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Chapter 1
Theories and Methods in Social Psychology
The Social Psychological Approach
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to others
The Social Psychological Approach
focuses on the interpersonal (rather than the societal or individual) level of analysis
Historical Roots of Social Psychology
Three major perspectives have influenced social psychology: Psychoanalytic Theory Behaviorism Gestalt Psychology
Theories in Social Psychology
Motivational Theories Learning Theories Cognitive Theories Decision-Making Theories Interdependence Theories
Sociocultural Theories
A sociocultural perspective emphasizes how behavior is influenced by cultural values, social norms, and social roles.
Sociocultural Theories
Cultures differ in the relative emphasis they give to individualism versus collectivism.
Evolutionary Social Psychology
applies the principles of evolution and natural selection to the understanding of human behavior and social life.
Social Psychological Theories Today
combines and integrates different theoretical traditions.
“middle-range theories,” or models to explain specific aspects of human behavior, are emphasized.
Research Methods
scientific methodology and minimizing bias are emphasized.
Four Goals of Research
Description Causal Analysis Theory Building Application
Selecting Research Participants
Ideal samples are representative of the population from which they come.
Random sampling is the best way to get a representative sample.
Biases in Research Samples
College students are over-represented due to convenience.
Males are over-represented in older research.
Ethnic minority groups are under-represented.
Correlational versus Experimental Designs
There are two basic research designs: correlational and experimental.
Correlational Research
Observes the relationship between two or more variables
Advantages of Correlational Designs
Enable researchers to study problems in which intervention is impossible or unethical
Efficient: allow researchers to collect more information and test more relationships
Disadvantages of Correlational Designs
Do not provide clear-cut evidence of cause-and-effect reverse-causality problem third-variable problem
Experimental Research
The researcher creates two or more conditions that differ from each other in clearly specified ways.
Individuals are randomly assigned to conditions.
Their reactions are measured.
Variables in Experiments
The independent variable is the presumed cause and is manipulated by the researcher.
Variables in Experiments
The dependent variable is the effect that is measured.
Variables in Experiments
The operational definition of a variable is the specific procedure or operations used to manipulate or measure it.
Random Assignment
Random assignment is crucial because it allows one to infer that differences between groups are due solely to the experimental conditions.
Table 1-1CORRELATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Varies naturally
Controlled by researcher
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
No Yes
UNAMBIGUOUS CAUSALITY
Usually not Yes
EXPLORATORY Often Usually not
THEORY TESTING Often Usually
TESTS MANY RELATIONSHIPS
Usually Usually not
Field versus Laboratory Settings
Field research examines behavior in its natural habitat
Laboratory research is done in an artificial situation.
Advantages of Laboratory Research
maximizes internal validity more convenient and less costly
than field research
Advantages of Field Research
Maximizes external validity Allows researchers to study
powerful situations that cannot be studied in the lab.
Minimizes suspicion by participants
Table 1-2LABORATORY FIELD
CONTROL OVER VARIABLES
High Low
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
Almost always Seldom
CONVENIENCE Usually high Usually low
REALISM Low High
IMPACT OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Tends to be lower Tends to be higher
SUSPICION AND BIAS
Tends to be higher Tends to be lower
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
Low High
Methods of Data Collection
Self-Report Observational Research Archival Research
Bias in Research
Two kinds of bias are troublesome in social psychology: experimenter bias and subject bias
Experimenter Bias
Subtle cues from the researchers may influence participants’ behavior.
Solutions “blind” research assistants Standardize research procedures
Subject Bias
The mere fact of knowing that one is being studied may alter one’s behavior.
Solutions unobtrusive measures don’t tell participants the goals or
hypotheses
Replication
No one study is ever perfect, so results should be replicated
Conceptual replications should be conducted in addition to exact replications.
Research Ethics
American Psychological Association ethical guidelines for research
Institutional Review Boards.
Three Important Ethical Principles
Informed Consent Debriefing Minimal Risk