Chapter 1

Theories and Methods in Social Psychology

The Social Psychological Approach

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to others

The Social Psychological Approach

focuses on the interpersonal (rather than the societal or individual) level of analysis

Historical Roots of Social Psychology

Three major perspectives have influenced social psychology: Psychoanalytic Theory Behaviorism Gestalt Psychology

Theories in Social Psychology

Motivational Theories Learning Theories Cognitive Theories Decision-Making Theories Interdependence Theories

Sociocultural Theories

A sociocultural perspective emphasizes how behavior is influenced by cultural values, social norms, and social roles.

Sociocultural Theories

Cultures differ in the relative emphasis they give to individualism versus collectivism.

Evolutionary Social Psychology

applies the principles of evolution and natural selection to the understanding of human behavior and social life.

Social Psychological Theories Today

combines and integrates different theoretical traditions.

“middle-range theories,” or models to explain specific aspects of human behavior, are emphasized.

Research Methods

scientific methodology and minimizing bias are emphasized.

Four Goals of Research

Description Causal Analysis Theory Building Application

Selecting Research Participants

Ideal samples are representative of the population from which they come.

Random sampling is the best way to get a representative sample.

Biases in Research Samples

College students are over-represented due to convenience.

Males are over-represented in older research.

Ethnic minority groups are under-represented.

Correlational versus Experimental Designs

There are two basic research designs: correlational and experimental.

Correlational Research

Observes the relationship between two or more variables

Advantages of Correlational Designs

Enable researchers to study problems in which intervention is impossible or unethical

Efficient: allow researchers to collect more information and test more relationships

Disadvantages of Correlational Designs

Do not provide clear-cut evidence of cause-and-effect reverse-causality problem third-variable problem

Experimental Research

The researcher creates two or more conditions that differ from each other in clearly specified ways.

Individuals are randomly assigned to conditions.

Their reactions are measured.

Variables in Experiments

The independent variable is the presumed cause and is manipulated by the researcher.

Variables in Experiments

The dependent variable is the effect that is measured.

Variables in Experiments

The operational definition of a variable is the specific procedure or operations used to manipulate or measure it.

Random Assignment

Random assignment is crucial because it allows one to infer that differences between groups are due solely to the experimental conditions.

Table 1-1CORRELATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Varies naturally

Controlled by researcher

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT

No Yes

UNAMBIGUOUS CAUSALITY

Usually not Yes

EXPLORATORY Often Usually not

THEORY TESTING Often Usually

TESTS MANY RELATIONSHIPS

Usually Usually not

Field versus Laboratory Settings

Field research examines behavior in its natural habitat

Laboratory research is done in an artificial situation.

Advantages of Laboratory Research

maximizes internal validity more convenient and less costly

than field research

Advantages of Field Research

Maximizes external validity Allows researchers to study

powerful situations that cannot be studied in the lab.

Minimizes suspicion by participants

Table 1-2LABORATORY FIELD

CONTROL OVER VARIABLES

High Low

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT

Almost always Seldom

CONVENIENCE Usually high Usually low

REALISM Low High

IMPACT OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Tends to be lower Tends to be higher

SUSPICION AND BIAS

Tends to be higher Tends to be lower

EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Low High

Methods of Data Collection

Self-Report Observational Research Archival Research

Bias in Research

Two kinds of bias are troublesome in social psychology: experimenter bias and subject bias

Experimenter Bias

Subtle cues from the researchers may influence participants’ behavior.

Solutions “blind” research assistants Standardize research procedures

Subject Bias

The mere fact of knowing that one is being studied may alter one’s behavior.

Solutions unobtrusive measures don’t tell participants the goals or

hypotheses

Replication

No one study is ever perfect, so results should be replicated

Conceptual replications should be conducted in addition to exact replications.

Research Ethics

American Psychological Association ethical guidelines for research

Institutional Review Boards.

Three Important Ethical Principles

Informed Consent Debriefing Minimal Risk