Entomofagia in Africa :Diversità, valori nutrizionali,

importanza e sostenibilità

Università di Padova

Biodiversità, Sostenibilità e Solidarietà 2008

François P. MALAISSE

Entomofagia in AfricaOutline• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

Entomofagia in Africa

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

Entomofagia in Africa

“ Dessine-moi un entomophage”

an entomophage in action

ethno-ecologist

entomophagy > < insectivory

entomophagous insectivorouspeoples animals

εντοµονϕαγειν

insectusvorare

entomology

necrophagycoprophagy

herbivorycarnivory

Edible insects > < eaten insects

Vocabulary

Specialised words :

• termitophagy

• acridophagy ----------

• campeophagy[καµπη = caterpillar]

H. Lelotte

Insect denominationVocabulary

• ethnospecies : insect species recognized by an ethno-linguistic unit and having a precise

denomination (= vernacular name)

• scientific denomination :

genus + specific + godfathername epithetApis mellifera (L.)

nàà-wili-wεlε(Gbaya language)

“the one doing tremblefrom craving”

Afrocerura sp.

P. Roulon-Doko

Insect

headthorax abdomen

metathorax

mesothorax prothorax

anterior wing

posterior wing

Larousse

Insects within Invertebrates

Shellfishes Molluscs

InsectsAnnelides Arachnides

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence

• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

Human entomophagy... an old story

• Bible and acridophagy

• Pline and the “Cossus” of Romans

• Termites : comparison of a same collecting technic

by chimpanzees and Man

Human entomophagy... an old story

• Pline and the “Cossus” of Romans

Lucanus cervus

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

WHY NOT EAT INSECTS ?

• 1885 Vincent M. HOLT

• « But our culture is changing. Perhaps the time is now ripe for insectivory to invade Chelsea; gently at first around Sloane Square, with Choux-fleurs garnis de Chenille, ... »

1941

Insectescomestibles

Peuplesentomophages

Dr Emile BERGIER

1951

F.S. Bodenheimer

Julieta RamosElorduy de Conconi

1991Mexico

Jun MITSUHASHI

1984Tokyo

SergeBAHUCHET

1985Paris

LES PYGMEES AKAET LA FORET

CENTRAFRICAINE

FrançoisMALAISSE

1997Gembloux

Se nourriren forêt claire africaineApproche écologique et nutritionnelle

PauletteROULON-DOKO

1998 Paris

CHASSE, CUEILLETTE ET CULTURECHEZ LES GBAYA DE CENTRAFRIQUE

2005

The latest maincontribution

on Entomophagy

Maurizio G. Paoletti

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

- in the animal kingdom- eaten in the humanity- eaten at populations’ level

How much insects species

Insects as Food:A Case Study from

the Northwest Amazon

Catching and Eating Dragonfliesin Bali and Elsewhere in Asia

A brief note on edible insectsin Ecuador

The importance of edible insectsin the nutrition and economy of

people of the rural aeras of MexicoUse of insects as human food in Papua

New Guinea, Australia, and North-east India

Identify all the papersdealing with

entomophagy !

Table 3.- List of Anisoptera species eaten by Man

Present diversity : 2 families, 9 genera, 15 species

Family Species Reference CountriesAeshnidae (Region)Aeshna brevifrons Hagen Onore 1997 Equator Aeshna marchali Rambur Onore 1997 Equator Aeshna multicolorHagen Ramos-El. et al.1998 MexicoAeshna peralta Ris Onore 1997 EquatorAeshna spp. Meyer-Rochow 1997 IndiaAnax guttatus Burmeister van der Meer Mohr 1941 (Sumatra)

Pemberton 1995 (Bali)Anax sp.1 Conconi & Bourges 1977 MexicoCoryphaeshna adnexa Hagen Onore 1997 EquatorLibellulidaeCrocothemis sp.1 Pemberton 1995 (Bali)Neurothemis sp.1 Pemberton 1995 (Bali)Pantala flavescens F. van der Meer Mohr 1965 (Sumatra)Trithemis arterosa (Burmeister) Malaisse & Parent 1998 (Katanga)

today :1.762 insectsdealing with 103 families

and to 14 orders

Diversity of insectseaten by Man

Orders Families Genera SpeciesAnoploura 1 1 2Coleoptera 18 107 278Diptera 10 13 21Ephemeroptera 2 4 4Heteroptera 8 36 103Homoptera 9 26 72Hymenoptera 8 47 259Isoptera 3 13 21Lepidoptera 29 89 185Neuroptera 1 1 3Odonates 2 9 15Orthoptera 10 62 195Plecoptera 2 4 4Trichoptera 2 2 3

Diversity des edible items eaten bythe Babemba of Katanga

mushrooms

Vegetable items- fruits amylacés

- seeds- fr. charnus- reserve organs- leaves- flowers

honey mammals(game + rodents)

birds fishes reptiles

insects (caterpillars, termites,grasshoppers, beetles,punaises)

other animals

drinks- juces- infusions- fermented prod.

sel(53)

(252)(14)

(12)(128)

(41)(42)(16)

(7)(68)

(10)(280/286)(158/676)

(20)(4)

(7)(9)

(3)

(26)

(104)

> 980

Diversity of edible insectsColeoptera

18 families, among whom:• Buprestidae• Cerambycidae• Curculionidae• Dynastidae• Dysticidae• Melolonthidae• Scarabaeidae• Tenebrionidae

C. Seignobos et al.

Diversity of edible insectsColeoptera

1 families, among whom :

• Buprestidae

• Cerambycidae• Curculionidae• Dynastidae• Dysticidae• Melolonthidae• Scarabaeidae• Tenebrionidae Zographus aulicus

F. Malaisse 1997

Diversity of edible insectsColeoptera

18 families, among whom :• Buprestidae• Cerambycidae• Curculionidae• Dynasticae• Dysticidae• Melolonthidae• Scarabaeidae• Tenebrionidae

A. Verwilgen

Diversity of edible insects

• Calliphoridae• Chaoboridae• Ephydridae• Leptidae• Muscidae• Rhagionidae• Sarcophagidae• Stratiomyidae

• Syrphidae• Tipulidae

Diptera10 families, among whom :

J. Ramos Elorduy

Diversity of edible insects

Heteroptera8 families, among whom :• Belostomatidae• Coreidae• Corixidae• Naucoridae• Nepidae• Notonectidae• Pentatomidae• Scutelleridae

P. Menzel

Diversity of edible insects

Heteroptera8 families, among whom :• Belostomatidae• Coreidae• Corixidae• Naucoridae• Nepidae• Notonectidae• Pentatomidae• Scutelleridae

P. Menzel

Diversity of edible insects

A poor knowledge of bugs !

Peter MENZEL & Faith d’ALUSIO

1998

Diversity of edible insects

Homoptera9 families, among whom:• Aphididae• Cicadellidae

• Cicadidae• Coccidae• Dactylopidae• Flatidae• Fulgoridae• Membracidae• Psyllidae

P. Menzel

Diversity of edible insects

9 families, among whom :• Aphididae• Cicadellidae• Cicadidae• Coccidae• Dactylopidae• Flatidae• Fulgoridae• Membracidae

• Psyllidae in Livingstone (1857)

Homoptera

Diversity of edible insectsHymenoptera

6 families, among whom :• Apidae• Cynipidae• Formicidae• Halictidae• Thynnidae• Vespidae

J. Matera

Diversity of edible insectsHymenoptera

1 families,among whom :

• Apidae• Cynipidae• Formicidae• Halictidae• Thynnidae• Vespidae

Diversity of edible insects

Hymenoptera1 families,

among whom :• Apidae• Cynipidae• Formicidae• Halictidae• Thynnidae• Vespidae

Smeathmann in 1781

Diversity of edible insectsIsoptera

Diversity of edible insectsLepidoptera

25 families,among whom :

• Saturniidae• Notodontidae• Sphingidae• Bombycidae• Noctuidae• Limacodidae

Megathymidae

caterpillar of Aegiale

(Acentrocneme) hesperiaris,agave worm,

raising a glass of mezcal,

the national Mexican

drink

Diversity of edible insects

Odonates(Anisoptera)

2 families,among whom:

• Aeschnidae• Libellulidae

(imagos, larves)

xxxxxxxx

Anax imperator

Diversity of edible insects

Odonates(Anisoptera)

2 families, among whom :

• Aeschnidae• Libellulidae

(imagos, larves) P. Menzel

Diversity of edible insects

10 families, among whom :• Acrididae• Blattidae• Catantopidae• Gryllacrididae• Gryllidae• Gryllotalpidae• Mantidae• Phasmidae• Pyrgomorphidae• Tettigoniidae

Orthoptera

Diversity of edible insects

10 families, among whom :• Acrididae• Blattidae• Catantopidae• Gryllacrididae• Gryllidae• Gryllotalpidae• Mantidae• Phasmidae• Pyrgomorphidae• Tettigoniidae

Orthoptera

Diversity of edible insects

10 families, among whom :• Acrididae• Blattidae• Catantopidae• Gryllacrididae• Gryllidae• Gryllotalpidae• Mantidae• Phasmidae• Pyrgomorphidae• Tettigoniidae

Orthoptera

Zonocerus variegatus

Diversity of edible insects

10 families, among whom :• Acrididae• Blattidae• Catantopidae• Gryllacrididae• Gryllidae• Gryllotalpidae• Mantidae• Phasmidae• Pyrgomorphidae• Tettigoniidae

Orthoptera

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

Termitophagy1.- Termites’ biology2.- Former ethnoecological studies

dealing with termites3.- Species diversity4.- Distribution of termites5.- Distribution of termitophagy6.- Gathering technics7.- Nutritional values

1.- Termites’ biologyEthymology« tarmes » or « termes » : in lower latin

meaning « worm eating»formerly in english : white ant

Black ants and white antsFormicidae > < Isoptera

queenmale

Atta Syntermes

soldiers

Termites’ castes

queen

king

soldier

worker

large

small

winged adults

eggs queen king

larva

worker

soldier

nymph M

Reproduction1.- swarming preparation2.- taking flight3.- pariade (couple walking one after the other)4.- nest drilling5.- coitus x

Alate ofMacrotermes falciger

Large and small soldiers

queen

Nuptialroom

eggs queen king

larva

worker

soldier

nymph Eaten material + fungus comb and geophagy

winged adults

Fungus combchamber

pseudorhize

stipering

cap

perforatorium

termite mound surface

mycohead

Termitomyces sp.

chamber

mycoheadTermitomyces spp.

Fungus comb realised byMegagnathotermes katangensis(white mycoheads are easily distinguished)

Termitophagy1.- Termites’ biology2.- Former ethnoecological

studies dealing with termites3.- Species diversity4.- Distribution of termites5.- Distribution of termitophagy6.- Gathering technics7.- Nutritional values

The oldiest reference known for Africais given by Labat in 1732 (on page 183) which reports that, according to Cavazzi,alates termites are regarded as delicaciesby populations of Congo and Angolle: « What a treat to have them roasted ! »

Termitophagy

1781 : Smeathmann

alate

soldierworker

queen

H. Drummond1888

The white ant A theory

1922 : Hegh(756 p.)

E. HEGH

septembre 1922

A tremendous early ethnoecological study on ants and termites

byCarl-Axel SILOW

1983

1907 : von Berensberg

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1870-79 1880-89 1890-99 1900-09 1910-19 1920-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69 1970-79 1980-89 1990-99 2000-

Number of publications with comments about termitophagy

Termitophagy1.- Termites’ biology2.- Former ethnoecological studies

dealing with termites3.- Species diversity4.- Distribution of termites5.- Distribution of termitophagy6.- Gathering technics7.- Nutritional values

World Isoptera (Termites) diversityFamily Genera Species

SubfamilyTermopsidae 5 20Hodotermitidae 3 19Mastotermitidae 1 1Kalotermitidae 22 419TermitidaeMacrotermitinae 14 349Nasutermitinae 91 663Amitermitinae 17 295Apicotermitinae 43 202Cubitermitinae 28 161Termitinae 43 288Total 282 2,761

Isoptera (Termites) systematic

heads of soldier for different species

Isoptera(Termites)diversityaccordingto latitude

Latitude North x

Nr of species

Tropic of Cancer

List of edible Termite species in the worldSubfamilies Genus Species Ethnolinguistic References

units (Country)Hodotermitinae

Hodotermes mossambicus Tswana (Botswana) Grivetti 1979Microhodotermes viator ? (South Africa) Bodenheimer 1951

MacrotermitinaeAcanthotermes acanthothorax Victoria (Uganda) Harris 1940Macrotermes bellicosus ? (Nigeria) Ukhun 1985Macrotermes falciger Shona (Zimbabwe) Chavanduka 1975Macrotermes mossambicus ? (Zambia) Silow 1983Macrotermes muelleri ? (D.R. Congo) DeFoliart 2002Macrotermes natalensis Masa (Cameroun) Mignot 2003

NasutitermitinaeLabiotermes labralis Tukanoan (Colombia) Dufour 1987Nasutitermes ephrateae Yanomamo (Venezuela) Paoletti et al. 2000aSyntermes aculeosus (Venezuela) Paoletti et al. 2000bSyntermes parallelus Tukanoan (Colombia) Dufour 1987Syntermes spinosus Tukanoan (Colombia) Dufour 1987Syntermes synderi Tukanoan (Colombia) Dufour 1987Syntermes tanygnathus Tukanoan (Colombia) Dufour 1987

Diversityof termitaria

Diversity in Guinea Bissau

Transect in Cantanhez area

1.- Trinervitermes togoensis 4.- Cubitermes subcrenulatus2.- Cubitermes bilobatodes 5.- Cubitermes severus3.- Macrotermes bellicosus 6.- Cephalotermes rectangularis

7.- Microcerotermes fuscotibialis

x

Diversity in Guinea Bissau

Macrotermes bellicosus

Diversity inGuinea Bissau

Trinervitermes togoensis

Cephalotermes rectangularis

Cubitermes subcrenulatus

Microcerotermesbequaertianus

Odontotermes sp.

MacrotermesfalcigerMegagnathotermes

katangensis

Odontotermes sp.Anoplotermes sp.Apicotermes sp.Microtermes sp.Allodontotermes sp.Duplidentitermes sp.Pseudacantotermes militaris

Ancistrotermeslatinotus

Cubitermes sp. 1-3Noditermes sp.Crenotermes sp.Amitermes importinusA. truncatidensOphiotermes shabaensisTrinervitermes dispar

[after Malaisse & Buhendwa 1982]

Termites diversity in a Katangan wet type open forest

in blue : edible species

Katanga :Stages of a

Macrotermesfalciger

termitaria

a

b

c

Termitaria

as a

sub-ecosystem

Upper Katangaafter Malaisse (1977)

Pseudacanthotermes spiniger

Organisation of a termitaria

xxxxx

empty chamber

royal chamberventilation tunnel

chamber withfungus comb

Density of Macrotermes large mounds : 5-6 per ha

mean height : 5.1 mmean volume : 256 cubic mmean basis : 174 sq. mmean cover : 5.6 %

Termitophagy1.- Termites’ biology2.- Former ethnoecological studies

dealing with termites3.- Species diversity4.- Distribution of termites5.- Distribution of termitophagy6.- Gathering technics7.- Nutritional values

Termites et termitières

Figure 3.-Importance relative de la diversité des termites comestibles selon les familles

MacrotermitidaeNasutitermitidaeHodotermitidaeHeterotermitidaeRhinotermitidaeApicotermitidaeTermitidae

Ethno-linguistic units of Burkina Faso (66 units)

Burkina Faso termitophagyNr Ethno- units Consumption Vernacular names

1 Birifor Q A Kpétèma (R, A)2 Bissa Q A Bérakir (Q), Bê (A), Bêssa (W)3 Blé A4 Bobo north A Byero (A)5 Bobo south Q A Biyoro (A)6 Bolon A Bibi (A)7 Bomu A Ya (A)8 Bwamu Q A Yihoha (Q), Yiho (A)9 Bwamu Laa Q A Yio manu (Q), Yio (A)

10 Bwamu Twi A Yio manu (Q), Yio (A)

Results gathered for 52+5 ethno-linguistic units,concern only 3 different products [A, Q and W] (of 10 known to exists), respectively 100, 23, 4%.

Nr Units Consumption Vernacular names(Q, A, W, S, N) Q = queen, A = alates, W = workers, S = soldiers,

N = nymphs, E = eggs. 1 Bwende Xc X Lunsua (A)2 Dikidiki X Lunsua (A)3 Kakongo Tusa (A), Tshielele (A)4 Manianga Xc X Mombumbu (A), Ngudia binsua (Q), Makekete (S)5 Mbata Konga nyingi (A)6 Mbeko Xc Lunsu (A)7 Mbinsa Xc X Bunsua (A)8 Mboma Xc Lunsua (A), Nkukua (A), Mvula (A), Nkunku (N)

Ngudia lunsua (Q), Makekete (S), Maki ma lunsua E

9 Mpangu Lunsua (A), Bunsua (A)• Ndibu Xc Lunsua (A), Ngudia lunsua (Q), Soda (S), Maki (E) • Nkanu X Xc X Lunsua (A), Bunsua (A)• Ntandu Xc X X Xc Lunsua (A)

X = frequent eating, X = occasional eating, Xc = product offered in markets

Edible termites in Lower Congo (18 units studied: 13 A, 6 N, rarely Q, W, S)

Ethno-linguistic units eating termites in AfricaSome 179 of the 1032 different ethno-linguistic unitsrecognized in Africa have been quoted to eat termites

(x = consumption, A = adults, W = worker, Q = queen)629bis Ik = Teuso Uganda x Turnbull 1972

630 Teso (Kumi, Ngora) Uganda A Osmaton 1951

632 Acholi Uganda A Q Osmaton 1951

684 Zande Sudan A W Colrat de Montrozier 1902

688 Mangbetu D.R. Congo ? Bequaert 1921

699 Alur Uganda A Osmaton 1951

• Muzey Cameroon A De Garine 2002

775 Massa Cameroon A Malaisse & Mapongmetsen (unp. data)

775bis Masa Bugudu Cameroon A Mignot 2003

789 Bongo Sudan A W Schweinfurth 1875

794 Mandja = Manza Central Afr. Rep. x Vergiat 1937

795 Nzakara Central Afr. Rep. x Retel-Laurentin 1986

800 Gbaya (Bodoe) Central Afr. Rep. x Roulon-Doko 1998

For Africa

163 sources consulted with 179 ethno-linguistic units eating termites

Adults (alates) 160Queens 35Soldiers 19Nymphs 13Workers 6Eggs 4Soil 2Combs 2

Number of edibleethnospeciesrecognized

Zande 9Luba Kasai 7Logo-Avokaya 7Mangbetu 5Aka 4Gbaya-Bodoé 3Yansi 3Bemba 3

Termitophagy1.- Termites’ biology2.- Former ethnoecological studies

dealing with termites3.- Species diversity4.- Distribution of termites5.- Distribution of termitophagy6.- Gathering technics7.- Nutritional values

Period of availability(adults)

• linked to swarming• very short period (one or two days for adults)• for each species : precise seasonality

(linked to the amount of rainfall)• precise hour of the day; frequently on twilightor beginning of the evening• corresponds to period of human diet scarcity

1.- with hand at twilight

2.- with cages, baskets, herbs rolled up in cone

3.- with torch at night

4.- soil extraction of larvae, nymphs, soldiers, adults, queen

5.- management of termitaria

Gathering technics

Mofu (Cameroon)Management of termite hills

Gathering technic

Termitophagy1.- Termites’ biology2.- Former ethnoecological studies

dealing with termites3.- Species diversity4.- Distribution of termites5.- Distribution of termitophagy6.- Gathering technics7.- Nutritional values

Termitophagy diversity

Isoptera3 families :• Hodotermitidae• Rhinotermitidae• Termitidae

- Macrotermitinae- Termitinae- Nasutermitinae- Apicotermitinae

Nutritional values of termites

Species H2O Fats Pro- Ash K Ca Mg Fe Energetic Ref.teins values

Kj kcalundetermined * a 44.4 36.0 (1)

Macrotermes * b 6.0 46.1 34.8 (8)bellicosus

Macrotermes * b 49.2 44.3 41.8 110 42 26 3182 760 (4)falciger **c 66.0 5.3 61.3 170 (3)

**b 71.0 84.0 7.0 7.0 300 380 250 1767 422 (9)Macrotermes a 0.9 46.1 38.4 6.6 476 40 417 8 2562 612 (5)subhyalinus

Odontot. feae c 33.0 39.1 28.0 2035 486 (7)

Nutritionalvalue

of adults

AshCarbo-

hydrates

Proteins

Lipids

6.6 %8.0%

38.4%

46.1%

glutamic ac. 10.5aspartic ac. 9.0leucine 7.5tyrosine 6.9lysine 6.6alanine 6.2arginine 5.8proline 5.6

palmitic acid 46.5linoleic acid 34.4oleic acid 12.8linolenic acid 3.9myristic acid 0.2

Relative importance of lipids according to castes

Fats Queen Alate SoldierC14 0.1 0.9 0.4C15 0.1 0.2 0.5-0.8C16 14.1 29.6 3.7-8.3C16:1 0.3 2.7 0.4-0.8C17 0.3 0.1 1.4-2.2C18 7.1 8.4 11.7-16.3C18:1 74.4 49.1 50.3-63.7C18:2 1.9 8.8 18.4-28.6Sum saturated 22.9 39.3 16.7-27.3Sum mono-unsaturated 74.7 51.8 50.9-63.7Poly-unsaturated 2.3 8.8 18.4-28.6Total lipids 18.5 42.2 3.1-6.8

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

Old references on campeophagy in Africa

• 1658 Flacourt Ile Ste-Marie• 1686 van der Stel Namaquas• 1838 Ellis Betsileo• 1857 Livingstone Tswana Kwena• 1859 Livingstone• 1875 de Brazza• 1881 Serpa Pinto Ganguélas• 1911 Kassner Katanga• 1913 Tessmann Pangwe

An edible caterpillarpainted by Claudius

during theSimon van der Stel

expedition (1685 -1686), to be found in

Icones Plantarum et Animalium

Campeophagy

DE 1840 A 1856

EXPLORATIONSDANS L’INTERIEUR DE

L’AFRIQUE AUSTRALE

Paris 1859

Rd Dr David Livingstone

« les chenilles séchées sont un aliment

à haute valeur sociale »

Campeophagy

1881

PAR

le Major Serpa PINTO

« On nous apporta une grande corbeille remplie de chenilles très semblables, de toutes façons

à celle de l’Acheronthia atropos ...Les Ganguélas s’en montrent très friands ; ... »

COMMENTJ’AI TRAVERSE L’AFRIQUE

DEPUIS L’ATLANTIQUE JUSQU’A L’OCEAN INDIEN

A TRAVERS DES REGIONS INCONNUES

« die Kaffern fast fingerstarke, behaarte Raupen einer

Saturnidenart, ... in Gefässen sammelten, um dieselben in

gerösteten Zustande zu verzehren »

1903

1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Number of publications dealing with tropical African caterpillars

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9dessins de A. Crozier

Introduction à l’ethnoécologie des

Pygmées Akade la Lobaye

(Empire Centrafricain)S. Bahuchet

(1978)1 - Mboyo (Imbrasia oyemensis)2 - Sounga (Imbrasia epimethea)3 - idem (dernier stade)4 - Doudouma (Attacidae, indet.)5 - Nguéguélé (Imbrasia obscura)6 - Gbadon (Noctuidae, indet.) 7 - Kanga (Pseudanthera discrepans)8 - Mbanga (Imbrasia truncata)9 - Gbohoko (= Ndossi) (Anaphe sp.)

Families of Lepidoptera with edible caterpillars

ArctiidaeBrahmaeidaeCastniidaeCossidaeGeometridaeHepialidaeHesperiidaeLasiocampidaeLimacodidaeLymantriidaeMimallonidae

MomphidaeNoctuidaeNotodontidaeNymphalidaePapilionidaePieridaePsychidaePyralidaeSaturniidaeSphingidae

Species diversity of edible caterpillars in Africa

Families Species References

Brahmaeidae Dactylocerus lucina Drury Malaisse & Lognay 2003

Lasiocampidae Bombycomorpha pallida Distant Ramos Elorduy 1991

Gonometa postica Walter Quin 1959

Pachymeta robusta Aurivillius Malaisse & Roulon-Doko

Limacodidae Hadraphe ethiopica Bethune-Baker Malaisse & Lognay 2003

Lymantriidae Rhypopterix poecilanthes Colenette Malaisse & Lognay 2003

Noctuidae Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) Mignot 2003

Sphingomorpha chlorea Cr. Silow 1976

Spodoptera exempta (Walker) Mbata 1995

65 species belonging to 10 families

Species diversity of edible caterpillars in Africa

Families Species References

Brahmaeidae Dactylocerus lucina Drury Malaisse & Lognay 2003

Lasiocampidae Bombycomorpha pallida Distant Ramos Elorduy 1991

Gonometa postica Walter Quin 1959

Pachymeta robusta Aurivillius Malaisse & Roulon-Doko

Limacodidae Hadraphe ethiopica Bethune-Baker Malaisse & Lognay 2003

Lymantriidae Rhypopterix poecilanthes Colenette Malaisse & Lognay 2003

Noctuidae Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) Mignot 2003

Sphingomorpha chlorea Cr. Silow 1976

Spodoptera exempta (Walker) Mbata 1995

65 species belonging to 10 families

Saturniidae (44)

Limacodidae (1)Psychidae (1)

Notodontidae (8)

Hesperidae (1)Cossidae (1)

Sphingidae (5)

Noctuidae (3)

Acraeidae (2)

Lymantriidae (2)

Thaumetopoeidae (2)

Saturniidae

Psychidae

Limacodidae Notodontidae

Sphingidae

Some families with edible Lepidoptera

Sphingidae : Acherontia athropos

Saturniidae

Insects’ cooking methods

• eaten( fresh( grilled( fried( boiled

• commercialised ( fresh( dried( smoked( in tins

1032

Adolf FriedrichHerzog zu Mecklenburg

How many ethno-linguistic

Groups in Africa ?

Tutsi, Hutu and Twa

Distribution of campeophagy in South-central and Southern Africa

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

Entomofagia in AfricaImportance in Africa

Daily consumption of insects over 100 g (fresh weight) has been reported for morethan hundred ethno-linguistic groups.

Such intake is locally observed during 3-4 months. Insects may represented 70% of animal proteins intake.In some regions, insects are over-collected,and become rare. Management of this ressource is urgent.

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and

nutritional values• Present management of edible insects

Table 1.- Composition of edible caterpilars from Tropical Africa (values for 100 g of dry

matter).

Saturniidae NotodontidaeN = 20 N = 6

Proteins (g) (44,1) 63,7 +/- 10,4 (79,6) 53,7 +/- 5,4 Lipids (g) (8,1) 13,8 +/- 4,5 (21,5) 21,7 +/- 8,3Glucids (g) (3,7) 13,8 +/- 9,2 (29,4) 18,4 +/- 7,0 Ash (g) (3,8) 6,7 +/- 2,6 (14,4) 5,3 +/- 1,4Ca (mg) (50) 148 +/- 124 (500) 108 +/- 86P (mg) (500) 1099 +/- 680 (2300) 710 +/- 445 Fe (mg) (10) 81 +/- 81 (300) 42 +/- 31 E.v. (Kcal) (371) 449 +/- 36 (504) 463 +/- 49

E.v. = energetic value

Table 2- Composition in amino-acids of edible caterpillars(in % of proteins)

Amino-acid(s) SATURNIIDAE n = 14aspartic acid (8,5) 8,8 +/- 0,4 (9,3)glutamic acid (13,6) 14,5 +/- 0,8 (15,0)alanine (4,0) 4,4 +/- 0,4 (4,7)arginine (5,6) 6,2 +/- 0,6 (6,6)cystine (1,3) 1,6 +/- 0,3 (2,0)glycine (3,7) 3,8 +/- 0,2 (4,1)histidine (1,7) 2,8 +/- 0,6 (3,4)isoleucine (2,4) 4,5 +/- 2,0 (10,9)leucine (3,7) 6,6 +/- 1,4 (9,1)lysine (3,9) 6,9 +/- 1,2 (9,1)methionine (1,1) 1,9 +/- 0,5 (2,4)phenylalanine (1,7) 5,2 +/- 2,0 (6,5)(phenylalanine + tyrosine) (8,9) 11,3 +/- 2,0 (14,7)proline (2,0) 2,1 +/- 0,1 (2,2)serine (4,5) 4,7 +/- 0,2 (4,9)threonine (83,9) 4,4 +/- 0,3 (5,1)thryptophane (0,7) 1,3 +/- 0,5 (1,7)tyrosine (1,3) 5,5 +/- 3,0 (7,7)valine (4,2) 6,6 +/- 2,0

Tableau 3 - Composition en acides gras de chenillescomestibles (en % des acides gras totaux) acide gras Saturniidae

N=12acide laurique C12:0 (0,10) 0,17 +/- 0,06 (0,20)acide myristique C14:0 (0,10) 0,56 +/- 0,61 (2,30)acide pentadécanoïque C15:0 (0,10) 0,23 +/- 0,12 (0,50)acide palmitique C16:0 (8,74) 21,47 +/- 5,53 (28,45)acide palmitoléique C16:1 (0,10) 0,39 +/- 0,21 (0,87)acide margarique C17:0 (0,11) 3,70 +/- 9,14 (29,70)acide stéarique C18:0 (1,00) 18,99 +/- 7,46 (33,42)acide oléique C18:1 (1,70) 5,83 +/- 3,61 (8,40)

C18:1 cis-9 (4,85) 9,36 +/- 2,63 (12,90)C18:1 isom.* (0,23) 0,32 +/- 0,07 (0,42)

acide linoléique C18:2 (4,40) 9,15 +/- 6,11 (27,20)acide linolénique C18:3 (2,80) 34,14 +/- 10,78 (45,12)acide arachidique C20:0 (0,20) 1,51 +/- 2,43 (7,50)acide eicosadiénoïque C20:2 (0,10) 0,25 +/- 0,21 (0,40)autres acides gras (1,15) 2,43 +/- 1,15 (4,35)* isomère de position de la double liaison(D'après Demesmaecker 1997, Kodondi et al. 1987b, Malaisse & Lognay

Table 4 - Composition in vitamins of edible caterpillars(values for 100g dry matter)(After Kodondi et al. 1987a, Paulian 1963)

vitamin Attacidae HesperidaeN=3 N=1

folic acid µg (6,3) 21,1 +/- 15,4 (37,0)nicotinic acid mg 22,7pantothenic acid mg (7,3) 8,8 +/- 1,5 (10,2) 3,8biotine µg (23,0) 32,7 +/- 11,2 (45,0) 92,0cholecalciferol µg 22,2 (N=1)cyanocobalamine µg 6,0 (N=1)niacine mg (9,4) 10,4 +/- 0,9 (11,0)pyridoxine µg (50,0) 90,0 +/- 45,8 (140,0) 252,0retinol µg (30,0) 35,0 +/- 7,8 (44,0)beta-carotene µg (6,3) 6,8 +/- 0,7 (7,6)riboflavine mg (3,2) 4,1 +/- 1,0 (5,1) 3,4thiamine mg (0,2) 0,2 +/- 0,1 (0,3) 0,6alpha-tocophérol mg 51,0 (N=1)

Entomophagy

• Definitions and vocabulary• How long this practise has been in existence• Sources of documentation• Diversity• Two examples ( termitophagy

( campeophagy• Importance in Africa• Chemical composition and nutritional values• Present management

of edible insects

Products and services of tropical ecosystems

Tropical ecosystems

Local human welfare

Wood

Energy(Firewood,

grasses,litter)

Bark,roaps,

tannins,tinctory,

waxGame,

termites,caterpillars

FruitsMushroomsHoney

Medicaments

Ecologicalservices

Culturalvalues

Food resources

Tropical ecosystems :are tremendous self services !

Commercialisationof caterpilars

• local, regional, international• from Burkina Faso to Nigeria• Mopanie worm in Southern Africa

(5,000 tons dried caterpillars each year)• exportation to London, Paris, Brussels

Caterpillarfifth

instarCaterpillarin cocoon

Cocoon

AdultLaying

Caterpillarfirst

instar

Eclosion

Chrysalide

Biologicalcycle ofElaphrodeslactea Gaede

SaturniidaeCirine forda

Food plantsVittelaria paradoxa, Autranella con-goensis, Burkea africana, Albizia antunesiana, Erythophleum africa-num, E. guineense, Pappea capensis, Bridelia ferruginea, Julbernardia globiflora

Distributionfrom Burkina Faso toR.South Africa; quoted to be eaten in Burkina,Nigeria, R.C.A., D.R. Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, R.S.A.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Number of plants

Num

ber

of c

ater

pilla

rs

Diet of caterpillar in Katanga : absolutefrequencies of caterpillars(edible / non edible)according to the number of nourishing plants

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

30

16

1

3

5

7

9

Number of plant species

Num

ber

of c

ater

pilla

rs

(7)

(10)

(7)

Diet of caterpillars in Katanga : Absolute frequencies of number of caterpillars (total / edible) by nourishing plant species

Species Wood Fire- Edible Symbiosis Honey Food Other GLOBAL

cons- wood products with ecto- species for uses VALUE

truction mycorhize ediblefungi caterpillars

Uapaca ++ + +++ +++ (+) ++ D 12kirkiana

Julbernardiapaniculata

+++ +++ +++ +++ +++ D 16

Classification systemfor trees regarding agroforestery

Biodiversity management in a sustainable way

Managementof miomboresources

Ressources,Scarcity and saisonnality

Collecting technics and biotechnology

Collectingcosts

local regional national internationalcommercialisation

localpreferences

National andinternational

legislationLocal human welfare

“Who is who” in entomophagyAnthropologists

EthnologistsLinguists

NutritionnistsEthnoecologists

Entomologists

BAHUCHET DE CONCONI MALAISSECNRS, Paris Univ. Mexico Fac. Gembloux

DUFOUR DE FOLIAERT PAOLETTIUniv. Colorado Univ. Wisconsin Univ. Padova

ISAACS MEYER-ROCHOWSydney Univ. Oulu

POSEY MITSUHASHI VulgarisationUniv. Pittsburg Univ. Tokyo

ROULON-DOKO ONORE COMBICNRS, Paris Univ. Quito Genève

TANGO MUYAY VAN HUYS MENZELR.D. Congo Univ. Wageningen Berkeley

TorahNew Testament

Coran

Fanatics of all religions

fight against eating insects!

... “only crickets are tolerated !!! ”