Cognition 7e, Margaret MatlinChapter 10 Cognition Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism...
-
Upload
lewis-snow -
Category
Documents
-
view
221 -
download
2
Transcript of Cognition 7e, Margaret MatlinChapter 10 Cognition Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism...
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
CognitionCognition
Language II: Language Language II: Language Production and BilingualismProduction and Bilingualism
Chapter 10Chapter 10
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
IntroductionIntroduction
Many forms of language production
Social nature of language production
More research on comprehension than production
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Producing a WordProducing a WordSelecting the wordGrammatical, semantic, and phonological accuracy
Are all three kinds of information retrieved simultaneously or independently?
van Turennout and colleagues (1998)—grammatical gender accessed about 40 milliseconds before phonological properties
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Producing a WordProducing a WordMotor movements of vocal system and gestures
Frick-Horbury and Guttentag (1998)read definitions and identify word with or
without hand movements restricted
Eyes and looking before naming
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Producing a SentenceProducing a SentenceLimits of attention and memoryOrder of producing speech:
• Plan the gist – intent/meaning• Construct general structure of sentence – syntax,
not words• Choose words (with correct grammatical form)• Connect to phonemes• Coordinate muscle movements to produce speech
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Producing a SentenceProducing a SentencePauses occupy about half of our speaking timeLinearization problem—transforming general
thought or mental image into an ordered, linear sequence of words
Prosody—"melody", rhythm, emphasis
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Speech ErrorsSpeech Errorsslips-of-the-tongue—errors in which sounds or entire
words are rearranged between two or more different words
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors1. Sound errors
2. Morpheme errors
3. Word errors
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Speech ErrorsSpeech ErrorsTypes of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors• each type can involve errors of: exchange,
anticipation, perseveration, and/or deletion• errors reveal our extensive language
knowledge• errors tend to occur across items from the
same category
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Speech ErrorsSpeech ErrorsDell's Model of Sound Processing in Sentence Production
similar to connectionist approachspreading activationplanning activates sound elementseach sound can be activated by several different
wordshigh activation can cause the incorrect sound to be
produced
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
DellDell’’s Model of Sound s Model of Sound Processing in Sentence Processing in Sentence Production (simplified)Production (simplified)
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Producing DiscourseProducing Discoursediscourse—language units larger than a sentencenarrative—type of discourse in which someone describes a series of actual or fictional events
time-related sequenceemotionally involvinggoal to conveywords chosen carefullyentertaining
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
Producing DiscourseProducing Discoursenarrative structure
overviewsummary of characters and settingcomplicating actionpointresolutionfinal signal of completion
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechSpeakers must consider their conversation partnerscoordinating turn-takingagreed meaningsintentionspragmatics—knowledge of the social rules that underlie language use; how speakers successfully communicate messages to their audience
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechCommon Ground
common ground—occurs when conversationalists share similar background knowledge, schemas, and experiences necessary for mutual understanding
collaborationpaying attentionavoiding ambiguous statementsclarify misunderstandingsnonverbal language to clarify
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechCommon Ground
Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs (1986)pairs of participants arranging figures in orderdeveloping mutual shorthand and shared vocabularyconversational partners become more skilled in
communicating efficiently
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Common GroundCommon Ground
Figures from Demonstration 10.3: Collaborating to Establish Common Ground
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechCommon Ground
lexical entrainment—pattern two communicators use when they create and adopt a standard term to refer to an object
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechCommon Ground
Bortfeld and Brennan (1997)photos of chairsEnglish, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean speakersall pairs showed same degree of lexical entrainmentspeakers often overestimate listeners' ability to understand a
message
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechCommon Ground
• speakers tend to assume that listeners need and want the same things the speakers themselves do
• less likely to effectively establish common ground under time pressure
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
SpeakingSpeaking
The Social Context of SpeechThe Social Context of SpeechDirectives
directive—a sentence that requests someone to do something
polite directives require more wordsoverly elaborate directives may seem insultinganticipate potential obstacles to complianceindirect request—stated like a request for information,
even though really a request for someone to do something or to stop doing something
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
Writing requires virtually every cognitive process
One of the least understood linguistic tasks
Similarities and differences from speaking
Planning, sentence generation, revising
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
A Cognitive Model of WritingA Cognitive Model of WritingCognitive processes, social factors, motor factors, motivational factorsself-efficacy—your own assessment of your capabilities
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
A Cognitive Model of WritingA Cognitive Model of Writingworking memory
phonological loopvisuospatial sketchpadcentral executive
long-term memory including semantic memory, expertise, schemas, and knowledge about specific writing style
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
Planning the Writing AssignmentPlanning the Writing Assignmentprewriting—generating a list of ideas; difficult and strategic; large individual differencesoutliningresolving linearization problem
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
Sentence Generation During WritingSentence Generation During Writingsentence generation—translate the general
ideas developed during planning into actual sentences of the text
hesitant phases and fluent phaseslonger vs. shorter wordswriting errors most likely to be spelling errors
within a single word rather than between-word errors like slips-of-the-tongue
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of Writing• emphasize the importance of organization and
coherence• reconsider whether the writing accomplishes
the goals of the assignment• revision should be time consuming
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of Writing• effective writers use flexible revision strategies• college students typically devote little time to
revising• metacognitions about the writing process seem
to be inaccurate
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of WritingExperts vs. Novices
• novices revise sentence-by-sentence; focus on spelling and grammar
• experts work more on organization, focus, and transition between ideas
• novices judge defective sentences as appropriate• experts better able to diagnose the source of a
problem in a sentence
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
The Revision Phase of WritingThe Revision Phase of WritingProofreading
• difficult to proofread your own writing• spell-checkers don't catch everything• proofread for spelling separately from content
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
Metacognition and WritingMetacognition and Writing• metacognitive strategies helpful at all stages
of writing• random thoughts vs. transforming knowledge• analyzing potential problems in advance and
planning how to solve them• monitoring whether writing matches intended
message• beware of overconfidence
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
Applied Psychology: Writing About Applied Psychology: Writing About Emotional ProblemsEmotional Problems
Pennebaker and colleagues—writing in clinical psychology settings
15-20 minutes a day, 3 to 4 consecutive dayswrite about previous traumatic experience vs.
trivial topics
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
Applied Psychology: Writing About Applied Psychology: Writing About Emotional ProblemsEmotional Problems
Pennebaker and colleagues (continued)
experimental condition benefits—better grades, finding job, improved immune system
words about cognitive activity better predictor of physical health than words revealing emotions
creating an understanding of the painful experience
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
WritingWriting
Applied Psychology: Writing About Applied Psychology: Writing About Emotional ProblemsEmotional Problems
Westling and colleagues (2007)writing program with HIV-positive womenwomen who wrote about life meaning more likely to
show improvement in taking medications
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
most people throughout the world have mastered two or more languages
bilingual speaker—a person who actively uses two different languages
multilingual
simultaneous bilingualism
sequential bilingualism, first language, second language
interlanguage
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
Background on BilingualismBackground on BilingualismMore than half of the people in the world are at
least somewhat bilingualValuing non-English first languages
Political and social-psychological implicationsSocial-psychological factors predictive of success
in acquiring a second language—motivation and attitude toward speakers of that language
Learning a language can also influence attitudes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism1. Bilinguals actually acquire more expertise in
their native (first) language.2. Bilinguals are more aware that the names
assigned to concepts are arbitrary (part of metalinguistics, or knowledge about the form and structure of language).
3. Bilinguals excel at paying selective attention to relatively subtle aspects of a language task, ignoring more obvious linguistic characteristics.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism4. Bilingual children are better at following
complicated instructions and performing tasks where the instructions change from one trial to the next.
5. Bilinguals perform better on concept-formation tasks and on tests of nonverbal intelligence that require reorganization of visual patterns. Bilinguals also score higher on problem-solving tasks that require them to ignore irrelevant information.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism6. Bilingual children perform better than
monolinguals on tests of creativity, such as thinking of a wide variety of uses for a paper clip.
7. Bilingual children are more sensitive to some pragmatic aspects of language.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of BilingualismBialystok (2001, 2002)—most advantages can be
traced to selective-attention skills; inhibiting the most obvious response to produce an alternative response
Disadvantages far outweighed by advantages
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisitiona Function of Age of Acquisition
age of acquisitioncritical period hypothesisgradual decline vs. abrupt drop
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisitiona Function of Age of Acquisition
Phonologyage of acquisition does influence mastery of
phonology (sounds of speech)Flege and coauthors (1999)
Korean-Americansdegree of accent inversely correlated with age
of emigrationfairly smooth decline rather than abrupt drop
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisitiona Function of Age of Acquisition
Vocabularywhen the measure of language proficiency is
vocabulary, age of acquisition does not seem to be related to language skills
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisitiona Function of Age of Acquisition
GrammarFlege and coauthors (1999)
judging sentences as grammaticalonce we control for years of education in the
United States, age of acquisition was not related to an individual's mastery of English grammar
Studies with other languages—no consistent relationship between age of arrival and mastery of English grammar
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
Individual Differences: Simultaneous Individual Differences: Simultaneous Interpreters and Working MemoryInterpreters and Working Memory
translation—from a text written in one language into a second written languageinterpreting—the process of translating from a spoken message in one language into a second spoken languagethree working-memory tasks at the same time
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10
Bilingualism and Second-Bilingualism and Second-Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
Individual Differences: Simultaneous Individual Differences: Simultaneous Interpreters and Working MemoryInterpreters and Working Memory
Christoffels, de Groot, and Kroll (2006)Dutch speakers—students, teachers of English,
interpretersreading-span test and speaking-span testall groups recalled more words in their native language
(Dutch)simultaneous interpreters remembered significantly more
words than the other two groups, both in reading span and speaking span