
3. Foundation Program Concept Emergence
4. Foundation Program Concept Refinement
5. Power Equalization
6. Shift of Emphasis and Influence
Emphasis on Local Responsibility
School were first established on a local basis and finance should be a community problem
Original colonies used rate bill or tuition Early on towns in New England began to use
property taxes to help finance education Tax support was used in some southern and mid-
Atlantic states to support pauper schools Permissive property tax funding graduallybecame
mandatory during the late 1700s to early 1800s
Westward expansion increased the number of school districts and property taxes became the mainstay of finance
By 1880 all states were using property taxes in many cases supplemented by revenue from land grants and other sources
Problems occurred due to varying community wealth
Emphasized by the Great Depression in the 1930s
Early Grants and Allocations By the turn of the 20th century, most schools
acquired their current structure (12 grades, 9 month year)
Translated into greater costs for taxpayers Cities were more able to raise funds than rural
areas States had to step in to assist Flat grants – uniform amount of funds per pupil,
per teacher
Concerns with flat grants– Increase state funding could lead to more state
control– Funds could be used to supplant rather than to
supplement local funding– Disequalizing
Foundation Program Concept Emergence
(1920s) Each district must provide a legislated level
of educated defined as cost per pupil Rich districts receive no aid Poor districts receive the amount of aid to
reach the foundation Districts may tax themselves to spend over
the foundation
Foundation Program Concept Refinement(1920s & 30s)
Minimum aid developed for districts that received no state funds under foundation
Question of recapture Grants used in conjunction with foundation Many variations experimented with Districts of different funding capacities
continued to have unequal ability to exceed the foundation
Power Equalization
Aimed at equalization of educational opportunity
Districts would be able to spend the same at the level that they wish to tax
State makes up the difference
Shift of Emphasis and Influence
Growth of suburbs The influence of the courts Search for an equitable, efficient system of
school funding Call for greater accountability as funding to
cities increases Search for alternative systems of education
Which of These Inputs Matter?
Books in the Library Teacher salary Books in the library Number of computer stations Class Size Racial mix
Which hypothesis is correct?
There is a strong positive relationship between school quality and student achievement
Or There is a very weak relationship between
school characteristics and student outcomes» Sadovnik
Equality Of Educational Opportunity The Coleman Report 1966 SES mattered most Peer group associations matter Other inputs were weak
Top New Jersey High Schools 2008: By Rank http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_sc
hools/highschoolrankings/top-new-jersey-high-schools-by-rank.html
NJ Monthly -All High Schools.84
Scattergram
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NJ Monthly -Minus Magnets.89
Scattergram
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National Commission on Excellence in Education. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform.(1983)
“… THE EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF OUR SOCIETY ARE PRESENTLY BEING ERODED BY A RISING TIDE OF MEDIOCRITY THAT THREATENS OUR VERY FUTURE AS A NATION AND A PEOPLE. WHAT WAS UNIMAGINABLE A GENERATION AGO HAS BEGUN TO HAPPEN – OTHERS ARE MATCHING AND SURPASSING OUR EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS.
IF AN UNFRIENDLY POWER HAD ATTEMPTED TO IMPOSE ON AMERICA THE MEDIOCRE EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE THAT EXISTS TODAY, WE MIGHT WELL HAVE VIEWED IT AS AN ACT OF WAR. AS IT STANDS, WE HAVE ALLOWED THIS TO HAPPEN TO OURSELVES.”
EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS RESEARCH
� SAFE ORDERLY ENVIRONMENT
� A CLEAR SCHOOL MISSION
� STRONG PRINCIPAL – INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP
� CLIMATE OF HIGH EXPECTATIONS
� A CONCENTRATION ON INSTRUCTIONAL TASKS
� MONITORING OF STUDENT PROGRESS
� POSITIVE HOME SCHOOL RELATIONS