Facades and roofs 2014 15

Presentations 14/15

Contents 00.00

Introduction 00.00 Guidelines 00

Fundamentals & Bibliography 01

Façades 00.00 Traditional Façades 01

Precast Concrete Façades 02 GRCs, GRPs and Metal Panel Façades 03

Brick Veneer Façades 04 External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems 05

Ventilated Façades 06 Windows and Glazed Curtain Walls 07

Roofs 00.00 Pitched and Flat Roofs. Fundamentals 08

Pitched Roofs (I). Ceramic and Concrete Tile Roofs 09 Pitched Roofs (II). Slate and Flat Tile Roofs 09

Pitched Roofs (III). Metal Roofs 09 Flat Roofs 10

A short caveat

This is not intended to be a set of notes. On the contrary, it is a simple summary of the images and references used for this year’s classes. These images and references are used in our presentations to illustrate concepts, but also to underline errors. Thus, details and photographs included do not always seek to describe the ideal, but to show common mistakes.

00.01 l Guidelines

Only for Group 1 - Facades and Roofs

Submissions related to this subject will meet the following standards in content and form:

1. All exercises will be submitted in DIN A3 format. Official ETSEM paper, or any other, will be admitted. Both sides of the DIN A3 shall be used; many practices can be solved on a single sheet.

2. All sheets shall include a duly completed official slipcase. If official ETSEM paper is not used, the case included in these guidelines shall be included -cut and pasted, printed or reproduced by any means.

The slipcase will appear, as in the ETSEM oficial paper, in the upper right part of the DIN A3.

3. Exercises will be submitted simply bent, as shown in the picture, with the slipcase on the outside. If more than two DIN A3 are necessary, they will be stapled only. No plastic covers, album titles or folders will be accepted.

4. Hand drawings are compulsory, and so are DIN standard graphic conventions. A summary is presented in the following table:

SLIPCASE

Brickwork Hollow brickwork

Metal sections for plasterboard

plasterboard plates ceramic coatings

stone coverings

Concrete structures Steel structures

sawn Timber

glulam Aluminium profiles

Isolation

waterproof sheets VapoUr barriers

DELTA drainS

Air barriers PROTECTIVE Felts

00.02 l On Construction Details

Construction details must be, above all, readable. Standard

graphic codes are a way of making details readable, but so are colour, stroke type or technical specifications. The use of specific building site constructive sections, both vertical and horizontal, is essential to achieve a good construction quality.

It is also essential to understand that there are no unique, single constructive solutions: in most cases, many different solutions are possible. A correct building planning must include details to help us choose, among the many possible, the optimal solution.

Fig. 00.02.01. Detail of window. Staff accommodation, Crawley and District Hospital. Sussex. Architect’s Working Details, vol 11. Fig. 00.02.02. Architect’s Working Details, vol 11.

Fig. 00

. Different solutions for a gable of a slate roof.

Session 01

Fundamentals

01 l Fundamentals 00.00

Introduction 00.00 Skin and Shelter 01.01

Functional Requirements 01.02

Internal and External Conditions 00.00 Coping with Climate 01.03

User Comfort 01.04

Structural Performance 00.00 The Structure of the Façade 01.05

Waterproofing 00.00 Covering and Waterproofing 01.06

Thermal Performance 00.00 Insulation 01.07

Heat Flow and Vapour Diffusion 01.08 Solar Radiation 01.09

Others 00.00 Building Processes 01.10

Sound and Noise 01.11

Bibliography 00.00

01 .01 l Skin and Shelter

Fig. 01.01.01. Irish Cottage with Thatched Roof. Photo: iidudu.com

functions that a facade serves: it defines

the architectural appearance of the building, provides views to the inside and outside, absorbs push and pull forces from wind loads, bears its self-weight as well as that of other building components. The facade allows sunlight to penetrate into the building while usually providing protection from the sun at the same time. It resists the penetration of rainwater and has to handle humidity from within and without. The facade provides insulation against heat, cold and noise and can facilitate energy generation” (Knaack 2007, 36).

“The building envelope, as it provides protection against the weather and against enemies, and for storage provisions, represents the primary and most important reason for building. In contrast to structures such as bridges, towers, dams or cranes, buildings contain rooms whose creation and utilisation must be regarded as intrinsic elements of human civilisation, closely linked with the necessities forced upon us by climate” (Herzog 2004, 09).

“The facade separates the usable interior space from the outside world. Before addressing today's facade constructions we would like to call to mind the different

Fig. 01.01.02. A bubble, a minimum separation between two spaces.

Skin - Protective & regulatory functions:

Resistance Pressure Control Temperature Control Humidity Control Light Control etc.

Outside – Local conditions

Pressure A1 Temperature A1

Humidity A1 Solar Radiation A1

Inside - Requirements Pressure A2

Temperature A2 Humidity A2

Solar Radiation A1 etc.

“If we see the facade as the human body's "third skin" (after that of the body itself and our clothing), the analogy of the design objective becomes clear: the fluctuations of the external climatic conditions on our bodies have to be reduced by each of these functional layers in turn in order to guarantee a constant body temperature of approximately 37"C. However, the climatic conditions also give rise to requirements that cannot be exclusively allocated to either side; rather, they are due to the difference between inside and outside. They lead to mechanical loads on the materials of the façade and the

construction details, and are primarily the result of temperature, moisture and pressure differentials. Such loads must be accommodated by suitable means such as expansion joints and flexible connections” (Herzog 2004, 19).

Recommended Reading: Herzog, T. et al (2004) Façade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, Basel. p09-25. Knaack, U. et al (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, Basel. p07-13, p36-38.

01.02 l Functional Requirements

Fig. 01.02.01. General requirements

Fig. 01.02.02. Structural Requirements

A. Internal and external conditions

“The façade separates the usable interior space from the outside world. […] it defines the architectural appearance of the building, provides views to the inside and outside, absorbs push and pull forces from wind loads, bears its self-weight as well as that of other building components. The façade allows sunlight to penetrate into the building while providing protection from the sun at the same time. It resists the penetration of rainwater and has to handle humidity from within and without. The façade provides insulation against heat, cold and noise and can facilitate energy generation”.

(Knaak 2007, 36)

So main functional requirements are structural performance (A), waterproofing (B) and thermal insulation (C), but also permeability with respect to air, permeability with respect to light –or rather, radiation- or sound insulation. B. Actions. Structural performance

“The façade must safely withstand the forces to wich it is subjected and transmit these to the (primary) loadbearing structure. Every façade design, even a non-loadbearing one, must be conceived and designed as a secondary loadbearing structure to carry the following loads:

· Vertical loads: dead loads, special loads (e.g. temporary scaffolds), imposed loads (e.g. persons), snow and ice loads [and also the self-weight of the façade components, of course].

· Horizontal loads: wind load (pressure and suction generally occur in the ratio 8:5, but near the edges suction loads can be considerably greater), imposed loads (e.g. impacts) [as we are including, in our subject, the relationship with the ground, ground loads and ground water pressure should be included in this list].

· Restraint forces, caused by thermal or moisture-related volume changes”.

(Herzog 2004, 29)

Fig. 01.02.02. Structural performance

Fig. 01.02.02. Waterproof performance

Fig. 01.02.04. Thermal performance

C. Waterproofing

Our facades and roofs must deal with water, whether it comes from rain, from condensation or from the soil. There are several ways to do so:

“The uppermost layer of the roof construction must protect the building from precipitation of all kinds. There are basically two ways of doing so: either the water is drained away from the building via the quickest route, or it is intercepted before being drained away from a suitable point. The first of these principles in the fundamental one behind the pitched roof, the second is the principle of the flat roof. There are various ways of achieving drainage”.

(Schunck 2003, 105)

The image shows waterproofing layers in flat and pitched roofs, but also those areas where the building envelope is in contact with the soil. It also shows drainage and piping systems.

D. Thermal performance

“According to ASHRAE (formerly the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers) thermal comfort is defined as follows: ‘Thermal comfort is that condition of mind, which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment’. […] DIN EN ISO 7730 specifies thermal comfort in form of a predicted percentage of dissatisfied people, measured in PPD (predicted percentage of dissatisfied). For light summer clothing, the minimum number of dissatisfied is reached at +25 °C”. [still we will consider a comfortable room air temperature that between 20-23 ºC]

(Bilow 2012, 175-176)

Thermal insulation is only a small part of the building user’s comfort. In its analysis aspects such as shading or ventilation should be taken into account

Recommended Reading: Herzog, T. et al (2004) Façade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, Basel. p27-29. Knaack, U. et al (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, Basel. p70-84.

01.03 l Coping with Climate

“The prevailing local climate has always

influenced building methods or architecture in general. It is therefore understandable that building typologies found around the world are very divers. Humans created protection from the climate by building shelters that were adapted to the climatic conditions they were in. The home, often very simple in its construction, and storage areas for food and other live-sustaining goods often of higher priority to the community attest to this principle […]

Climate, a term derived from the Ancient Greek word for inclination, describes the entirety of the weather conditions and temperatures, observed over a longer period of time in a particular region. It describes the interaction of atmospheric conditions and weather phenomena at the earth’s surface in the characteristic progression of a particular location or region (climate zone).

Climate can be further subdivided into megathermal, mesothermal and microthermal climates. The megathermal climate describes conditions observed over a wide area. A region can be determined by its position on the grid of longitudes and latitudes. Megathermal climates are seen as the basics of climate research and are the main focus of a climate analysis. Generally, the world climate is also a part of the megathermal

Humid continental

Mediterranean Dry Mid-latitudeMarine West Coast

HumidSubtropical

EcuatorialRain Forest

TropicalMonsoon

Trade Wind Litoral

Tropical Savanna

Dry Tropical

Fig. 01.03.01. Strahler’s Classification of Climates . Low Latitude Climates.

Fig. 01.03.02. Mid Latitude Climates. Fig. 01.03.03. High Latitude & other

Climates. Subarctic Marine

Subarctic

Tundra Ice Cap Highland Climates

1. Oceánico costero 2. Oceánico de transición 3. Climas de montaña 4. Mediterráneo continentalizado subhúmedo. 5. Mediterráneo continentalizado de inviernos fríos 6. Mediterráneo continentalizado de inviernos cálidos 7. Mediterráneo cálido de interior. 8. Mediterráneo costero. 9. Mediterráneo árido y subárido. 10. Subtropical.

Fig. 01.03.04. Climate subdivisions in Spain, as described by the Instituto Geográfico Nacional. Fig. 01.03.05. Mesothermal climates.

climate but local occurrences such as the monsoon or the earth-spanning jet streams are also called megathermal climate elements. In terms of dimension, occurrences spanning up to 500 kilometres or 310 miles are considered megathermal climates. Mesothermal climates describe local climates or area climates; thus the climate of a particular city can be called a mesothermal climate. In terms of dimension, mesothermal climates are usually climates that span several hundred metres to a few hundred kilometres. However, the transition from mega- to mesothermal climate is fluent.

Microthermal climate describes the climate immediately around us. It deals with the local conditions on the smallest scale. Thus, the shading of buildings or vegetation as well as wind factors caused by the geographic situation, e.g. hillside or valley location, determine the microthermal climate. Microthermal climates can range from just a few metres up to several hundred metres. Contrary to the more permanent macrothermal climate, the microthermal climate is subject to constant changes and can also be altered by vegetal or building related activity”.

(Bilow 135, 2012).

Recommended reading: Bilow, M. (2012) International Façades. Climate Related Optimized Façade Technologies. ABE – TuDelft. Rotterdam. P39-135. Neila, F. (2012) Los climas de latitudes bajas. Instituto Juan de Herrera. Madrid. p03-16.

01.04 l User Comfort

Fig. 01.04.01. Psychrometric chart with overlapping of function and location. Las Vegas (as in Bilow 2012, 134)

Fig. 01.04.02. Classification of climate zones in a psychrometric chart (as in Bilow 2012, 131)

“The specifications of temperature

ranges for rooms and buildings are regulated by many local legislative directives. Temperatures should always be evaluated in relation to the outside […] A difference of 5-6 °C […] compared to the outside temperature has proven to be a viable definition whereby room temperatures of more than 26°C should be avoided. […] users show higher acceptance of the room temperature if the temperature can be regulated by operable windows. Users are typically less satisfied if the temperature is controlled by a central air-conditioning unit that they cannot regulate.

“Room air humidity plays an equally important role as the thermal aspects. The human body senses the climate as muggy at water vapour contents of approximately 14g. Since air absorbs water vapour depending on the tempera-ture, we need to differentiate between absolute and relative humidity. A com-fortable level of R.H. lies between 30 and 65%; A.H. can be easily derived in a chart. At 25°C, for example, the chart shows R.H. at 50% and A.H. at 10g/kg. If the temperature drops relative humidity rises, whereas absolute humidity remains constant”

(Bilow 2012, 207)

The method of calculating the comfort level according to DIN EN ISO 7730 enables consultants to estimate the user comfort level depending on the room temperature, the activity performed and clothing worn. This method of calculation provides a predicted mean user rating, from which a predicted percentage of dissatisfied users can be derived. The method is based on the thermal balance of the human body […] as well as air temperature, mean radiation tempera-ture, relative air flow and humidity. The goal is to strive for a percentage of dissatisfied users lower than 10%”

(Knaak 2007, 72)

Fig. 01.04.03-05. Parameters influencing thermal comfort. (Knaak 2007, 70-73) Fig. 01.04.06. Comfort range depending on room air temperature and the surface temperature of the room enclosing surfaces. (Knaak 2007, 71) Fig. 01.04.07. Possible ventilation schemes in a building. (VV.AA. 2007. Un Vitruvio ecológico. Gustavo Gili. Barcelona, Spain, p.16-17)

“The human body not only absorbs and emits heat through the air by convection, […] but is also influenced by the surrounding surfaces through radiation. Therefore heat transfer by both convection and radiation needs to be considered when trying to achieve thermal comfort. Because of these heat transfer mechanisms, temperature is specified as ‘felt temperature’ or ‘room temperature’. This measurement corres-ponds approximately with the mean value of the air temperature in the room and the mean radiation temperature from the enclosing surface areas.”

(Knaak 2007, 71)

”Ventilation is very important for our sense of comfort. The room climate that a user is surrounded by is influenced by the presence or absence of ventilation. Depending on the activity level, a human body can dissipate several litres of water per day into the room air in form of vapour. Exhaling raises the CO2 content of the air and the temperature level. The CO2 content should be reduced to 0.1-0.15 % max. Ventilation regulates the temperature as well as the humidity in a room; exhausted air is replaced and odours and harmful substances carried away”

(Bilow 2012, 198)

Recommended Reading: Bilow, M. (2012) International Façades. Climate Related Optimized Façade Technologies. ABE – TuDelft. Rotterdam. P185-214. Knaack, U. et al (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, Basel. p70-84. Herzog, T. et al (2004) Façade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, Basel. p21-23.

01.05 l The structure of the façade

Fig. 01.05.01. Schematic diagram of a loadbearing façade Fig. 01.05.02. Schematic diagram of a standing façade

Fig. 01.05.03. Schematic diagram of a suspended façade · Primary structure (shell of building)

forming the main loadbearing structure of the building. · Secondary structure, which is the loadbearing structure for the façade and constitutes the connecting element between levels one and three. · Infill elements.

The primary purpose of this assembly lies in the separation of the above mentioned functional requirements that the façade needs to fulfil. The functions are distributed among several different components. This arrangement simpli-fies the connection of individual façade components with each other and

provides options to compensate for moving parts.

The primary structure takes on the loadbearing function of the entire building and transfers the loads from the façade to the foundation.

The secondary structure comprises the loadbearing structure of the façade. It transfers its loads onto the primary structure. […] Of course there are also façade constructions where primary and secondary structures form one component, i.e. both are is part of the loadbearing structure of the building.”

(Knaack 2007, 37)

“Standing and suspended facades One fundamental distinction regarding the loadbearing behaviour is whether the facade is supported from below (standing) or from above (suspended), i.e., whether the planar or linear components need to be designed for tension and bending, or compression and bending and hence also buckling (stability problems)”

(Herzog 2004, 29)

“In the following we will describe the principles of construction using a metal and glass façade as an example. Three main areas of construction can be defined within the façade:

Fig. 01.05.04. A suspended façade at BBV Building (Saenz de Oiza, 1981) Fig. 01.05.05. Plan and section of the façade at Torre Sacyr (Rubio-Álvarez-Sala, 2009) Fig. 01.05.06. Position of the plane façade in relation to the loadbearing structure.

“Geometrical position in relation to loadbearing structure

Apart from leading to different connection conditions, the position of the facade in relation to the loadbearing structure has consequences for the performance and the appearance of the facade. In principle, we can distinguish between the following positions (considered from outside to inside) in the case in the case of non loadbearing facades. · On the front face of columns · Between slabs · Between the grid · Inside the grid *

These geometrical positional relation-ships determine the role of the loadbearing structure as an architectural element, whether the divisions in the façade are influenced by the loadbearing structure, the detail of junctions with partitions, the extent to which the façade penetrates column and floor planes, etc. The incorporation of the horizontal loadbearing elements (floor slabs) into the vertical ones is another distin-guishing criterion.

(Herzog 2004, 51)

* This is a simplified version of Herzog’s list, including only most common cases

Recommended reading: Herzog, T. et al (2004) Façade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, Basel. p27-31, 51. Knaack, U. et al (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, Basel. p38-40.

01.06 l Covering and Waterproofing

Fig. 01.06.01.

Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.

Fig. 01.06.02. Disposition of main

elements (loadbering, protective and

insulating layers) in a pitched roof.

Loadbering layer

Protective layer

Insulating layer “Apart from the fundamental protective

function of the roof, i.e. providing shelter for human beings, keeping the water out is the main task of the roof. External influences (sunshine, rain, wind) but also those from inside (water vapour pressure) and the resulting problem of water vapour diffusion give rise to further strains in the roof construction. In order to do justice to these diverse demands, a multi layer structure is necessary, which has led to two layering principles. One of these systems is chosen depending on the given overriding conditions, the loadbearing structure […] or the roof form.

Cold deck.

In the cold deck the waterproofing layer is so far removed from the layer of thermal insulation that a dry air cavity is formed between the two. This captures the water vapour diffusing out of the insulation and carries it away. A pitched cold deck has two air cavities, one between the roof covering and the secondary waterproofing covering layer, and one between this latter layer and the insulation, although it is this second cavity that actually qualifies the roof to be called a cold deck”.

(Deplazes 2009, 248)

“Covering and sealing.

The uppermost layer of the roof construction must protect the building from precipitation of all kinds. There are basically two ways of doing so: either the water is drained away from the building via the quickest route, or it is intercepted before being drained away from a suitable point. The first of these principles in the fundamental one behind the pitched roof, the second is the principle of the flat roof. There are various ways of achieving drainage”.

(Schunck 2003, 105)

Fig. 01.06.03. General section of a pitched roof. Texsa Catalogue. Fig. 01.06.04. General section of a flat roof. Texsa Catalogue. Fig. 01.06.03. General section of a waterproof foundation wall. Texsa Catalogue.

“Warm deck.

In the warm deck the waterproofing layer or a diffusion retardant layer, e.g. in a pitched roof a secondary waterproofing / covering layer, is laid immediately above the thermal insulation. The water vapour diffusing out of the insulation could therefore condense on the non venti-lated cold side of the insulation and saturate this. A vapour barrier installed on the inside prevents the warm, vapour-saturated air entering the insulation and thus prevents damaging condensation.

Relationships between roof pitch and roof covering material.

The pitch of the roof depends on the roof covering material, the roof form, the fixings and the type of jointing. A flat roof must exhibit a seamless waterproof roof covering. On the other hand, a roof covering of overlapping elements with its high proportion of joints is better suited to a pitched roof. The more watertight the roof covering element and its joints with neighbouring elements, the sha-llower is the allowable pitch.”

Recommended reading: Deplazes, A. (2009) Constructing Architecture. A Handbook. Birkhäuser, Basel. pp236-249. Schunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Pitched Roofs. Birkhäuser, Basel. pp105-106.

01.07 l Insulation

Fig. 01.07.01. Situation of the insulation layer in different façade solutions.

“On concealment and exposure

The “multi-layer wall construction”, designed to satisfy the thermal performance requirements of a building, grew out of the oil crisis of the 1970s and the subsequent realisation that we must reduce our consumption of energy. The outermost layer of our wall –now resolved into layers- serves to protect the (usually) unstable insulation from the weather. The insulation in turn encloses the loadbearing structure for the whole building, to which it is fixed, like a wool coat”.

“Solid wall construction

People who lived in cold climates […] preferred wall constructions that were as solid as possible. […] The objective

was to build a wall that would stand up to climatic influences while still keeping the building method as uncomplicated as possible. Though the construction and finishing of such solid structures has naturally developed in line with advances in technology – present day solid walls are either built up of structural units with both loadbearing and thermal insulation properties or are provided with elements for this purpose – the basic principle remains unchanged.

[And, about multiple layer façades:]

Warm façade, cold façade

Two different types of solid wall construction may currently be distin-guished: warm façades, where the insulating layer is mounted directly on the outside or the inside of the façade construction, and cold façades, where

the insulating layer is separated from the climatic protection layer by a layer of air. The latter principle allows the insulating layer to dry out if water penetrates into the façade as a result of damage to the protective layer”.

(Knaack 2007, 14)

Recommended reading: Deplazes, A. (2009) Constructing

Architecture. A Handbook. Birkhäuser, Basel. pp139-145.

Knaack et al (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, Basel. pp14-15.

. .Typ

01.08 l Heat Flow and Vapour Diffusion

Fig. 01.08.01. Heat flow through a wall (Deplazes 2007, 313).

Fig. 01.08.02. Diffusivity and conductivity of construction materials.

Thermal Diffusivity A (w·m2)/J·106

Thermal Conductivity b (√s·w)/(m2·K)

Brick 0,40 890,0 Concrete 0,96 2350,0 Granite 1,08 2690,0 Steel 14,25 13250,0 Timber 0,16 410,0 Glass 0,53 1370,0 Plaster 0,40 630,0 Cement Mortar 0,56 1340,0 Expanded Polystyrene 1,10 35,0

reaches its saturation point, which

depends on the temperature. We therefore speak of the "relative humidity" (of the air). Moist air is fractionally lighter than dry air at the same temperature.

Water vapour flows from the side with the higher vapour pressure (partial pressure) to the side with the lower pressure. If there is a simultaneous severe temperature gradient, the temperature drops below the dew point and the water condenses out of the air (and hence leads to the risk of condensation collecting on surfaces and mould growth)”

(Herzog 2004, 23)

“To understand the functions of the facade, we must look at the scientific principles of the construction, e.g. heat flow, water vapoure pressure, radiation transfer […].

Thermal energy always flows from the hotter (higher-energy) side to the colder side. Three basic principles govern the transfer of heat energy: Conduction, Radiation and Convection. The thermal transmittanceU- (w/m2K) may calculated for planar components.

Thermal conductivity and heat capacity […] depend on the properties of material and generally increase with bulk density. […] Air can absorb water vapour until it

“The problem of heat flow and vapour diffusion

Cold air contains little water vapour (outside - dry air). Hot air contains considerable water vapour (inside - high humidity).

When hot air meets cold air or is quickly cooled, moisture in the air condensates as water (dew point). This can happen as a result of the temperature gradient within a layer of insulation (At = 21 .1 °C) within the construction. Moisture in the construction leads to damage to the building fabric. Condensation within the construction (interstitial condensation)

Fig. 01.08.03. Thermal bridge between wall and slab. Fig. 01.08.04. Visual damage as result of the drying process.

must therefore be prevented, or all moisture must be allowed to dry out or escape.

A "vapour barrier/check" must be integrated in order to prevent condensation. Two rules must be observed in conjunction with this: 1.- The vapour barrier/check must be attached to the warm side (inside) prior to fixing the thermal insulation, and 2.- The imperviousness (to vapour) of the materials must decrease from inside to outside. "Sealed loadbearing layer on the inside, vapour-permeable protective layer on the outside."

”Thermal bridges

The problem of thermal bridges occurs wherever the insulated building envelope is penetrated by components which allow the passage of heat from inside the building. Many buildings lose more heat via avoidable thermal bridges than over the entire uninterrupted wall. Transitions and junctions require special care:

– between window, wall and roof – between roller shutter and wall, – via shafts and flues at wall and roof, – via thresholds, window sills, lintels – via fasteners, e.g. for balconies”

Recommended reading: Herzog, T. et al (2004) Façade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, Basel. p21-23. Deplazes, A. (2009) Constructing Architecture. A Handbook. Birkhäuser, Basel. p313-317.

01.09 l Solar Radiation

Fig. 01.09.01. Definition of solar position angles (Fuentes 2010, 54). Fig. 01.09.02. Definition of the hour angle (Fuentes 2010, 56). Fig. 01.09.03. Schematic Stereographic Sun Path Chart. (Fuentes 2010, 51). Fig. 01.09.04. Schematic Cartesian Sun Path Chart. At www.solardat.uoregon.edu/ sunchartprogram.php you can “create sun path charts in Cartesian coordinates for: (1) "typical" dates of each month (i.e.; days receiving about the mean amount of solar radiation for a day in the given month); (2) dates spaced about 30 days apart, from one solstice to the next; or (3) a single date you specify. You can select whether hours are plotted using local standard time or solar time. In addition, there are a number of options available to allow you to alter the chart's appearance”. (Quoted URL)

shadow produced by) a given device or to

specify a device. Horizontal shadow angle (HSA) is the difference in azimuth between the sun's position and the orientation of the building face considered, when the edge of the shadow falls on the point considered.

The vertical shadow angle (VSA) (or 'profile angle' for some authors) is measured on a plane perpendicular to the building face. VSA can exist only when the HSA is between -90o and +90o, i.e. when the sun reaches the building face considered.”

(Szokolay 2007, 15)

“Shading Design

Solar radiation incident on a window consists of three components: beam (direct) radiation, diffuse (sky) and reflected radiation. External shading devices can eliminate the beam component (which is normally the largest) and reduce the diffuse component. The design of such shading devices employs two shadow angles: HSA and VSA.

Shadow angles express the sun's position in relation to a building face of given orientation and can be used either to describe the performance of (i.e. the

“Sun-path diagrams

There are several ways of showing the 3-D sky hemisphere on a 2-D circular diagram. The sun's path on a given date would then be plotted on this representation of the sky hemisphere as a sun-path line.

In the United States the equidistant representation is used. […] The stereographic (or radial) representation uses the theoretical nadir point as the centre of projection. This is the most widely used method. (Fig. 01.06.03)”

(Szokolay 2007, 9)

Fig. 01.09.05. Horizontal devices giving the same VSA (Szokolay 2007, 16) Fig. 01.09.06. Examples of sunshading. A ship-like building in Bangalore, India. Fig. 01.09.07. Geometric sunshades in a building in Pamplona, Spain. Fig. 01.09.08. A complex sunshading strategy in Madrid, Spain.

“Fig. 01.06.05 shows the section of a window, with a canopy over it. The line connecting the edge of the canopy to the window sill gives the shading line. The angle between this and the horizontal is the VSA of the device. If the corresponding arcual line of the protractor is traced, this will give the shading mask of the canopy. Placed over the sun-path diagram it will cover the times when the device is effective. The task of shading design can be divided into three steps:

1. Determine the overheated period, i.e. the dates and times when shading should be provided. This can be taken as

the time when the monthly mean temperature is higher than the lower comfort limit. The daily temperature profile should be looked at to ascertain the hours when shading is necessary.

2. By using the appropriate sun-path diagram and the protractor establish the necessary horizontal or vertical shadow angles (or a combination of the two), as performance specification for the device to be designed.

3. Design the actual device to satisfy these performance specifications”

(Szokolay 2007, 17)

Recommended reading: Bilow, M. (2012) International Façades. Climate Related Optimized Façade Technologies. ABE – TuDelft. Rotterdam, 211-215. Szokolay, S.V. (2007) Solar Geometry. Queensland University. Brisbane, Australia. Others: Fuentes, V.A. (2010) Arquitectura Bioclimática. Limusa, UAM. México D.F.

10 l Building Processes

Figs. 01.10.01-02. Building the hanging façade of the Colon Towers, in Madrid.

The necessity for systemising the façade

is obvious, as the high demands of building performance now render the façade a particularly complex building component […]Manufacturers test their systems for resistance to wind-driven rain, thermal insulation, air permeability, sound insulation, fire resistance and building security. The design of the glass fixtures and the load-transfer joints between the post-and-beam sections are factory-certified. It is therefore possible to pick and choose from various systems”.

(Knaack 2007, 44)

“Systems used in façade construction

On surveying current building trends, it becomes apparent that almost all buildings use systemised façades. This means that specific parts of the structure comprise standardised components provided by façade suppliers. So why do we need systemised solutions and how do they affect the planning and design of the façade? [..] technical requirements have increased significantly, [and façades] are now fully regulated and can only be fulfilled by adopting sophisticated methods.

Fig. 01.10.03. Assembly

stages of a ventilated façade. Figs. 01.10.04-05. Possible modular solutions for a precast concrete façade.

6 7 8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15 16

1 2 3 4

Bibliography

Allen, E.; Iano, J. (2005) Fundamentals of building construction. Materials and methods. John Wiley & sons. Oxford

Castelló, D.; Calderón, J.M. (2002) Cuaderno técnico. Comportamiento energético de una fachada acristalada. ITEC - Hydro Building Systems. Barcelona.

Deplazes, A (Ed.) (2009) Constructing Architecture. Materials, processes, structures. Birkhäuser, Basel

Herzog, T. et al (2004) Facade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, Basel Knaack, U.; Klein, T.; Bilow, M.; Auer, T. (2007) Façades. Principles of

Construction. Birkhäuser, Basel Knaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 1: A multidisciplinary approach.

2009. Research in Architectural Engineering Series Knaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 2: Architecture - Climate –

Skin. Research in Architectural Engineering Series Oesterle, E.; Lieb, R.; Lutz, M. (2001) Double-Skin Facades. Prestel, Munich Poirazis, H. (2004) Double Skin Façades for Office Buildings. Division of Energy

and Building Design. Department of Construction and Architecture. Lund Institute of Technology. Lund University.

Reichel, A. (2007) Open-Close. Windows, Doors, Filters. Birkhäuser, Basel Schunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Pitched Roofs. Birkhäuser,

Basel Schunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Flat Roofs. Birkhäuser, Basel Schittich, C. (ed) (2001) Building Skins. Concepts, Layers, Materials. Birkhäuser,

Basel VV.AA. (2007) Un Vitrubio ecológico. Gustavo Gili, Barcelona Watts, A. (2011) Modern Construction Envelopes. Modern Construction Series.

Springer Vienna Watts, A. (2007) Scratching the surface: New London facades by London

architects. Springer-Verlag/Wien. Wigginton, M.; Harris, J. (2002) Intelligent skins. Architectural press. Elsevier

Session 1Traditional Façades

1.1. Elements1.2. A bit of history1.3. Multiple layers1.4. Insulations1.5. The evolution of the contemporary façade and its thermal performance1.6. An analysis of a multiple layer insulated wall1.7. Spanish regulations. CTE requirements1.8. Blibliography

Based on the original presentations by Prof. Luis Beltrán - luisfelipe.beltran@upm.es

Adapted by Prof. Julián GarcíaTranslated by Luis M. Martín

01. Traditional Façades p.01

1.1. ElementsHere’a a list of the main elements that can be found in what we’re going to call a “traditional brick façade”, the way they’re still built in Spain.

Hollow brick wallInsulation

CavityConcrete Slab

Weather claddingFiber mesh

Perforated brick wallSteel strip

Lintel steel sectionTimber jamb

Timber window

Concrete sillWaterproof layer

Perforated brick wallCement dressing

Rigid InsulationSteel Plate

Steel bracingLintel steel section

1.2. A bit of historyGood old solid walls were made out of one thick layer of mud, brick or stone. Resistance was guaranteed, as their thickness was always over 50 cm. They were also, although not exactly waterproofing, quite good at avoiding humidity, but not so good at insulating the interior of the building: a 100 cm. thick brick wall is only equivalent to a multiple layer façade with cavity, but without insulation.

That said, it is important to emphasize their thermal inertia is quite high, what makes them an appropiate solution to keep the building fresh during the summer.These walls were covered with all sorts of claddings: stone, ceramic tiles, mortars, etc. When they were built with bricks, all sorts of bonds were possible, as shown in the images aside.

1.3. Multiple layersAlthough since ancient times examples of multiple layer façades (with improvements regarding waterproofing, or insulation) can be traced, facades of two separated stone or brick layers were not usual until the late nineteenth century.In the UK, a facade system called "Cavity wall" was developed to enhance thermal insulation and prevent water from entering the interior. The inner cavity was ventilated and drained to the outside through holes in the joints and perpends of the brickwork.

“Tabique pluvial”

Two brick layers without insulation

The spreading of this technique occurs during the reconstruction of Europe after World War II. In Spain the idea of Cavity wall was applied in what was called “tabique pluvial” (rain wall) used in areas of high rainfall. As an evolution of these cavity walls, several kinds of two layers wall were developed. The usual standard included 12 cm. of perforated brick, a 5-7 cm. cavity and a hollow brick partition wall.

Rock wool

Expanded Polystyrene

1.4. InsulationsWhen insulation appeared, new goals could be achieved. Insulation materials have low thermal conductivity. The most common ones in Spain are: Glass fiber. GF. Increasingly obsolete by occupational health problems (mainly workers that manipulate it). It is hydrophilic. Mineral and rock wool. RW. Easy to install, very effective and smooth to his handlers. It is hydrophilic Expanded polystyrene. EPS. Rigid plate with tongue and groove joints, very effective, but require careful placement to avoid leaving uninsulated voids. Reproductive health problems.

Projected polyurethane.

Celulose projection

Expanded polyurethane. PUR. Applied by spraying onto the façade, it guarantees its extension over the entire surface and the sealing of the walls in joints with openings. It has a low thermal conductivity, and it is waterproof, performing as an air barrier, vapour barrier, and sealing. It deteriorates with light. It presents one main problem: when temperature rises to "smoke point“, gives off toxic hydrogen cyanide gases .Cellulose fiber. CF. Cellulose fiber mixed with glues and projected over the inner face of the façade. It is very effective.

Façade type Northern Europe

Spain SpanishLegislation

Thermal Transmittance

Traditional solid wall

Prior XXth century

Prior 1950 4 w/m2 K

Cavity wall 1945 1950 1,5 a 2 w/m2K

Wall-cavity- light insulation-

hollow brick wall

1973 Oil Crisis 1973 NBE CT 79 0,5 a 0,8 w/m2K

Wall-cavity- strong

insulation- hollow b. wall

1997 Kioto Protocol

2004 CTE DB HE2004

0,2 a 0,4 w/m2K

1.5. The evolution of the contemporary façade and its thermal performance

.Wind pressure and suction. Models by J.L. De Miguel

1.6. An analysis of a multiple layer insulated wallMultiple layer facades with insulation are the most common facades in Spain. Structural performance. In what comes to structural performance, the main layer of the façade is restricted by two floors. A height less than 2.80 m. (the average height) is sufficient to withstand wind actions and physical attacks due to regular use. Wind pressure on urban situation, and up to 10 storeys high, can reach 0.8 kN/m2, and suction about 0.4 kN/m2. That means the main layer will form an arch to carry the horizontal loads to the floors. Support must therefore be of at least 6 cm.

Photo:LB

Waterproofing, if assigned to the outer brick wall, is not guaranteed, as ceramic brick is not sufficiently watertight under medium and high rainfall, so it will require the help of any of the following elements: Dubbing out the inner layer, adding outer cladding, designing drainage systems or using a watertight material as insulation.

Photo:LB

.Vapour barriers. Polyurethane, paper, polyethylene

Insulation. Problems with insulation, in this system, come through thermal bridges, which are usual in openings and floor contacts.In what comes to sealing, the wall is sufficiently airtight, so no specific air barrier is required. Condensation problems might appear, so on the warm side of the insulation a waterproof layer will be necessary. A common solution is a 0.2 mm thick layer, or laminated paper attached to the rock wool insulation. Closed cell insulations, such as PUR or EPS, are also an option.

1.7. Spanish regulations. CTE requirements

CTE DB HS1. Examples

.Ejemplo de encuentro fachada con forjado

Spanish regulations. CTE requirementsCTE DB HS1. Examples

Spanish regulations. CTE requirementsCTE DB HE

Catalogue of constructive elements.(U= Thermal transmittance)

1.8. Bibliography

Deplazes, A (Ed.) (2009) Constructing Architecture. Materials, processes, structures. Birkhäuser, BaselHerzog, T. et al (2004) Facade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T.; Bilow, M.; Auer, T. (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, BaselPoirazis, H. (2004) Double Skin Façades for Office Buildings. Division of Energy and Building Design. Department of Construction and Architecture. Lund Institute of Technology. Lund University.Reichel, A. (2007) Open-Close. Windows, Doors, Filters. Birkhäuser, Basel

Spanish regulations:CTE DB HE, Ahorro de energíaCTE BD SU, Seguridad de utilizaciónCTE DB SI, Seguridad de incendioCTE DB HS, Salubridad

Session 2Precast Concrete Façades

2.1. Classification2.2. Concrete panels (one layer)2.3. Concrete sandwich panels2.4. Design, manufacturing and installation2.5. Case studies2.6. Blibliography

Torre Getesa Chamartín Madrid. Bunch ArqtConst. FCC, Prefabricación Prehorquisa

02. Precast Concrete Façades p.01

2.1. Classification

PrefabricatedFaçades

ConcreteSystems

LightSystems

Loadbearing Concrete Panels

Non Loadbearing Systems

One layerConcrete Panel

SandwichConcrete Panel

GFRC/GRC

Metal Façade Panel

2.2. Concrete panels (one layer)· Materials.

Concrete. Ha-25,30,35. Aggregate<15 mm. Steel. B500T welded mesh, 5 to 10 mm diameter. Reinforcements on edges and corners.

· Standard measures (Size limits given by the load capacity of the available machinery: <1000 kg standard tower crane; <5000 kg mobile crane)

Thickness > 12 cm in structural panels. 8- 12 m in non-load bearing panels.Height < 3.50 m normal truck; < 4.00 m

truck loader. Length < 13.50 m normal truck

· As an example, a 8cm thick panel would weight 200 kg / m2. Considering a 3, 50 m. height and a 5,00 m. length, the total weight would be 3.50 x 5.00 x 200 kg / m2 = 3.500 kg

2.3. Concrete sandwich panels· Same materials, but including an insulations, usually extruded polystyrene.· Standard measures

Thickness 6+10+6 (300kg/m2).Height around 2,00mLength 3,00 to 10,00m

· Total weight would be 1.800 to 6.000 kg/unit

www.precastpaneldetailing.com

SEIS. Manufacturing processes

2.4. Design, manufacturing and installation· Design

Modulation · Manufacturing

Formwork Reinforcement Concrete (pouring, vibrating, curing, striking formwork)Superficial treatmentsStorage

· Installation Assembly and anchorage Joint treatment

Manufacturing – Reinforcement· Welded steel mesh placed in the center of the piece, with reinforced edges and corners.· Steel plates for anchoring.· Steel connectors for demolding and assembling elevation

Reinforcement separators. Steel plates for anchoring. Steel connection for elevation.

Photo: LB

Different textures

Manufacturing – From formwork to finishing· Steel formwork with external vibrators· Use of release agents that do not affect concrete texture or color· Textures imitating stone, timber, etc.

CS Leganés ProjectArq. Arderíus, Beltrán, 2003

Design goals· Modulation and repetition· Standard families of similar elements, based on slight variations on the same mould· Size limits given by the load capacity of the available machinery

Installation anchoring.

Photos: FrimedaErection process. Photos:

Prehorquisa

Installation· Transport & elevation

Installation· Standard connection

Bearing Connection - Steel section

Embed plate

Concrete floor

Flexible Connection – Steel section

Hilti HSA-K for connection

Weldedconnection

Joints· Sealing · Durability · Aesthetics · False joints

A sealed joint. Photo: LB

Details: buildingscience.com

Other systems· Sandwich panels

Other systems· Precast concrete panels with inner frame

2.5. Case studies· 131 viviendas en Oviedo. Arch. Aranguren y Gallegos. Prefabricados Prehorquisa

Case studies· DAH Library, Pasadena California, Arqt W.Macdonouh, House & Robertson, 2009. Photo M. Beltrán.

Case studies· DAH Library, Pasadena California, Arqt W.Macdo- nouh, House & Robertson, 2009. Photo M. Beltrán.

Case studies· 101 viviendas en Alcorcón. Arch. Ángel Fernández Alba. Prefabricados Prehorquisa

Case studies· 72 viviendas en C. Real. Arch. Rojo y Fernández. Prefabricados Prehorquisa

Case studies· Edif. C. de Salud en Valladolid. Arch. Arderíus, Beltrán. Constructora Ferrovial

ud “E

o”de

án, C

Case studies· C. Salud y Especialidades en Leganés Arq. Beltrán, Cabrejas, Arderíus. Escultor J. Vaquero Turcios. Constructora OHL. Prefabricados Indagsa

2.6. Bibliography

Session 3GRCs, GRPs and Metal Panel Façades

3.1. Classification3.2. GRC panels

3.2.1. Design, manufacturing andinstallation

3.2.2. Details3.2.3. Case studies

3.3. GRP panels3.4. Metal panels3.5. Blibliography

Adapted by Prof. Julián GarcíaTranslated by Luis M. Martín EXPO Zaragoza Bridge, Arch. Zaha Hadid, GFRC.

03. GRCs, GRPs and Metal Panel Façades p.01

3.1. Classification

PrefabricatedFaçades

ConcreteSystems

LightSystems

Loadbearing Concrete Panels

Non Loadbearing Systems

GFRC/GRC

Metal Façade Panel

3.2. GFRC – GRC Panels (Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete)Materials Cement mortar (40 N/mm2) Silica sand, diameter 1.6 mm Alkali

resistant Fiberglass (AR) with 15% zirconium, 3.500 MPaTypes Standard panel, <6.00 m2, 1 cm thick, ribs 10 cm deep, weight 25

Kg/m2Sandwich panel, <10,00 m2 10 cm thick, weight 60 Kg/m2Steel framework panel, "Stud-frame system" <20,00 m2, thickness 12 cm, weight 45 Kg/m2

Standard, Sandwich and Stud Frame panels

3.2.1. Design, manufacturing and installation· Design

Modulation · Manufacturing

Formwork Mortar projectionInsulation (sandwich)Stud frameSuperficial treatmentsStorage

· Installation Assembly and anchorage Joint treatment

Timber moulding for projection. Silicon moulding finishes

(ADITAN)

Design, manufacturing and installation· Manufacturing

GRFS Projection (ADITAN)

Demolding of a silicon finishing. Standard and Stud frams GRCs in storage

Oficinas Danfoss. SS.Reyes. Const Dragados. Arch. Beltrán, Sánchez Matas, García Caballero

Design, manufacturing and installation· Installation

Assembly and anchorageJoint treatment

3.2.2. Details(Check http://files.investis.com/kingspan/storage/kingspanfabrikproductselector60ppapr07.pdf for further details)

Intermediate floor detail(Kingspan)

Foundation detail(Kingspan)

Eaves detail (Kingspan)

Window detail (Kingspan)

3.2.3. Case studies· GRFC façade. PANELCO. Photo: LB.

Case studies· GRFC façade. PANELCO. Photo: LB.

Case studies· GRFC façade. Danfoss building. SS de los Reyes. DRAGADOS. Arch. Beltrán, Sánchez Matas, García Caballero.

Case studies· GRFC façade. Santiago Bernabeu Stadium. PANELCO. Photo: LB.

3.3. GFRP Panels (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer)Polyester resin reinforced with glass fiber

Technology used in boat shell construction

First used in building engineering in the reconstruction of the "house of the future" at Disneyland in 1967

3.4. Metal PanelsCase study 01.Aluminium Sandwich Panels. ISOTEC system.

Case study 02.Steel Sandwich Panels. Arcelor Mittal System.

Case study 02.Steel Sandwich Panels. Galaxia Horizontal System.

3.5. Bibliography

Tema 4Cerramientos de fachadas de hoja exterior continua

Session 4 Brick Veneer Façades

4.1. Comparative analysis4.2. Resistance, insulation and sealing

4.2.1. Steel anchors4.2.2. Shelf angles4.2.3. Reinforced ceramics

4.4. Commercial products4.5. Case studies4.6. Blibliography

Prado Museum. Madrid. Arch: R. Moneo. Façade: Malpesa Geohidrol System

4.1. Comparative analysisTraditional brick façades (those with standard brick walls, of a single wythe of brick) rest directly on the structure. As a result of that, the insulation layer cannot be continuous and thermal bridges in structure-façade contacts appear.

04. Brick Veneer Façades p.02

The relationship façade-structure makes insulation difficult, but creates a stable connection against horizontal strain.

It provides a firestop & airtight relationship between floors.

The wall rests directly on the floors.

Traditional wall

In Brick Veneer Façades the insulation layer can be continuous, but some other problems appear:· The façade is less stable to horizontal forces · The space between floors should be sealed to prevent fire, noise, air, etc.· When only lying on the foundations, the system is limited to 3 floors.

The relationship façade-structure allows insulation to pass through, but the wall needs to be anchored to avoid horizontal buckling.

Sealing to provide firestop & airtight relationship between floors is mandatory.

The wall rests directly on the foundation.

Brick veneer

Single wythe brick wallCement renderingRigid insulationFire stopMetal sheetAnchor to connectveneer to structure

Inner finishingFiller for tiling

Horizontalstructure

ResistanceThe outer veneer is considered resistant in some cases, but needs connection with the structure or with an inner brickwall

SealingCement rendering guaranties the requestedwaterproofing condition. Sealing to provide firestop & airtight relationship between floors is mandatory.

InsulationThe relationship façade-structure allows insulation to pass through.

4.2. Basics. Resistance, insulation and sealingStandard details are different in different commercial systems and in different areas (with different climates, legislations, etc) but usually include the following elements:

4.2.1. Steel anchors“In a brick veneer assembly, the veneer is connected to the backup wall with steel anchors, which transfer the lateral load from the veneer to the backup wall. In this load transfer, the anchors are subjected to either axial compression or tension, depending on whether the wall is subjected to inward or outward pressure. The anchors must, therefore, have sufficient rigidity and allow little or no movement in the plane perpendicular to the wall. However, because the veneer and the backup will usually expand or contract at different rates in their own planes, the design of anchors must accommodate upward-downward and side-to-side movement.Anchors for a brick veneer wall assembly are, therefore, made of two pieces that engage each other. One piece is secured to the backup, and the other is embedded in the horizontal mortar joints of the veneer. An adjustable, two-piece anchor should allow the veneer to move with respect to the backup in the plane of the wall, but not perpendicular to it. Galvanized steel is commonly used for anchors, but stainless steel is recommended where durability is an important consideration and/or where the environment is unusually corrosive.The spacing of anchors should be calculated based on the lateral load and the strength of the anchor. However, the maximum spacing for a one- piece, corrugated anchor or an adjustable, two-piece wire anchor (wire size W1.7) is limited by the code to one anchor for every 2.67 ft2. Additionally, they should not be spaced more than 32 in. on center horizontally and not more than 18 in. vertically” (VV.AA. p.705)

4.2.2. Shelf angles“The dead load of brick veneer may be borne by the wall foundation without any support at intermediate floors up to a maximum height of 30 ft above ground. Uninterrupted, foundation-supported veneer is commonly used in a one- to three- story wood or lightgauge steel frame buildings. […] In mid- and high-rise buildings, the veneer is generally supported at each floor using (preferably hot-dip galvanized) steel shelf angles (also referred to as relieving angles). Shelf angles are supported by, and anchored to, the building’s structure. In a frame structure, the shelf angles are anchored (welded or bolted) to the spandrel beams. In a load-bearing wall structure, the shelf angles are anchored to the exterior walls. (VV.AA. p.707)

4.2.3. Reinforced ceramicsSome veneer systems include reinforced ceramics, a technique developed by Eladio Dieste in the XXth Century.

4.3. Commercial Products. GeoHidrol – Malpesa SystemThe faced-brickwork layer is connected to the vertical and horizontal elements of the structure using different support brackets.

GeoHidrol – Malpesa SystemThe faced-brickwork layer stands on a continuous angle bracket, usually connected to the horizontal elements of the structure.

GeoHidrol – Malpesa SystemDifferent connections and anchors secure the wall, holding it to the vertical elements of the structure but allowing other movements.

GeoHidrol – Malpesa SystemAnchors for expansions joints should be used every 12m. Possible distribution of connections and anchors in a standard façade.

GeoHidrol – Malpesa SystemAnchoring to horizontal and vertical elements of the structure. Brick reinforcement.

Commercial Products.Structura - GHAS System (Palautec Brick)Anchors in structural elements.

Commercial Products. Halfen System. Support brackets.

4.4. Details

4.5. Case studiesBuilding in Belvís de la Jara (Toledo), archs. L. y M. Beltrán. Ferrovial.

Building in Belvís de la Jara (Toledo), archs. L. y M. Beltrán. Ferrovial.

4.6. Bibliography

VV.AA. (2013) Building Construction: Principles, Materials, & Systems. Part II. Prentice Hall. London.

Videos: http://www.halfenusa.com/t/25_14272.html

Session 5 ETICS - External Thermal Insulation Composite / Rendering Systems

5.1. Introduction5.2. Rendered thermally insulated

façades5.2.1. Details5.2.2. Case studies

5.3. Other systems5.4. Blibliography

Oporto. An external thermal insulation system at the School of Architecture. Arch: A. Siza

05. External Thermal Insulation Composite / Rendering Systems p.02

5.1. IntroductionRendered thermally insulated façade, also known as ETICS (External Thermal Insulation Composite System) façade, is a widely used façade system. The system usually includes an inner strong brick layer, a rigid sheet of insulation on the outside, appropriately anchored to the support, and a protection with a rendering reinforced with glass fiber.InsulationMost insulation materials can be used here as thermal insulation, but the adequacy of the entire system must be verified. Extruded polystyrene insulation (6 to 8 cm. thick EPS of 20 kg/m3) is the most usual solution.

The thermal performance of ETICS is ideal to avoid condensations.

ResistanceStructural performance is assigned to the inner brick later, while the outer rendering shell deals with external physical attacks. A socket of stronger material should be placed in the base to prevent external aggressions.

WaterproofingThe outer rendering shell must act as a self sufficient waterproofing element. The rendering will act as an air barrier; the insulation, which must be watertight, as a vapour barrier.

Insulation of a Façade with Coteterm. Burgos, Spain.

Photo: Elba Rehabilitación

5.2. Rendered thermally insulated façade. Systems. Coteterm - Texsa

01 05 09

02 06 10

03 07 11

Systems. Coteterm – Texsa

Systems. Coteterm – Texsahttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hF9XYOO9yu8

5.2.1. Details. Coteterm – Texsa

Details

Townhouse at El Casar (Guadalajara). Photo: LB 5.2.2. Case studies

Townhouse at El Casar (Guadalajara). Photo: LB

Case studies

Townhouse at El Casar (Guadalajara). Photo: LB

Case studies

5.3. Other Systems. Dryvit Inc.

Other systems. Dryvit Inc.

Other systems. Unifix

5.4. Bibliography

Session 6 Ventilated Facades

5.1. Introduction5.2. Rendered thermally insulated

façades5.2.1. Details5.2.2. Case studies

5.3. Other systems5.4. Blibliography

Based on the original presentations by Prof. Juan Alamillo. Adapted by

Prof. Julián García julian.garciam@upm.esTranslated by Luis M. Martín

06. Ventilated Façades p.02

6.1. IntroductionVentilated façades (double skin façade is used for curtain glass systems) is a widely used façade system based on an inner strong brick layer, a rigid sheet of insulation on the outside, appropriately anchored to the support, and a stone, ceramic or metal cladding anchored to a steel substructure.

PerformanceA ventilated façade is a construction system that allows continuous exterior insulation for the building, protecting the interior sheet as well as the slab edges. In the ventilated chamber, due to the heating of the air layer of the intermediate space, the so called “stack effect” is produced, creating a continuous ventilation in the cavity. This ventilation helps keeping the insulation dry and lowers not only radiation but also convection energy interchanges, providing a better performance of the façade.

6.2. Elements

6.2.1- Inner resistant layer. Fully supported by the main structure, or part of it –load bearing walls are included.

6.2.2- Thermal insulation. Continuous and regular, non-hygroscopic, highly durable and resistant to external agents.

6.2.3- Substructure. Formed by anchoring points and horizontal and vertical sections in different combinations. Its function is to support the external panels, transmitting the loads to the main structure and / or the inner sheet.

6.2.4- Continuous air cavity. Ventilated and drained, it avoids both thermal bridges and condensation problems.

6.2.5- Outer cladding. Typically formed by pieces or panels arranged with open joints. Highly durable, with specific requirements of mechanical strength and aesthetic function.

6.2.1. Inner resistant layerIt is necessary to check the stability of this layer considering the eccentric load produced by the outer element. The usual standards are:

- Concrete. Blocks, on site walls or prefabricated panels. - Solid and perforated ceramic brick. - Hollow brick (checking stability and compatibility with anchors)

6.2.2. Insulation Different fixation systems, most similar to the ones used in ETICS façades. Usual materials are:- Projected polyurethane foam (caution: fire behavior)- Fiberglass panel –non hydrophilic.- Wool rock panel – non hydrophilic.- Mortars with mineral fibers. - Cellular glass plates. - Extruded polystyrene panels (caution: fire behavior) - Expanded polystyrene panels (caution: fire behavior and water absorption) - Other insulating mortars.

6.2.3. SubstructureIndividual anchors or fasteners of stainless steel (threaded or corrugated rods, with plates and bolts) are fixed to the inner layer by epoxy resin mortars or mechanical expansion systems. Bearing substructures are generally built using lightweight aluminum, galvanized or stainless steel.

6.2.4. Air cavityIt is a substantial part of the ventilated façade system. Its usual thickness is between 3 and 6 cm, but can be dimensioned with specific programs of fluid dynamics to adjust the thickness to the desired airflow, depending on climate area, orientation, etc.

6.2.5. Outer claddingThe usual standards are:

-Natural stone cladding.-Ceramic tile cladding.-High performance ceramic tile cladding. -Fiberboard and cement-derived cladding.-Composite panels –aluminum+resin and others. -Aluminum, zinc or galvanized steel panels

(natural or lacquered). -Synthetic panels.

Synthetic panels. ULMA Catalogue.

6.3. Stone claddingStone. Resistant to external aggressions. Granite, marble and limestone are the usual standards. Spanish legislation: NTE RPC Plates. The minimum thickness of the stone cladding, for conventional anchors, shall be 30 mm. The usual commercial dimensions are 80x80 cm, 80x60 cm, 80x40 cm, 60x40 cm and 60x30 cm. The recommended gap is 5mm between pieces, both horizontally and vertically. Anchors. 4 units per panel, 2 on the top edge and 2 on the bottom. Distance of the corners: 6 cm. The anchors should withstand the weight of the top panel and only retain the bottom panel without transmitting vertical loads -a clearance of about 2 mm will be implemented for this purpose, disposing a separating washer.

Stone cladding. ULMA Catalogue.

Stone cladding

Stone cladding. Case studies

6.3. Ceramic tile claddingA specific coating is used for ventilated facades, usually rectangular ceramic hollow tiles of extruded stoneware, sometimes colored. The pieces are designed to overlap in horizontal edges, preventing the entrance of water. Transverse edges usually have a straight cut. The tiles are fixed using stainless steel staples to a generally upright substructure formed by studs attached to the inner layer and / or the building structure by means of adjustable supporting and retention brackets. These systems are not regulated by specific legislation need to be in possession of a Spanish DIT (Technical Approval) or ETA (European Technical Approval).

A standard Canadian ceramic tile ventilated façade. The window is located near the outer layer.

Ceramic tile cladding. Case studies

6.4. Other systemsOther systems are:

-Fiberboard and cement-derived cladding.-Composite panels –aluminum+resin and others. -Aluminum, zinc or galvanized steel panels (natural or lacquered). -Synthetic panels.

Composite panels. ALUCOBOND Catalogue.

6.4. Bibliography

07 (I). Windows and Glazed Curtain Walls

Session 7 (I)Windows and Glazed Curtain Walls

7.1. Introduction7.1.1. A mechanism to controlenergy7.1.2. Terminology

7.2. A short history of the window7.3. Spanish functional requirements7.4. Materials, comoponents and

systems7.5. Details7.6. Case Studies7.7 Standard simplified details7.8. Blibliography

Based on the original presentations by Prof. Julián García – julian.garciam@upm.es

Translated by Luis M. MartínOporto. A metal cremona at

the Serralbes Palace

7.1. Introduction· Relationship between interior and exterior, both physical and visual. Access control mechanisms. · Similar requirements (in what comes to resistance, temperature control, water tightness, air tightness, condensation control, etc) to the rest of the façade. And some more, specific of this area: aperture system, solar control, etc.· It is often the most sensitive point of the facade, and therefore requires more accuracy. Most windows are prefabricated and installed with dry construction methods. · Main elements: frame, sash and glass. Complementary: hardware, filters (blinds, verandas) etc.

07 (I). Windows and Glazed Curtain Walls p03

Windows must perform the following basic functions: · Resistance to actions:

· Own Weight · Pressure and wind suction · Physical aggression · Water Pressure

· Sealing: · Water · Air

· Insulation according to the required comfort: · Thermal · Acoustic

The Spanish CTE regulates these values for external joinery in the DB HE1 - Limitation of energy demand.

A picture window in Toronto, Canada.

7.1.1. A mechanism to control energyThe window can be considered -as could the whole façade- an energy regulation mechanism. But not only in what comes to thermal and acoustic control; solar control must also be considered (both light and associated radiation, ultraviolet and infrared).

A good passive solar design of windows and shadings can improve the energy efficiency of the building.

VV.AA. Un Vitrubio ecológico. Gustavo Gili. Barcelona, 2007. p.42-43

Specific terminology

7.9. Existen múltiples sistemas de apertura. Los más habituales son los reflejados aquí, que pueden combinarse de diversos modos. Los códigos abreviados de representación de cada sistema que se adjuntan proceden del catálogo de Technal - Saphir.

7.8. Sistemas de apertura habituales.

Site building in Anantapur, India. Different Jalis in Kerala, India.

7.2. A short history of the window

Small windows in a mosque in Egypt and in a Hospital en Mauritania. Veranda and Louvres in Meknes, Morocco. Shadings in San’a, Yemen.

A short history of the window

Ancient times and Middle Ages· Use of glazed windows in Rome I AD · Showcases in Romanesque churches. Buildings had smaller and fewer windows. The earliest surviving examples date from the thirteenth century, although there is evidence of its use in some S. VII buildings

San Miguel de Lillo in Oviedo,

Spain. S IX.

King’s College Chapel, 1532-

1536. Cambridge, UK.

Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque· Progressive enlargement of glazed openings in churches and cathedrals, especially in countries without much light. · First developments of new materials (Venetian glass, for example) to allow increased size of holes. During the Baroque, widespread use of glass.

Cristal Palace. (Addis 2007, p.359). Semi-curtain walls at La Coruña and New York.

The nineteenth century· Industrial Revolution. Glass iron architecture (Paxton, Labrouste) -The Crystal Palace and the Library of St. Genevieve. Glass as the only envelope of the building. · Early developments of glazed curtain walls. The use of large windows relates to the new technological architecture.

Fagus Factory (W. Gropius, 1911). UN Headquarters y NY ( W. Harrison, 1950)

The twentieth century· Construction of fully glazed buildings, initially with problems of thermal and acoustic performance. · Development of new materials for fences and racks (aluminum, PVC), glass (double and triple glazing) and gaskets (EPDM, neutral sealants) that improve thermal and solar control of the building.

Telefónica headquarters (R. de la Hoz, 2007) Sacyr Tower (C. Rubio y E. Álvarez-Sala, 2009)

The twenty-first century· New materials, such as solar control glass, allow better thermal and solar control of the building. Active façades. · The increasing energy efficiency requirements lead to a recovery of traditional thermal control strategies, using elements -sunscreens, verandas, double sheets, etc. associated with traditional architecture. These systems start being used in large scale buildings.

· Características obligatorias1. Transmitancia térmica2. Condensación superficial3. Resistencia a las acciones del viento4. Permeabilidad al aire5. Propiedades frente a radiación solar6. Aislamiento al ruido aéreo

· Características no obligatorias1. Estanquidad al agua2. Reacción al fuego3. Resistencia a cargas permanentes4. Emisión de sustancias peligrosas5. Resistencia al impacto6. Resistencia a apertura y cierre repetido

7.28. Termografía de ventana de PVC. Del catálogo de Deceuninck.

7.3. Functional and structural requirements7.3.1. Spanish CTE requirements.

7.3.2. Transmitancia térmica.· La transmitancia térmica de una ventana es función de la zona climática, del porcentaje de huecos en la fachada (Sv) y de la transmitancia límite del muro (UM).· Según el criterio de severidad climática de invierno (5 categorías designadas de A a E) y de verano (4 categorías designadas de 1 a 4) existen 20 casos posibles de los cuales sólo 12 se dan en la realidad, que son las 12 zonas climáticas del CTE.· En términos generales, puede estimarse:

Zonas A-B. Todo tipo de carpintería. Zona C. No aluminio sin RPTZona D. Aluminio con RPT min.4 mm.Zona E. No aluminio de ningún tipo.

7.29. Mapa zonas climáticas. Zonificación dinámica según capital de provincia. Tabla de relación material-transmitancia para PVC, Madera y metal. Tabla de severidad climática. Relación de temperaturas máximas y mínimas invierno - verano.

7.3.3. Condensación superficial.· El CTE exige comprobar la limitación de condensaciones superficiales, comparando el factor de temperatura de la superficie interior fRsi y el de la superficie interior mínimo fRsi,min. fRsi es función de la transmitancia U, siendo fRsi=1 – U/4 · Los valores de fRsi,min son los de las tablas, en función de la clase de higrometría CH. Tres tipos:

7.30. Mapa zonas climáticas. Zonificación dinámica según capital de provincia. Tabla de Factores de temperatura. Valores de fRsi, min. Factor de temperatura de la superficie interior mínimo. Tabla valores de vivienda según zona climática.

CH5. Espacios de gran producción de humedad (lavanderías, piscinas, etc.)(70%)CH4. Espacios de alta producción de humedad (cocinas industriales, restau-rantes, pabellones deportivos, etc.) (62%).CH3. Espacios sin alta producción de humedad (edificios residenciales y espacios no indicados anteriormente (50%).

7.3.4. Resistencia al viento.· La presión de cálculo a viento de la ventana es qe = qb x Ce x Cp, siendo:

qb, presión dinámica del viento, función de su velocidad y densidad. DB SE AE, 3.3.2.Ce, coeficiente de exposición, función de turbulencias de topografía. DB SE AE, 3.4.Cp, coeficiente eólico (presión-succión) función de la orientación de cada fachada. DB SE AE, 3.5.

· Con el valor de qe se entra en el cuadro adjunto para obtener la clase de ventana.· A partir de 20 m. de altura en terrenos tipo I, II o III, la ventana debe ser clase 5. A partir de 20 m. de altura en terrenos tipo IV o V, debe ser clase 4. En los centros de ciudades de gran parte del país (5/6 plantas), suelen ser clase 3 o clase 2.

7.31. Mapa de isotacas. Mapa de zonas con igual velocidad de viento. Tabla de clasificación de carpinterías según presión a viento. Tabla de clasificación de carpinterías según la flecha relativa frontal.

7.3.5. Estanquidad al agua.· La estanquidad al agua de la ventana es función de la zona pluviométrica y la resistencia al viento. El DB HS establece las condiciones de estanqueidad al agua sólo para cerramientos ciegos; en huecos de exteriores, se complementa con la UNE EN 14351-1.· La clasificación de las ventanas por su estanqueidad al agua se determina en función del escalón de presiónen el que se produce la infiltración de agua.· Existen dos métodos de ensayo; para productos totalmente expuestos y para productos parcialmente protegidos. El primero es el más habitual.

7.32. Mapa de zonas pluviométricas promedio en función del índice anual. Tabla de clasificación de ventanas por su estanquidad al agua según UNE EN 14351-1.

· El resto de exigencias no tratadas en este resumen (permeabilidad al aire, propiedades frente a radiación solar, aislamiento al ruido aéreo, reacción al fuego, resistencia a cargas permanentes, emisión de sustancias peligrosas, resistencia al impacto y resistencia a apertura y cierre repetido) se estudian en el CTE.

Existen algunos conceptos generales que interesan para comprender estas exigencias. Los principales son:· El puente térmico es un efecto que se produce en una zona de la envolvente del edificio en la que existe una discontinuidad en la construcción (sea debida a un cambio de material, del espesor de éste, etc.) que conlleva una reducción puntual de la resistencia térmica respecto al resto del cerramiento. Son zonas en las que existen intercambios indeseables de temperatura, que suelen manifestarse en condensaciones superficiales en épocas frías.· El efecto pared fría es, de hecho, una manifestación de un puente térmico. Se produce con frecuencia cerca de huecos de fachada cuando estos cuentan con un acristalamiento de luna simple.· El efecto invernadero es un efecto de calentamiento por radiación de onda corta. La mayor parte de los vidrios son permeables a estas ondas (del orden de un 80% de la radiación atraviesa el vidrio) que calientan las superficies interiores de la edificación, contra la cuales inciden. Estas, a su vez, reirradian al ambiente parte de esa energía, en onda larga; frente a este tipo de onda, el vidrio se comporta como un cuerpo opaco, reteniendo la energía en el interior del recinto.

7.33. Termografía de una fachada en la que se aprecian las pérdidas a través de los huecos y la fábrica. Del catálogo de Deceuninck.

7.4. Materials, Components and SystemsWindow profiles are usually made of different materials: folded steel, aluminum, polyvinyl chloride and timber.

· Timber used in exterior areas should always be stabilized at an approximate density of 600 kg / m3. It is usually complemented with stainless steel or aluminum. It is a good material for outdoor use, but requires some maintenance. · Steel profiles, widely used for years in window making, are still used in curtain walls. Expansion problems (their high expansion coefficient can create adjustment problems) and corrosion issues (except in stainless steel) might occur if there is no proper maintenance.

· Aluminum profiles fit well and require little maintenance. This material allows different finishes, from traditional anodised aluminum to a variety of coatings. However, aluminum is a good heat conductor, and may cause thermal bridge problems –therefore we must incorporate mechanisms to prevent it. · Polyvinyl chloride or PVC is also common and versatile, and offers as many options as aluminum. Furthermore, it is a good thermal insulator, so it does not require a thermal bridge break mechanism. There are, however, doubts about its durability, while the trials offer sufficient guarantees. · You can also use combined profiles of various materials. It is common in Central Europe, to combine wood and steel, or wood and aluminum, to take advantage of the properties of both materials.

· Many types of glazing can be used in windiws. Traditional 4mm. thick sections, drawn glass, gave way to double glazing with desiccated cavity, usually tempered glass with high resistance to bending. In addition, high performance systems, with variations in thermal, solar and noise control, are now being used. Many of these are laminated glass, composed of sheets by adhering materials such as butyral. · Different materials are used for joinery, including EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene M type) and neoprene (polychloroprene or other variants). Seal between window and façade are made with neutral products, usually silicones or polysulfides.

· The following standards for transmitance values are used in Spain.

The assemble of elements is shown in most manufacturer catalogs. Schüco or Technal’s catalogs are very interesting, as are so many others, and offer good information. They can be downloaded at:http://www.schueco.com/web/esand http://www.technal.es/es/· The basic information of each window system is reflected in a sheet, which must, in addition to the geometry of the horizontal and vertical sections, show the opening system, materials and assembly instructions, etc. But above all, it must show the certified qualities of the window: wind classification, water resistance, etc. Some examples are attached.

7.7. Standard simplified details· The following simplifications and color codes are recommended to represent different types of window.

Generic Timber Timber+aluminum Aluminum PVC

7.8. Bibliography

Herzog, T. et al (2004) Facade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T.; Bilow, M.; Auer, T. (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, BaselNeila, F.J. et al. El comportamiento higrotérmico de la envolvente constructiva del edificio. Determinaciones del CTE. Instituto Juan de Herrera. Madrid, 2007.Paricio, I. Vocabulario de arquitectura y construcción. Bisagra. Barcelona, 1999.Poirazis, H. (2004) Double Skin Façades for Office Buildings. Division of Energy and Building Design. Department of Construction and Architecture. Lund Institute of Technology. Lund University.Reichel, A. (2007) Open-Close. Windows, Doors, Filters. Birkhäuser, Basel

Spanish regulations:· Código Técnico de la Edificación:

· DB-H, especialmente el apartado 2.4.4.2, puntos singulares:http://www.codigotecnico.org/web/recursos/documentos/dbhs/hs1/100.html

· DB-SI, DB-SUA, DB-HR y DB-SE-AE, especialmente 3.3.2, 3.4 y 3.5.· Normas UNE-EN 10077-1, UNE-EN 12210, UNE-EN 12207, UNE-EN 12208, UNE-EN 12400, UNE-EN 12567-1, UNE-EN 14351-1 y UNE-EN -ISO 140-3

07 (II). Windows and Glazed Curtain Walls p01

Session 7 (II)Windows and Glazed Curtain Walls

7.1. Introduction7.2. Thermal and structural

performance7.3. Stick systems7.4. Unit systems7.5. Anchored structural glass7.6. Blibliography

SSG (structural silicone glazed) Curtain Wall System

7.1. IntroductionGlazed Curtain Walls.Nonbearing facades, usually based on a strong mullion, vision glasses and opaque spandrels.

According to EN 13830, a curtain wall is a lightweight façade, and therefore a “vertical exterior enclosure” based on two main elements. On the one hand a frame, mainly made of metal, wood or PVC-U, generally forming vertical and horizontal structural members, connected together and anchored to the supporting structure of the building. On the other, some finishing panels that they form a continuous surface, limiting the space and providing all the normal functions of an exterior wall, including weather control, resistance, etc. Basic characteristics are:· Lightness. They weigh considerably less than a conventional facade with similar or even superior performance. An approximate 50-80 kg / m2 can be estimated, very little compared to the 250-300 kg / m2 of conventional facade.· Thickness. More habitable interior space as a result of the small of the façade: 12-18 cm against the 25-30 cm of a conventional façade.· Production deadlines. Being an industrialized system, the production processes are much shorter than in conventional solutions.· Maintenance. Low maintenance and longer life (in general) than conventional facades.· Suspended Façade. Vertical elements (studs) are usually hung from the upper slab, and do not rely on the lower floor.· Expansion. The vertical expansion is resolved, in every floor.· Anchoring. The curtain wall is anchored to the building structure, usually in the edges of the floor elements with anchors with two or three dimensional regulations.

7.2. Thermal and structural performance

Vertical elements hung from the upper slab, and are connected to the ones below but do not rely on them. That is a way to control vertical expansion is resolved, and also high rise building movements.

Control tests. As for every industrialized element, the control of these façades is performed both in the factory and in the building site. Highly recommended, but not strictly compulsory, is the "in-situ" water tightness. This test should be performed according to the “UNE-EN 13051. Curtain walling, water tightness”. The test consists in spraying water over the finished facade at a rate and pressure established for a certain time, checking at the end of the study that there’s no water leakage inside.

7.3. Stick SystemsTubular metal mullions assembled on site to glass and spandrel units. Vertical, horizontal or vertical+horizontal exterior design.

Vertical and horizontal sections

WITEC 50 Hydro

Installation

WITEC 50 Hydro

Stick Systems. Tubular metal mullions assembled on site.

7.4. Unit systemsThese systems consist of preasembled wall units, usually glazed with structural silicones or with the help of outer plates. They require less site labour.

Vertical and horizontal sections

7.5. Anchored structural glassThe system consists of metallic knots, usually stainless steel or aluminum, with a spider form and ball joints at the ends that allow a flexible anchor for glass through some drills practiced in it. The exterior is smooth and continuous, with sealing gaskets.

Installation

7.8. Bibliography

Herzog, T. et al (2004) Facade Construction Manual. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T.; Bilow, M.; Auer, T. (2007) Façades. Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser, BaselNeila, F.J. et al. El comportamiento higrotérmico de la envolvente constructiva del edificio. Determinaciones del CTE. Instituto Juan de Herrera. Madrid, 2007.Paricio, I. Vocabulario de arquitectura y construcción. Bisagra. Barcelona, 1999.Poirazis, H. (2004) Double Skin Façades for Office Buildings. Division of Energy and Building Design. Department of Construction and Architecture. Lund Institute of Technology. Lund University.Reichel, A. (2007) Open-Close. Windows, Doors, Filters. Birkhäuser, Basel

Spanish regulations:· Código Técnico de la Edificación:

· DB-H, especialmente el apartado 2.4.4.2, puntos singulares:http://www.codigotecnico.org/web/recursos/documentos/dbhs/hs1/100.html

· DB-SI, DB-SUA, DB-HR y DB-SE-AE, especialmente 3.3.2, 3.4 y 3.5.· Normas UNE-EN 10077-1, UNE-EN 12210, UNE-EN 12207, UNE-EN 12208, UNE-EN 12400, UNE-EN 12567-1, UNE-EN 14351-1 y UNE-EN -ISO 140-3

08. Pitched and Flat Roofs. Fundamentals p01

Session 8Pitched and Flat Roofs. Fundamentals

8.1. IntroductionParts of the roofClassifications

8.2. Functional requirementsStructural performanceCovering and waterproofingThermal performance

8.3. Elements8.4. Blibliography

The California Endowment, L.A. Archs: RCHS + H&R, 2006

Based on the original presentations by Prof. M. Ángeles Beltrán. Adapted by

8.1. Introduction· As with the façade, the main function of the cover is the protection against inclement weather. Secondary but equally important functions are separation, etc. · It constitutes the upper cladding of the building, and therefore is more exposed to rainfall, solar radiation, wind, etc.· It must fulfill the same functional and structural requirements as façades did, with special emphasis on certain aspects discussed below.

“The Primitive Hut”. Laugier, 1753.

Basic components of a roof.Base Structure: A structure that supports the deck and gives stability. Might be flat or inclined.Superficial Support: Smaller elements, supported on the base structure and creating a proper base for the covering material is based. Including insulation materials, waterproofing complimentary layers, etc.Coverage: cover material, with or without a finishing protection.

Parts of the roof

ClassificationsA) According to the slope (according to Spanish CTE):

· Pitched: slope> 15%, 9º· Low Slope: 5-15%, 2º-9º· Flat: <5%, 2º(According to CTE, flat roofs with a 0º slope are not allowed)

B) According to the relationship insulation/watertight layer:· Cold roof: Insulation above the ceiling keeps warmth inside the house. In flat roofs this would be the traditional system.· Warm roof: Insulation is located near the watertight layer, keeping warmth in roof space. In flat roofs, this would be similar to an inverted solution.

ClassificationsC) According to the finishing material:

· Covered by parts: tiles, slates, etc. Open but overlapped joints.

· Covered with panels: fiber-cement, metal sheets. Lap joints and flashings.

· Covered with continuous sheets: copper, lead (folded or crimped together) or asphalt or plastic sheets, welded or stuck together with adhesive.

ClassificationsD) According to its function or use:

· Walkable (pedestrian or road)· Not walkable (or only maintenance access)· Landscaped

8.2. Functional requirementsA) Structural performance. Resistance to the following actions:

· Weight (of both the structure and covering material)· Use load and maintenance load· Snow overload· Wind pressure and wind suction· Thermal actions (expansion and contraction)· Seismic actions

Base structural types can be superficial (horizontal or pitched slabs) or linear (trusses, lattice beams, etc)

B) Covering and waterproofing:Creating a watertight cover is essential. Two systems are possible:

· Continuous waterproof membrane(flat roofs)· Overlapped tiles with the correct slope (pitched roofs)

Water tightness. Relationship inclination/material according to Spanish CTE HS DB

Pitched vs. flat roof, or covering vs. waterproofingPitched roofsAdvantages: A certain air permeability. Provides quick water drainage and prevents the accumulation of snow.Disadvantages: Problems in setting the different layers and components due to the slope.Flat roofsAdvantages: The layers may overlap simply by their own weight.Disadvantages: Air tightness –this might be an advantage in some areas. Snow accumulation. High need of maintenance in drainage systems.

C) Thermal performance:Being the roof the element of the building most exposed to solar radiation, a proper thermal control is essential.According to the Spanish regulations, a minimum of 10-15 cm. tchick insulation should be used in roofs in the Madrid area.

Insulation. Relationship element/transmittance according to Spanish CTE HS DB

8.3. Detailed elementsA) Covering/waterproofing layerMaterials already introduced. Its situation in the general layering of the roof can be:

· As a finishing layer (and therefore materials must be resistant to weather conditions)

· Protected by other layers.

B) Thermal insulationMaterials already introduced. Its situation in the general layering of the roof can be:

· Located outside the waterproofing layer.It must be a a waterproof insulation: extruded polystyrene, or other closed cell materials.

· Located inside the waterproofing layer. Other open cell materials, such as rockwool, are allowed.

C) Acoustic insulation

Facing noise impact against the action of rain, foot traffic, etc would require a damping layer. Other acoustic properties of a roof depend on the following basic factors:

· Mass Factor: Cover structural base slab concrete horizontal or inclined, good acoustic performance

· Multilayer Factor: Cover ventilated chamber· Dissipation Factor: Absorbent material on camera improves behavior

D) BarriersBarriers can be made of specific materials, or by other indoor general roof materials that accomplish the same function, such as Air barrier or Steam barrier. In many cases only one layer can fulfill all these functions

E) Expansion and contraction jointsBecause of their exposure, roof surfaces they will suffer expansion and contraction movement of components due to temperature changes. Expansion joints should be designed to allow the movement of components without producing cracks.Several materials and solutions can be used for joints. Fixed sheets are a good solution, but does not allow the expansion of the various components; small pieces require mortar and mechanical anchors; Floating sheets are the best solution, as they allow free movement and can be covered with heavy protection, pavement, gravel ...

8.4. Bibliography

Deplazes, A (Ed.) (2009) Constructing Architecture. Materials, processes, structures. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 1: A multidisciplinary approach. 2009. Research in Architectural Engineering SeriesKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 2: Architecture - Climate – Skin. Research in Architectural Engineering Series Schunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Pitched Roofs. Birkhäuser, BaselSchunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Flat Roofs. Birkhäuser, Basel

Spanish regulations:· Código Técnico de la Edificación:· Normas UNE-EN 10077-1, UNE-EN 12210, UNE-EN 12207, UNE-EN 12208, UNE-EN 12400, UNE-EN 12567-1, UNE-EN 14351-1 y UNE-EN -ISO 140-3

09 (I). Ceramic and Concrete Tile Roofs p01

Session 9 (I)Ceramic and ConcreteTile Roofs

9.1. Introduction9.2. Ceramic and concrete tiles9.3. Construction systems9.4. Construction details9.5. Bibliography

The California Endowment, L.A. Archs: RCHS + H&R, 2006

Based on the original presentations by Prof. M. Ángeles Beltrán. Adapted by

Vernacular tile roofs at Grazalema. Andalucia, Spain.

9.1. Introduction. MaterialsCeramic TilesProduced as follows:

· Raw material preparation + Shaping· Drying raw tiles· Glazing· Burning· Sorting

Finishing: raw ceramic or glazedUNE EN 1304Reaction to fire = M0Bending resistance:> = 900 NFrosting: 150 cyclesThermal conductivity: Absorption <5%

Concrete tilesHardened cement mortar.UNE EN 490 (European level)Reaction to fire = M0Bending resistance:> = 2000 NFrosting: + 25 cyclesThermal conductivity: 1.2 Kcal / m ° CAbsorption <10%

9.2. Ceramic and concrete tiles. International and Spanish standards9.2.1. International standards

Ceramic (left) and concrete international standards. John Wiley and sons. Best Practises Guide to Residential Construction, 2006.

Vocabulary and details. John Wiley and sons. Best Practises Guide to Residential Construction, 2006.

9.2.2. Spanish standards. Ceramics

Arabic tile Mixed (pseudo-s) tile

Spanish standards. Ceramics

Flat tile Other elements

Spanish standards. Concrete

Concrete tiles

According to CTE DB HS, the minimum slopes for ceramic and concrete tiles must be:

Connection systems

· Cement mortars. Cement, lime and sand (1: 2: 10) or waterproof mortar M-2.5. A slope <30 ° is recommended.· Dry installation. Drilling screws and nails, with diameters and lengths that allow its insertion. Screws will be anchored to wooden or metal furring strips.· Adhesives, silicones and foams. Mainly polyurethane foam, used for all concrete and ceramic tiles.

Superficial supports

· Brickwork slopes. Ceramic brick, cement mortar and a reinforced compression layer.· Concrete. Site slabs or precast elements.· Steel or timber substructures. Covered with several furring strips and metal or fiber- cement board.

9.3. Construction Systems9.3.1. Spanish standards

9.3.2. Ventilated roofs

9.3.3. Tectum roofs

Tectum roofs. Details

09 (I). Ceramic and Concrete Tile Roofs p022p44

9.4. CTE Details9.4.1. Eaves. CTE HS1 2.4.4.2.2 9.4.2. Gablets. CTE HS 2.4.4.2.3

9.4.3. Valleys. CTE HS1 2.4.4.2.4

9.4.4. Hips and ridges. CTE HS1 2.4.4.2.5

9.4.5. Gutters. CTE HS1 2.4.4.2.9 9.4.6. Relationship with wall. CTE HS1 2.4.4.2.1

Relationship with wall. CTE HS1 2.4.4.2.1

9.5. Bibliography

Deplazes, A (Ed.) (2009) Constructing Architecture. Materials, processes, structures. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 1: A multidisciplinary approach. 2009. Research in Architectural Engineering SeriesKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 2: Architecture - Climate – Skin. Research in Architectural Engineering Series Schunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Pitched Roofs. Birkhäuser, BaselSchunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Flat Roofs. Birkhäuser, Basel

Spanish regulations:· Código Técnico de la Edificación· Normas UNE-EN 10077-1, UNE-EN 12210, UNE-EN 12207, UNE-EN 12208, UNE-EN 12400, UNE-EN 12567-1, UNE-EN 14351-1 y UNE-EN -ISO 140-3

09 (II). Slate and other Flat Tile Roofs p01

Session 9 (II)Slate and other FlatTile Roofs

9.1. Introduction9.2. Waterproof performance9.3. Construction systems9.4. Construction processes9.5. Construction details9.6. Other materials9.7. Bibliography

A slate roof at La Casa de la Moneda. Segovia, Spain

Based on the original presentations by Prof. Julián García julian.garciam@upm.es

Translated by Luis M. Martín

9.1. IntrodutionMaterialsSlate. Slate the finest grained foliated homogeneous metamorphic rock. Foliation does not correspond to the sedimentary layering, but to planes perpendicular to the direction of metamorphic compression.Not every slate is good enough for roof tiles. See the following links for spanish legislation and production processes

· CTE-DB-HS Apartados 2.4.2, 2.4.3 y 2.4.4 Cubiertas) y 2.3.2 y 2.3.3 (Fachadas). Puntos singulares (2.4.4.2): http://www.codigotecnico.org/web/recursos/documento s/dbhs/hs1/100.html· Normas UNE-EN 12326-1 (Especificaciones del producto), UNE-EN 12326-2 (Métodos de ensayo), UNE-EN 22190-3 EX (Sistemas de colocación)· NTE-QTP/1973. Cubiertas - Tejados de pizarra. http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1973/12/29/pdfs/A25268 -25292.pdfSee production processes videos at: www.ehu.es/sem/seminario_pdf/SEMINARIO_SEM_2_18 3.pdf

Production process.

Commercial products. Standard forms and sizes for roof tile slates.

Supplementary MaterialNails. Galvanized steel, between 50 mm. in length and 2.8 mm. in diameter and 30 mm. in length and 2.0 mm. in diameter.

Supplementary MaterialHooks. Galvanized steel, 110 mm. long and 2.5 mm. diameter.

Supplementary MaterialFurring, furring strips and battens.

ToolsSlate hammer and shears

Vocabulary

9.2. Waterproof performanceRelationship capilarity-slope-overlay

Capilarity with nail and hook. Case study – rectangular 200x300 slate.

Spanish rainfall maps. Simplification in 3 regions:1. Interior of the country, at an altitude lower than 600 m.2. High zones between 600 and 1,200 m3. Zone of the Atlantic coast or above altitudes of 1,200 m

Installation: hooks Installation: nail

1.- Slate 200x3002.- Black plaster (4-5 cm.)3.- Support

9.3. Construction systemsTraditional standards

Slate on black plaster

1.- Slate 200x3002.- Furring (every 10 cm)3.- Furring (every 60 cm)4.- Insulation5.- Support

Traditional standardsSlate on furring

Contemporary standardsSlate on insulation panel

1.- Slate 200x3002.- Furring (every 10 cm)3.- Insulation panel4.- Support

Contemporary standardsSlate on timber board with insulation panel

1.- Slate 200x3002.- Timber board3.- Furring (every 60 cm)4.- Insulation panel5.- Support

Contemporary standardsSlate on timber board

1.- Slate 200x3002.- Timber board3.- Furring (every 60 cm)4.- Insulation5.- Vapour barrier6.- Support

1.- Pizarra 200x3002.- Yeso negro (4-5 cm.)3.- Estructura

Contemporary standardsOther strategies

9.5. Construction detailsSpanish standards

International standards

Images in this presentation by: Cluster da Pizarra de Galicia, Amado Ramos, Pays Couserans, Bretagne Couverture, The Paulin Slate and Cooper co. Y Miller Roofing. Illustrations by Schunk 2003 and prof. J. Garcia.

A ceramic fish tile roof at Baker House. Trivandrum, India.

9.6. Other materialsCeramic tilesWooden shingles

Wooden shingles at the roof of the church of Kristinestad, Finland.

9.7. Bibliography

Deplazes, A (Ed.) (2009) Constructing Architecture. Materials, processes, structures. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 1: A multidisciplinary approach. 2009. Research in Architectural Engineering SeriesKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 2: Architecture - Climate – Skin. Research in Architectural Engineering Series López Piñero et al. La pizarra. Un material para construir. Asociación Gallega de Pizarristas. La coruña, 2003Menéndez Selgas, J. L. Arquitectura y tecnología en la colocación de pizarra en cubiertas. Peymar. Orense, 1993.Schunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Pitched Roofs. Birkhäuser, BaselSchunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Flat Roofs. Birkhäuser, Basel

Online referencesEnglish design guide: http://issuu.com/the_building_centre/docs/1033_pdf13Maintenance videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pf8xdbtiCM0

09 (III). Metal Roofs p01

Session 9 (III)Metal Roofs

9.1. Introduction9.1.1. Materials9.1.2. Principles

9.2. Metal sheet roofs9.3. Corrugated metal panels9.4. Bibliography

A metal roof at Gananoque, Canada

Based on the original presentations by Prof. Julián García julian.garciam@upm.es

Translated by Luis M. Martín

9.1. Introduction.In this presentation metal solutions for pitched roofs are studied. These roofs are often built with but large sheets, that enable low slopes, with a minimum of between 5 and 15% in many cases.These are the minimums established by the spanish regulations:

Slopes and materials according to the spanish CTE DB HS

9.1.1. MaterialsStainless steel. Suitable for roofs and facades of any kind, given its excellent corrosion resistance. Doesn’t need much maintenance, admits welding, a bit malleable, and compatible with metals such as carbon steel, aluminum or zinc.Different finishes, including tin, satin, glitter and textured.Aluminum. Suitable for roofs and facades of any kind. Very light, uses oxidation as protection against corrosion, since the oxide film (alumina) formed on its surface prevents oxidation of the core material. Different finishes, ranging from anodizing (artificial formation of a protective oxide film and subsequent sealing of the surface) to lacquering with enamel paints or PVCs.

Stainless Steel and aluminium

Natural zinc, natural copper and patinated copper.

Zinc. Good corrosion resistance, although it may be attacked by condensation on its inner face, -that’s the reason it is usually installed on different types of membranes. Not much maintenance, admits welding, is malleable (although it might not be mechanically settled), and is compatible with standard metal construction. Different finishes, including naturally patinated and anthracite or gray.Copper. Its use is limited by its high price. Good durability, even in coastal areas (where other metals can cause problems), malleable, admits welding. Can generate galvanic corrosion problems to less noble metals, such as steel, aluminum or zinc, brass but not stainless steel, or lead. Unaffected by condensation corrosion. Different finishes including natural, preoxidated and patinated, etc.It is also used in alloys with other metals: tin (bronze), reddish, usually in facades; zinc (brass), golden, in gutters and auxiliaries; and aluminum (aluminum bronze), golden, rare.

Lead sheets and a Titanium Façade at the Guggenheim Museum. Bilbao, Spain.

Lead. Extremely malleable material, but very heavy. Low mechanical strength. Suitable for indoor edge solutions, can also be used in full covers. Low maintenance. Can be in contact with steel, zinc or copper. Toxic if inhaled, sensitive to condensation corrosion. Natural finishing.Titanium. Good material for roofs, but very expensive. Durable, lightweight and sturdy, it is compatible with most common metals. Its expansion coefficient is low compared to other metals studied. It comes in a natural finish, usually very bright, and anodized and textured.

9.1.2. Construction principlesExpansion of materials on deck. Temperature ranges between + 80 ° and -20 °. An element 10m. long can increase its length up to 2 cm. during the day and decrease other two at night.Galvanic corrosion. In roofing, galvanic couple problems become compatibility problems. To avoid problems materials with similar galvanic potentials are used in construction.

Expansions and standard potentials of usual roof metals.

Galvanic corrosion principles

Se considera corrosión galvánica la generada por una diferencia de potencial entre dos metales distintos puestos en contacto con un electrolito (agua, o soluciones salinas, por lo general). Esta diferencia, o par galvánico, genera una pila galvánica, en la que el ánodo se corroe, mientras que el cátodo no sufre corrosión, sino reducción; el primero pierde electrones, que el segundo recibe, por vía de los iones del electrolito.Estas diferencias de potencial son función, obviamente, de los metales puestos en contacto (aunque también del medio; no es idéntico el comportamiento de dos metales puestos en contacto con agua de lluvia y agua marina, por ejemplo). Convencionalmente, las series galvánicas o electropotenciales determinan la sensibilidad de los metales a sufrir corrosión en electrolitos típicos. A mayor diferencia de carga, más rápidas la corrosión y reducción de los materiales. Para los metales que se emplean habitualmente en la construcción de cubiertas, se ha llegado a la siguiente convención:1.- Aluminio 2.- Titanio 3.- Zinc 4.- Hierro5.- Níquel 6.- Estaño 7.- Plomo 8.- CobreDe esta forma, cuando dos metales de la lista anterior entran en contacto, sea por presencia de agua o de aire húmedo, el metal de índice más bajo se corroe. La corrosión es más rápida cuanto más alejados se hallan los metales en la serie, por lo que es necesario evitar siempre contactos directos entre materiales muy separados en la escala: cobre y aluminio, por ejemplo; o cobre y zinc. La corrosión galvánica puede prevenirse de diferentes modos. Por un lado, es posible, en determinadas condiciones, aislar eléctricamente los dos metales entre sí, mediante plásticos u otros materiales. También pueden mantenerse secos los metales, protegiéndolos con plásticos o resinas epoxi; o al menos al material con mayor capacidad de reducción. Otra opción es emplear ánodos de sacrificio, generalmente de aluminio, el metal de más bajo índice en la tabla anterior, para prevenir la corrosión de los elementos que deseamos proteger. Pero, como puede entenderse, casi todas estas estrategias son complicadas de llevar a cabo en un elemento tan expuesto como una cubierta de edificación, por lo que es recomendable emplear, siempre que sea posible, dos metales que tengan potenciales similares, o incluso el mismo metal para toda la construcción.Para ampliar información puede consultarse Callister, W.D. Introducción a la ciencia e ingeniería de los materiales. Reverté. Barcelona, 1996. Y más concretamente el Cap 18. Corrosión y degradación de materiales, en http://books.google.es/books?id=YiWdEYEHBIAC&pg=PA565#v=onepage&q&f=false

Ejemplo de corrosión por par galvánico en una tubería. Micro- fotografía de corrosión de una placa de latón. En Callister, 593.

Seaming machine and standard spanish materials.

9.2. Metal sheet roofsA system of overlapped and seamed sheets. All the above materials, with varying thicknesses, are used. Depending on the material and the desired finish, the seaming of the sheets can be different. Sheets can be seamed by hand (traditional system) or mechanically (system of long strips).

Seaming machine. Building site with a roof covering.

Metal sheets are now usually connected through mechanized seaming systems. This system allows to construct these roofs at a very high speed, regardless of other aspects of roofs construction.

All these details available at http://copperalliance.org.uk/resource- library/pub-156---copper-roofing-in-detail

9.2.1. International standards

Proceso de engatillado para

junta alzada.

9.2.2. Spanish standards

Medidas para engatillado en junta

plana y alzada.

Junta sobre listón curvo y junta

hueca.

Diferentes juntas sobre listón plano y

aleros.

Junta rehundida y junta alzada con

grapa vista.

Dos ejemplos de soluciones actuales.

Esquemas de funcionamiento mecánico e higrotérmico de una solución actual.

Detalle de encuentro ventilado con

paramento.

Zinc roof construction.

Lead roof construction.

Zinc and copper roof construction.

Copper roof construction.

Lead flashings in a slate roof.

Different types of metal corrugated sheets.

9.3. Corrugated metal panels

Systems based on preformed sheets in waves, nerves or frets. Large sizes that cover the distance forward-ridge. Two basic types: single sheet and sandwich panel.

Single sheet. Preformed in different sections. Added insulation needed. Overlap parallel to slope: 15 cm. Overlap perpendicular to slope: 1.5 waves or frets.

International standards

Different sandwich panel sections.

Sandwich panel. Double metal preformed sheet with internal insulation, usually rockwool, polyurethane or extruded polystyrene in different thicknesses. Overlap parallel to slope: 15 cm. Perpendicular to the slope direction clipped joints are used, with or without flashings.

Possibilities of preforming the top and bottom sheets are the same as those in the considerations above. The inner finishing may be of different materials; microperforated sheets are common.

Overlaps of different metal roof solutions.

Joints. Joints in the direction of the slope are designed in different ways. With single sheet systems, common solutions are simple overlaps; in sandwich panels clipped solutions are used.

Different relationship with substructures.

Relationship with substructures. Metal panels can be screwed directly to the support (where materials allow this: concrete slabs, for instance). If the supporting substructure is a steel truss with rafters, indirect connection systems, like hooks or brackets, are used.

Construction of a corrugated metal panel roof.

9.7. Bibliography

Deplazes, A (Ed.) (2009) Constructing Architecture. Materials, processes, structures. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 1: A multidisciplinary approach. 2009. Research in Architectural Engineering SeriesKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 2: Architecture - Climate – Skin. Research in Architectural Engineering Series Schunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Pitched Roofs. Birkhäuser, BaselSchunk, E. et al. (2003) Roof Construction Manual. Flat Roofs. Birkhäuser, BaselVV.AA. La plancha de plomo en la construcción. Asociación nacional del plomo. Madrid, 1986.VV.AA. Tejados de cobre. CEDIC. Madrid, 2004.

Online referencesGeneral: Centro Nacional de Investigaciones metalúrgicas: www.cenim.csic.esCopper: www.infocobre.org.es/publicaciones-cobre-en-arquitectura.html

European Copper in Architecture: www.copperconcept.orgPlomo: European Lead Sheet Industry Association: www.elsia-web.orgZinc: International Zinc Association: www.zinc.orgAcero inoxidable: www.cedinox.es

10. Flat Roofs p01

Session 10Flat Roofs

10.1. Introduction10.1.1. Elements10.1.2. Standard representations

10.2. Traditional vs protected10.3. Details

10.3.1. International standards10.3.2. Spanish standards

10.4. Case studies10.5. Bibliography

Flat roof building process at Fuenlabrada Hospital.

Arch. Andrés Perea

10. Flat Roofs p02

10.1. Introduction.Spanish CTE DB HS1 states that flat roofs are those that meet the following slope standards:

But there are many other possible classifications. The international standards are:· Traditional roofs. Waterproof membrane was usually tarpaper, a 'paper' or fiber material soaked or impregnated in tar.· Protected membrane roof. A roof where thermal insulation or another material is placed above the waterproofing membrane.· Composite steel deck. A flat roof deck often used for commercial structures.

10. Flat Roofs p03

10.1.1. Elements.Flat roofs can, according to CTE DB HS-1, include the following elements.· Sloping. Mandatory whenever the support base does not have the required slope.· Vapor barrier. Immediately under the insulation, to avoid humidity by condensation.· Separating layers. Under thermal insulation, under waterproofing membranes, etc. Used to avoid contact of chemically incompatible materials.· Thermal insulation. Appropriate materials.· Protective layers. Over thermal insulation, over waterproofing membranes, etc. Used to avoid cracks or depressions.· Waterproofing layers. To avoid water entrance.· Finishing layer. Various systems.· Drainage system. The drainage system may consist on sinks (vertical) weirs (horizontal) and gutters (linear in edge), or in a combination of them all.

10. Flat Roofs p04

Slope mortars.Construction of the slope of a flat roof with mortar. Lightweight concretes or mortars are often used in Spain.Mind the details about junctions with walls and parapets: a joint to avoid expansion cracks is always mandatory.

10. Flat Roofs p05

Vapor barriers, separating and protecting layers.Vapor barriers, separating and protecting layers can have different forms, and be composed of different materials. For vapor barriers, primers are used, most based on bitumen, improved coal tar or asphalt products. Soft protections or separations are often achieved with polyethylene films, that allow contact of chemically incompatible materials.

10. Flat Roofs p06

Thermal insulation.Its density and thickness is established by the DB-HE-1 CTE. In Madrid climate zone, for a standard 60-90kg/m3 density, the usual thickness is between 8 and 10 cm. The most common material is extruded polystyrene (XPS), due to its low moisture absorption and high durability.

10. Flat Roofs p07

Waterproof membranes.Waterproof membranes are often composed by one of the following materials:· Modified bitumen. Improved coal tar or asphalt products.· EPDM. Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer, a synthetic rubber.· PVC. Polyvinyl Chloride, also known as vinyl roofing.· FTPO. Flexible Thermo Polyolefin, a polymer that doesn’t cure, and can be heated again.

10. Flat Roofs p08

Finishing layer.Various systems, from loose gravel to standard ceramic tile flooring. Most drained systems use plots to create a cavity between the finishing and the runoff surfaces. In these cases, the roof finishing can be really flat, as the joints between the tiles act as a huge rack that hides water as is flows to the drainage system.

10. Flat Roofs p09

Drainage system.The drainage system usually consists on vertical sinks, most made in EPDM or PVC. Weirs, usually covered with metal racks, are used in pedestrian areas. Gutters in edge are appropriate for pitched roofs.

10. Flat Roofs p010

10.1.2. International graphic standards – Zentralverband des Dachdeckerhandwerks

Waterproofing membrane – Bitumen

Waterproofing membrane – PVCs and EPDMs

Waterproofing membrane – Reinforced membranes

Thermal insulation

Vapour barriers

Separative layers

Mortar layers

Slopes

Protective layers

Drainage layers

10. Flat Roofs p011

Tile finishing. Elastic joints every 3-4m.Cement mortar.Waterproofing layer

Thermal insulationVapour barrier

Structure or substructure

10.2. Traditional flat roof vs. protected membrane roof.

10. Flat Roofs p012

Protected membrane roof.

Tile finishing. Elastic joints every 3-4m.Cement mortar.Separating layerThermal insulationWaterproofing layer

Structure or substructure

10. Flat Roofs p013

10.3. Details10.3.1. International standards

10. Flat Roofs p014

10. Flat Roofs p015

10.3.2. Spanish standards

10. Flat Roofs p016

10. Flat Roofs p017

10.3.3. Special junctions. Wall – flat roof.

10. Flat Roofs p018

Special junctions. Drains and overflows.

10. Flat Roofs p019

10.4. Case studiesProtected membrane roof.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p020

Details. Protected membrane roof.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p021

Case studiesProtected membrane roof. Plot system.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p022

Details. Protected membrane roof. Plot system.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p023

Case studiesProtected membrane roof. Drained system.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p024

Details. Protected membrane roof. Drained system.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p025

Case studiesVehicle flat roof.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p026

Details. Vehicle flat roof.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p027

Case studiesProtected membrane roof. Loose gravel.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p028

Protected membrane roof. Loose gravel.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p029

Case studiesProtected membrane roof. Self-finished roofing felt.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p030

Details. Protected membrane roof. Self-finished roofing felt.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p031

Case studiesLightweight deck. Self-finished roofing felt.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p032

Lightweight deck. Self-finished roofing felt.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p033

Case studiesIntensive green roof with drainage layer.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p034

Details. Intensive green roof with drainage layer.DANOSA Catalog.

10. Flat Roofs p035

10.5. Bibliography

Deplazes, A (Ed.) (2009) Constructing Architecture. Materials, processes, structures. Birkhäuser, BaselKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 1: A multidisciplinary approach. 2009. Research in Architectural Engineering SeriesKnaack, U.; Klein, T. (2009) The Future Envelope 2: Architecture - Climate – Skin. Research in Architectural Engineering Series Sedlbauer, K. et al. (2010) Roof Construction Manual. Flat Roofs. Birkhäuser, Basel

Spanish regulations:· Código Técnico de la Edificación:· Normas UNE-EN 10077-1, UNE-EN 12210, UNE-EN 12207, UNE-EN 12208, UNE-EN 12400, UNE-EN 12567-1, UNE-EN 14351-1 y UNE-EN -ISO 140-3

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