Post on 16-Dec-2015
Energy and the New Reality, Volume 2:
C-Free Energy Supply
Chapter 10: The Hydrogen Economy
L. D. Danny Harveyharvey@geog.utoronto.ca
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Publisher: Earthscan, UKHomepage: www.earthscan.co.uk/?tabid=101808
Figure 10.1 Efficiency of steam methane reforming to produce hydrogen
S = 2
S = 3
S = 4
Theoretical
80
60
40
20
0500 600 700 800 900 1000
Reforming T ( C)o
Source: Lutz et al (2003, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 28, 159–167, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03603199)
Figure 10.2 Capital cost of steam methane reformers
Source: Modified from Weinert and Lipman (2006, An Assessment of Near-Term Costs of Hydrogen Refueling Stations and Station Components, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
Co
st
(10
00
$)
Capacity (kg/hr)
Industry
Literature
$1500/kW
$1500/kW
$3000/kW$6000/kW
Figure 10.3 Capital cost of electrolyzers
Source: Modified from Weinert and Lipman (2006, An Assessment of Near-Term Costs of Hydrogen Refueling Stations and Station Components, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10
Co
st
(10
00
$)
Capacity (kg/hr)
Industry
Literature
$1500/kW
$3000/kW
$6000/kW
Figure 10.4 Contributions to the total electrolysis voltage as a function of current density
0.0
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.0
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ele
ctro
lysi
s Vo
ltag
e, V
Current Density (kA/m2)
Theoretical Minimum Voltage for Water Electrolysis
Electrolyte Resistance
Anode activation
Cathode activation"Thermo-neutral" electrolysis voltage (1.48 V)
Source: Berry et al (2003a, Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier 3, 253-265, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/referenceworks/9780121764807)
Figure 10.5 Typical variation of electrolysis efficiency with load
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Eff
icie
ncy
(%
)
Load (as a percentage of nominal power input)
Source: Ntziachristos et al (2005, Renewable Energy 30, 1471–1487, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09601481)
Figure 10.6 Variation with operating temperature of the energy inputs required for electrolysis
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
200 400 600 800 1000
En
erg
y In
pu
t (k
J/m
ol
H2)
Temperature (oC)
Electrical energy input
Thermal energy input
Total energy input
Source: Ni et al (2007, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 32, 4648–4660, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03603199)
Figure 10.7 Solar H2 production through high-temperature electrolysis
ThermalEngine
100 units
Heat
50 units
SolarThermal
Collectors
Waste Heat
Electricity Electro-lyzer
H O2
O2
H , 24 units2
Heat H , = 0.472
= 0.50
Figure 10.8 PEC Structure
Source: Bak et al (2003, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 27, 991-1022, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03603199)
Figure 10.9 Energy required to compress hydrogen
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Ra
tio
of
H2:C
H4
Co
mp
res
sio
na
l E
ne
rgie
s
Co
mp
res
sio
na
l En
erg
y (%
of
H2
LH
V))
Final Pressure (atm)
Series7Series5Series6AdiabaticActualIsothermal
Compressional Energy
Adiabatic H2:CH4
Figure 10.10 Energy required to transmit natural gas and H2 by pipeline
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Distance (km)
Tra
ns
it E
ner
gy
/Del
iver
ed E
ne
rgy
(%)
Hydrogen, same D as for methane
Hydrogen, same V as for methane
Methane
Figure 10.11 Cost of transmitting various a mixture consisting of various proportions of natural gas and hydrogen,
as a function of pipe diameter
0
1
2
3
4
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5Pipe D iam eter (m )
Tra
nsm
issi
on
Co
st($
/GJ)
Series7
0.0
0.20.40.6
0.8
1.0
H F rac tion2
Source: Oney et al (1994 , International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 19, 813–822, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03603199)
Figure 10.12a Hydrogen Aircraft
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Business Jet
Small Regional Aircraft
Regional Propeller Aircraft
Regional Jet
Aircraft
Medium-Range Aircraft
Long-Range Aircraft
Very-Long-Range Aircraft
Pe
rce
nt
Ch
an
ge
in
We
igh
tOperating Empty Weight
Maximum Take-Off Weight
Source: Airbus (2003, Liquid Hydrogen Fuelled Aircraft – System Analysis. Final Technical Report (Publishable Version), Airbus Deutschland GmbH (Project Coordinator) Project No GRd1-1999-10014, www.aero-net.org)
Figure 10.12b Hydrogen Aircraft
0
10
20
30
40
Business Jet
Small Regional Aircraft
Regional Propeller Aircraft
Regional Jet
Aircraft
Medium-Range Aircraft
Long-Range Aircraft
Very-Long-Range Aircraft
Pe
rce
nt
Ch
an
ge
in
Fu
el
Co
ns
um
pti
on
Source: Airbus (2003, Liquid Hydrogen Fuelled Aircraft – System Analysis. Final Technical Report (Publishable Version), Airbus Deutschland GmbH (Project Coordinator) Project No GRd1-1999-10014, www.aero-net.org)
Figure 10.13 Cost of H2 produced by steam reforming of natural gas or by electrolysis of water
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 2 4 6 8
Co
st
of
Hyd
rog
en
($
/GJ
)
Cost of Electricity (cents/kWh)
Electrolysis of Water, CF=0.25CF=0.9
Steam Reformingof Natural Gas
0 4 8 12 16
Cost of Natural Gas ($/GJ)
Figure 10.14 Cost of gas transmission vs. energy flow rate
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0 200 400 600
Energy Flow Rate (1000s GJ/day)
Co
st o
f T
ran
smis
sio
n (
$/G
J)
Natural Gas
Hydrogen
Source: Ogden, J. M. (1999, Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 24, pp227–279)
Figure 10.15 Cost of H2 that just offsets (through reduced fuel costs) the increased purchase cost of H2-powered vehicle over a
10-year operating life for gasoline at $1.0/itre to $2.0/litre
2
12
22
32
42
52
62
0
5
10
15
20
25
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
All
ow
ed
Hyd
rog
en
Co
st
($/G
J)
All
ow
ed
Hyd
rog
en
Co
st
(ce
nts
/kW
h)
Upfront Cost Premium ($)
$1.0/litre
$1.5/litre
$2.0/litre
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