Cognition 7e, Margaret MatlinChapter 13 Cognition Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan...

Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 13

CognitionCognition

Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Throughout the LifespanThroughout the Lifespan

Chapter 13Chapter 13

IntroductionIntroduction

lifespan approach to development

The Lifespan The Lifespan Development of MemoryDevelopment of Memory

Memory in InfantsMemory in Infantsearly research underestimated infants'

memory abilities

Attention PatternsMethodology - looking timeown-race bias

Memory in InfantsMemory in InfantsAttention Patterns

Sangrigoli and de Schonen• photos of White and Asian women's faces shown to White

babies• present one photo (either White or Asian woman)

repeatedly until looking time decreases• present pair of photos—familiar/unfamiliar White women

or familiar/unfamiliar Asian women

Memory in InfantsMemory in InfantsAttention Patterns

Sangrigoli and de Schonen• looking time for unfamiliar White woman longer than

familiar White woman• no difference for familiar/unfamiliar Asian women• Further questions?

Memory in InfantsMemory in InfantsRecognizing Mother

visual recognition – post-natalmother's voice - prenatal

Memory in InfantsMemory in InfantsConjugate Reinforcement

Carolyn Rovee-Collier and colleaguesnonverbal measures of memoryconjugate reinforcement technique—mobile, ribbon, kicking

• baseline, spontaneous kicking• acquisition phase• number of kicks produced following delay

Conjugate Reinforcement Conjugate Reinforcement TechniqueTechnique

Memory in InfantsMemory in Infants

Memory in InfantsMemory in InfantsConjugate Reinforcement

Carolyn Rovee-Collier and colleagues (continued)

older infants—press lever to run trainsteady linear improvement during first 18 months

of life

context effectsinterferencespacing effectlevels of processing

Memory in ChildrenMemory in ChildrenChildren's Working Memory

memory span 2y - 2, 9y - 6three working memory componentsrelationship to school performance

Memory in ChildrenMemory in ChildrenChildren's Long-Term Memory

Good by 20 months2 year-olds can recall events a few months old

excellent recognition but poor recallRecall improves after about 9y

Myers and Perlmutter (1978)object recognition and recall

1. Autobiographical memory and early childhoodchildhood amnesiainfant memorydeferred imitationlack of well-organized sense of who they aredifficulty encoding and retrievingreminders

2. Children's source monitoringsource monitoringFoley, Ratner and colleagues• performing vs. imagining how it would feel vs.

visualizing• performing vs. watching another person perform a

Memory in ChildrenMemory in ChildrenChildren's Memory Strategies

memory strategiesutilization deficiency1. Rehearsal

not very effective, but can keep information in working memory

4- and 5-year-olds do not spontaneously use rehearsalcan benefit from rehearsal if prompted

Memory in ChildrenMemory in ChildrenChildren's Memory Strategies

2. Organizational strategiescategorizing and groupingMoely and colleagues—children study pictures from four

categories; younger children rarely rearrange into categories

3. Imageryeven 6-year-olds can be trained to use visual imagery

effectively

Memory in ChildrenMemory in ChildrenChildren's Eyewitness Testimony

Leichtman and Ceci—"Sam Stone" study• control, stereotype, suggestion, and stereotype-plus-

suggestion groups• children interviewed about Sam Stone 10 weeks after visit• control group highly accurate• children can provide valid eyewitness testimony if they do

not receive misleading information, either before or after the target event

Children's Eyewitness Children's Eyewitness TestimonyTestimony

Memory in ChildrenMemory in ChildrenChildren's Eyewitness Testimony

age, stereotyping, and misleading suggestions all influence children's eyewitness testimony

social factorsreluctance to say "I don't know"change statements under cross-examination

Individual Differences: Children’s Individual Differences: Children’s Intelligence and Eyewitness TestimonyIntelligence and Eyewitness Testimony

Henry and Gudjonsson (2007)children with mental retardation vs. typically

developing childrenolder and younger childrenmisleading questions

Individual Differences: Children’s Individual Differences: Children’s Intelligence and Eyewitness Intelligence and Eyewitness

TestimonyTestimony

In Depth: Memory in Elderly PeopleIn Depth: Memory in Elderly Peoplestereotypeslarge individual differencescomplex developmental trends

Working Memory in Elderly Peoplenature of the taskStine and coauthors (1989)—recall for spoken

English• normal syntax/normal rate vs. random order/fast rate• significant age difference for complicated, non-real-life task

In Depth: Memory in Elderly PeopleIn Depth: Memory in Elderly PeopleLong-Term Memory in Elderly People

perform well on semantic memory tasks and easy, automatic tasks

age differences on more complex tasks

1. Prospective memorysimulated shopping task

complete fewer tasks and make more errors

perform more accurately when they have an environmental cue

can even perform better than younger adults

2. Implicit memoryLight and colleagues (1995)

reading familiar letter sequence

older and younger adults performed similarly

3. Explicit recognition memorylong-term recognition memory declines slowly or not at all

4. Explicit recall memoryperformance decreases slowly and age differences are

more substantial

Dunlosky and Hertzog (1998)—pairs of unrelated words

names, historical details, stories

large individual differences—verbal ability, education

Hasher and colleagues—time of day

In Depth: Memory in Elderly PeopleIn Depth: Memory in Elderly PeopleExplanations for Age Differences in Memory

changes in brain structures

1. Difficulty paying attention

2. Ineffective use of memory strategies

3. The contextual-cues hypothesis

4. Cognitive slowing

The Lifespan Development The Lifespan Development of Metamemoryof Metamemory

metacognitionmetamemorymetacomprehension

Metamemory in ChildrenMetamemory in ChildrenFlavelltheory of mind—people's ideas on how their

minds work and on their beliefs about other people's thoughts

Metamemory in ChildrenMetamemory in ChildrenChildren's Understanding of How Memory Works

small vs. large memory setsrelated vs. random wordseffectiveness of memory strategies

Metamemory in ChildrenMetamemory in ChildrenChildren's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary

young children do not appreciate the need for effortkeep studying information they already knownot accurate in judging what has been committed to

memorydon't realize that they need to make an effort to use a

memory strategynaive ideas about the effort required for memorization

Metamemory in ChildrenMetamemory in ChildrenChildren's Judgments About Their Memory Performance

younger children unrealistically optimisticRoebers and colleagues

memory for magic showconfidence ratings

overconfidence

Metamemory in ChildrenMetamemory in Children

Figure 13.5 Average Level of Confidence for Questions Answered Correctly and Questions Answered Incorrectly. (1 = Very Unsure; 5=Very Sure)

Metamemory in ChildrenMetamemory in ChildrenChildren's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance—Summary

1. Their metamemory is faulty; they do not realize that they need to make an effort to memorize, and they also do not realize how little they can remember.

2. They do not spontaneously use helpful memory strategies.

3. Relative to older children, their memory performance is poor.

Is there a causal link?Metamemory

Strategy use

Memory performance

• some evidence that metamemory is related to strategy use

• extensive evidence that strategy use is related to memory performance

• moderate correlation between metamemory and memory performance

Metamemory in Elderly PeopleMetamemory in Elderly People1. Beliefs about memory

younger and older adults share similar beliefs2. Memory monitoring

equally skilled on some tasks—predicting items they will recall, selecting most difficult items for further study, judging accuracy on general-knowledge questions, deciding whether an item is old or new

overconfident on some tasks—overall performance on a test of memory for specific details about a recent event

Metamemory in Elderly PeopleMetamemory in Elderly People3. Awareness of memory problems

problems with everyday memory

some elderly people don't try to develop helpful memory strategies because they think that memory decline is inevitable

memory self-efficacy—the belief in one's own potential to perform well on memory tasks

The Development of The Development of LanguageLanguage

Language in InfantsLanguage in Infantsrate of acquisitionvocabulary sizecreative language use

Language in InfantsLanguage in InfantsSpeech Perception in Infancy

phonemesspeech-sound categories across speakersEimas and coauthors

habituation studies, sucking responsedishabituation indicates perceiving difference

between sounds

Language in InfantsLanguage in InfantsSpeech Perception in Infancy

Werker and Tees—distinguishing sounds in other languages

Kuhl—relearning lost distinctionslanguage rhythmsbilingual homes and language discrimination

Language in InfantsLanguage in InfantsLanguage Comprehension in Infancy

1. Recognizing important wordsname, mommy, daddy

2. Discriminating between grammatical words and meaning words

3. Understanding the correspondence between sound and sightemotional tone of spoken language

Walker-Andrews

recordings of either a happy voice or an angry voice

side-by-side films of happy speaker and angry speaker

infants watched the face that matched the emotion of the voice

4. Appreciating semantic conceptsMandler and colleagues—concepts about objects

distinguishing between visually similar objects

animate/inanimate objects

"animal" vs. "vehicle" categories

concepts become more refined

Language in InfantsLanguage in InfantsLanguage Production in Infancy

cooingbabblingintentional communication

Language in InfantsLanguage in InfantsAdults' Language to Infants

child-directed speechmotheresefathersadults typically use a different language style when

speaking to infants and young children than when speaking to older people

differences across language communitiesmothers who are depressed

Language in ChildrenLanguage in ChildrenWords

early words and conceptsword productioncomprehension of wordsinterrelationship of memory and language

Language in ChildrenLanguage in ChildrenWords

fast mapping—using context to make a reasonable guess about a word's meaning

Heibeck and Markman (1987)series of paired objectsfamiliar and unfamiliar terms

overextensionunderextension

Language in ChildrenLanguage in ChildrenMorphology

morphemesmorphology

pay greater attention to phrases with appropriate morphologycreate their own regular forms

Language in ChildrenLanguage in ChildrenMorphology

overregularization—the tendency to add the most customary morphemes to create new forms of irregular words

parallel distributed processing explanation—language system keeps tally of morpheme patterns; patterns of excitation within neural networks account for overregularizationrule-and-memory theory (Marcus)—children learn

a general rule for past-tense verbs and also store in memory the past tenses for many irregular verbs

Language in ChildrenLanguage in ChildrenSyntax

combining words into sentencestwo-word utterancesmorphology and syntaxactive processusing syntax cues

Language in ChildrenLanguage in ChildrenPragmatics

learning the social rules of languagewhat to say, to whom, language styles, coordinating

conversations

Language in ChildrenLanguage in ChildrenPragmatics

adapting language to the listenerShatz and Gelman (1973)

4-year-olds speaking to 2-year-olds, 4-year-olds and adults

2-year olds speaking to infants

taking turns in conversationgestures of interest; listener responses

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