Post on 25-Feb-2021
Chemicals of Life
Virtually all chemicals of life are _________________.
Compounds that contain carbon are called
_________________, and the chemistry of carbon compounds is called _________________
Organic Chemistry
-ane (single bond)
-ene (double bond)
-yne (triple bond)
The organic chemicals important to life include ___________________
_________________
Cells use these for structure, energy, __________________________________.
Carbon can:
- form up to _________________with other atoms
- attach to each other to form _________________
__________________________________
Other elements such as _________________
_________________ may attach to the carbon
backbone to form reactive clusters of atoms called
_________________
This leads to an almost infinite number of possibilities.
Various atoms always form the same
_________________ with adjacent atoms -(_________________).
Functional Groups
Ether linkage
Ester
R
Phosphodiester
-
R
R
peptide linkage R R protein (polypeptide)
sulfhydrylamino acid - cystiene
+
A
B
C
D
E
1. Carbohydrates
- essential for all life- nearly all come from ______________________________
- Almost all energy comes from the ______________________ _______________________________________
- Made of _____________, in a ratio of _____________- The term _____________ and the suffix _____________both
refer to _____________.
Classified into 3 groups:
a. Monosaccharides
The simplest carbs are the _______________or
_______________.
_______________contain a single chain of carbon
atoms to which _______________are attached.
Monosaccharides may be distinguished by the _______________
______________________________and the number of atoms in their
carbon backbone.
A sugar with five carbons is called a _______________, one with six carbons, a
_______________. The two simplest monosaccharides are _______________ (a
triose with a ketone group) and _______________ (a triose with an aldehyde group)
Molecules with the same _______________but with a different
structure are called_______________.
___________________________________________________
________________________are isomers.
Isomers possess different ______________________________.
Monosaccharides with ___________________________molecules in the dry state.
However, when dissolved in water, these ____________________ ___________________________________
There is a _____________________________________at carbon 1 will
end up below the plane of the ring.
If so, the resulting molecule is called __________________.
If the hydroxyl group at carbon 1 ends ______________________of the
ring, then _________________is formed.
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/JmolApplet/alphabetajglucose2.html
In the abbreviated formula for glucose, ______________are omitted
and constituent groups are ____________________________the
plane of the ring.
α-Galactoseα-fructoseα - glucose
β-Galactose β-fructoseβ - glucose
b. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are sugars containing ______________
______________attached to one another by covalent bonds
called ____________________________
These bonds form by ____________________________
H
β-galactose
+
1-3, and 1-6 linkages are also common in carbohydrate chains.
Polysaccharides (_________________________) are polymers.
Polymers are ____________________________________called
monomers.
Monosaccharides are the _______________________________.
Composed __________________________________________
_________________________ joined by _____________
linkages.
c. Polysaccharides
linkages.
Can be ___________________, or ____________.
2 functions in living cells: __________________and
________________________.
__________________________are examples of storage polysaccharides
_________________________are structural
polysaccharides.
Plant Starch
Plants produce more ______________________.
________________is a mixture of two different
polysaccharides, ___________________ _____________________
Amylose
_______________ is a straight chain polymer of ___________with
_________________________________.
___________ is a branched-chain α-glucose polymer with
____________________________________________ at the
branch points.
Polysaccharides are _____________ but because of
their size, they _____________ _____________ in water
Plants store insoluble starch in _____________ _____________ _____________
Some plants store large amounts in specialized structures _____________ _____________
_____________
________________ use starch as an energy source.
Animals possess ___________ that
_______________________ and
________________ into glucose
molecules.
Glycogen
Hydrolysis is the process where a ___________________
___________________________holding subunits together. The water molecule _______________________________________ ______________________________________________
Excess glucose molecules in ___________ are linked ________________, an energy storage molecule.
________________________________________in structure with α1–4 main chain linkages and α1–6 branch-point linkages, but there are ____________________________
Stored in small amounts in _________________________.
Is hydrolyzed into _______________________________________.
Only lasts about ___________if not replenished.Only lasts about ___________if not replenished.
Cellulose
Cellulose, the _____________________________(majority of plant
cell walls).
Most abundant ___________________________________.
Cellulose is a straight-chain _________________________held
together ____________________________________
Hydroxyl groups at _________________________in β-glucose cause
every other monomer to be ________________________ for the
glycosidic linkage to form.
Cellulose molecules are neither ________________________
This allows many hydrogen bonds, _______________________
___________________________________________________
Cellulose microfibrils _______________________________.
Responsible for wood, paper, and cotton
Digestive enzymes in humans are ________________________the linkages between _______________________________in cellulose.
Certain animals, such as __________, contain ____________ and
protists in their digestive tracts that produce enzymes that break the ___________________________in cellulose.
This allows the animal to digest the _________________________and other vegetable matter.
The hard ___________________and of _________________,
and the cell wall of many ___________, is made of chitin,
Chitin is a polymer of ___________________________,
Chitin
Chitin is the second most abundant organic material found in nature.
Chitin’s physical and chemical properties make it useful in medical
applications, where a tough, yet biodegradable, material is required.
2. Lipids
Lipids are ___________________________
Composed of ________________________________
They contain fewer ________________and more
________________than do carbohydrates.
Lipids are ________________but soluble in other
________________ substances.
Some consist of long ________________, others consist of several ________________.
Organisms use lipids for ________________________________ ________________________________
Lipids can be divided into four families: 1. ________________
2. ________________ 3. ________________ 4. ________________
A gram of fat stores about ________________of energy
per gram. (9 kilocalories or 9 Calories)
Carbs and proteins ________________
(4 kilocalories or 4 Calories)
One ________________ (cal) is equal to ___________.
One ________________ (Cal) is equal to __________
The most common fats in plants and animals are the
________________________________).
They contain ________________attached to a single
molecule of ________________
1. Fats / Oils
oleic acid(b)
linolenic acid
(c)
Triglycerides form through ________________called
________________. (________________of glycerol and the
________________of a fatty acid).
Saturated Fats
- ________________
- composed only ________________
- many ________________attractions
- ________________at room temperature.
Unsaturated Fats
- ________________
- composed of ________________________________
- ________________ van der Waals attractions
- ________________at room temperature.
The membranes of cells are mostly composed of
________________________________
All phospholipids begin as
________________________________
2. Phospholipids
Phospholipids are
composed of a
________________ ________________
________________
________________
shortform notation called a wireframe, or Kekule structure
The phosphate group is
________________
Fatty acids are
________________
When added to water,
phospholipids
________________________
Cell membranes separate ________________
________________________________
Membranes also surround many ________________
A double layer of phospholipids or a
________________________________ forms.
Fluid Mosaic Model
Our current knowledge of the cell membrane proposes:
- ________________________________
- proteins are ________________________________
and are ________________throughout it.
- lipids may _____________________________ places
- ________________ (regulate movement)
- contain a wide assortment ________________- contain a wide assortment ________________
- Proteins are used for ________________
________________________________- Embedded proteins are called
________________membrane proteins. (most are
________________ proteins)
- ________________ membrane proteins are found on
the ___________ and held by _____________ forces.
Cell membranes contain ________________which
transport substances against an ________________
Membranes also have ________________that form channels through which ________________ pass. http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/macampbell/111/memb-swf/membranes.swf
You must visit and complete the tutorial:
There are 2 other types of membrane lipids: 2. _________________ (small amounts)
3. ________________- type of sterol (steroid alcohol)
Sterols/Steroids are ____________________containing four
fused _________________________ and several different ________________________.
Cholesterol: - gives ____________________ rigidity.
- precursor of ____________________ - is very common in ________________ - involved in formation of
____________and ______________
Waxes are lipids ______________ ______________ linked to
______________ ______________.
They are ______________ ______________
Used as a ______________ ______________ ______________.
Birds secrete a ______________ ______________ _____________
4. Waxes
Bees construct ______________
Proteins are ______________ folded into specific ______________ shapes.
A protein’s ______________ determine its ______________.
3. Proteins
An ______________
There are ______________
commonly found in living organisms
and, therefore, ______________ ______________
Amino acids are ______________ -
both ______________ and
______________ functional groups.
Amino acids may be ______________
______________ depending on the
side chains.
Proline's side chain ______________ ______________ with its own amino group.
Amino acids are connected together through
________________________to form a polymer called a
______________ (______________).
Amino acids are joined by ______________. They are formed by
a ______________.
Amino acids are only added to ______________ of a growing
chain ______________
This type of functional group linkage is called an
______________.______________.
Your body can construct ______________ if required.
You must eat ______________. They are ______________
______________ ______________ ______________
______________ ______________ ______________.
Protein ______________ can only be understood in
terms of ______________!
Proteins consist of ______________ that have twisted and
coiled into a ______________.
The final shape, or ______________, of the polymer is
______________ ______________ of amino acids it
contains.contains.
Protein Structure
Proteins have up to 4 levels of structure.
1. Primary structure
- is the ________________________(residue) in a polypeptide chain.
Primary structure is determined by the ___________
______________________________.
The final conformation of a protein is _____________
_____________________________________
Changing one amino acid _______________________________ (loss of function).(loss of function).
A ____________________________causes sickle cell anemia
Sickle-cell occurs when the ______, ________________ is replaced by
_______ . ____________________,
causing haemoglobin to collapse in
on itself occasionally.
2. Secondary Structure
As the peptide grows, it __________________________.
In certain regions______________________________formhydrogen bonds.
These H-bonds, can cause __________________________
____________________________________
When two parts of the polypeptide
chain lie _________ to one
another we get _______________.
Again this is a result of _________
_________________
3. Tertiary Structure
Caused by strong ________________________________between the polypeptide and its environment.
Polar R groups are attracted to ___________________________________.
Hydrophobic groups are forced to _________________________________.
____________________________________________________, all contribute to tertiary structure.
When the ______________________________come close, a ______________________________(-S-S-)
may form.
Disulfide bridges are __________________________ ______________________
4. Quaternary Structure
___________________________________________form a
functional protein.
Hemoglobin is composed of 2 identical α-chains and two identical β-
chains.
___________________________________________factors help determine the final shape of the protein.
________________________________________, or other factors all play a role.
If a protein is placed in different environmental conditions, it may change its shape in a process called _____________________
4. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids serve as _______________________for all proteins.
2 Types:
_______________________________
________________________________
DNA stores ___________________________.
Different kinds of
_______________________________synthesis.
(hereditary molecule in some viruses)
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
Nucleotides are composed of 3 parts:
Nitrogenous
1
There are 2 types of nitrogenous base:
_____________________________
_________________
Nucleotides join to form ________________________.
Phosphodiester bonds
form between the ______
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________________________form
the backbone of DNA and RNA.RNA contains _________________________
RNA molecules coil into a __________________________.
DNA has nucleotides containing the ____________________
DNA molecules are also helical in structure, but they are
composed of _____________________________________.
The two strands in DNA are held together by ___________________________ _______________________________________________________________
Base pairing occurs between _____________________and between _______ _______________________________________________
Each strand of the DNA molecule has a _________________________
___________________________________________________________
The two strands are said to run
_______________.
Every nucleotide pair is composed of a
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
Nucleotides are not only used in the construction of DNA and RNA.
The nucleotide _______________________________(ATP)
Nucleotide derivatives:
- _________________________________________ (NAD+)
- __________________________________________(FAD)