CHAPER12 CHAPER12

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS REATIONSHIP TO MOTOR ITS REATIONSHIP TO MOTOR DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Melinda A. Solmon

Amelia M. Lee

§12.1 IDENTIFYING SOCIAL AGENTS§12.2 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN

CHILDHOOD§12.3 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN

EARLY ADULTHOOD§12.4 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN§12.5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN

LATE ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE

§12.1IDENTIFYING SOCIAL AGENTS

The Family and Significant Others Siblings and Peers Gender Influences Culture and Race Play

The Family and Significant Others The family is one of the most powerful

agents during the early years

Children who spend time watching their parents participate in swimming, tennis, golf and other sport activities can develop positive attitudes about activity and what it means to be physically active.

On the other hand, children who are not encouraged to participate in physical activity during early childhood will be more likely to view sedentary activities as being acceptable.

Children’s initial views about physical activity and their beliefs about themselves as participants are shaped by the history of participation and the feelings associated with successful and non successful movement experiences

Observational learning is a powerful socializing process during childhood （ Bandura ， 1986）。

Children model the behaviors they observe in family members and significant others and adopt many for themselves. The observational learning processes and modeling can influence social behavior, language, and various types of motor skills.

Siblings and Peers Brothers and sisters might reinforce the

values and beliefs about physical activity that have been established by the parents and also serve as a socializing influence.

Peer relations provide a stronger influence, especially toward participation in team sports.

Gender Influences Gender can profoundly influence an

individual’s goals, aspirations, beliefs about what is important and actual experiences in a society.

Culture and Race Race is considered to be biologically

based, some argue that the concept of race is based on a sociological rather than a genetic definition (Harrison, 1995).

Racial groups were more likely to participate in activities that were stereotyped as more appropriate for their race (Harrison, Lee & Belcher, 1999).

Play

Play activities and time spent in organized and unorganized physical activity can …

Enhance a child’s opportunity to learn basic motor skills

Children can also learn to get along with peers,

Learn about masculine or feminine roles, and develop attitudes toward social groups.

Play and game activities provide opportunities to interact with others in social situations

Gain some skill that enables children to feel competent and good about themselves.

§12.2 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD

In order for children to deal effectively with their environments it has been theorized that they have an intrinsic need to explore, play and attempt to master tasks (White, 1959).

The child who is intrinsically motivated within a mastery domain would also perceive himself or herself to be competent in that domain (Harter, 1978; Harter, 1981).

Perceived competence must be viewed as domain specific.

Theories That Explain the Role of Perceived Competence

The influence of perceived competence is grounded in the role that confidence beliefs play in an individual’s motivation to engage in a movement activity.

Expectancy-Value Theory The choices that individuals make

concerning whether or not to engage in an activity are most affected by two sets of beliefs: Their expectations for success, and the value that they attach to the task.

Two influential factors in the application of the expectancy-value model

values Gender family influences

Conceptions of Ability conceptions of ability are the beliefs

about the nature of ability, and whether or not it is a stable factor that cannot be changed, or malleable construct that can be improved with effort (Dweck, 2001).

In Nicholls’ (1984) development approach, he characterizes conceptions of ability as undifferentiated (ability cannot be differentiated from effort, so ability can be improved with effort) and differentiated (ability is stable and distinct from effort).

Socializing factors such as race, gender, and prior experience can influence individuals’ conceptions of ability in physical activities (Li, Harrison, & Solmon, 2004; Li, Lee, & Solmon, 2006).

Goal Theory （ DUDA,2001;Nicholls,1984)

According to goal theory, two dimensions of goals exist: Task-involved Ego-involved.

Self-determination Theory Self-determination theory (SDT) is a

means to understand and enhance the interaction between social development and human movement.

Rather than viewing extrinsic and intrinsic motivation as distinct entities, motivation is conceptualized in SDT on a continuum ranging from amotivation, or the absence of motivation to intrinsic motivation, characterized as the highest, or most self-determined form of motivation.

Continuum of Self-determination

Amotivation

Extrinsic MotivationSELF-REGULATION

Intrinsic Motivation

External Introjected Identified Integrated

Activity as an end in itself

I do not engage in the activity

I have to I should I want to achieve an outcome

It is important to me

I enjoy the activity

Self-Determination

§12.3 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence generally is considered to begin as children enter their teen years, and to continue until schooling is completed and individuals become independent from their parents and take on adult roles.

Declines in Motivation to Be Active Both expectancies for success and task

values for sport activities show a marked decrease with age.

Two factors that seem to be influential in this process are social comparison and the role of the subjective norm.

§12.5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD As adolescents complete their schooling

and begin to function as independent adults, their roles and responsibilities undergo majors shifts.

The decline with age in physical activity levels that begins during childhood continues during adulthood.

There are many factors that may influence individuals’ decisions to engage in physical activity, including the competing priorities for time mentioned above, as well as conditions related to socioeconomic issues such as crime, poverty, and lack of recreational facilities.

§12.5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE

slow the process of age-related disability affords older adults opportunities to

maintain social networks and to establish and maintain friendships with people of all ages.

is critical to quality of life.