Post on 13-Apr-2017
Replicable tools and frameworks for biocarbondevelopment in West Africa
Ramya Sehmi, Cheikh Mbow, Sari Pitkanen, Helen Cross, Nicholas Berry, Mike Riddell, Janne Heiskanen, Ermias Aynekulu
i
ReplicabletoolsandframeworksforbiocarbondevelopmentinWestAfrica
RamyaSehmi,CheikhMbow,SariPitkanen,HelenCross,NicholasBerry,Mike
Riddell,JanneHeiskanen,ErmiasAynekulu
ii
LIMITEDCIRCULATION
Correctcitation:SehmiR,MbowC,PitkanenS,CrossH,BerryN,RiddellM,HeiskanenJ,AynekuluE.
2016.Replicabletoolsandframeworksforbio-carbondevelopmentsinWestAfrica.ICRAFWorking
paperNo.237.Nairobi,WorldAgroforestryCentre.DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16138.PDF.
TitlesintheworkingpaperSeriesaimtodisseminateinterimresultsonagroforestryresearchand
practicesandstimulatefeedbackfromthescientificcommunity.Otherpublicationseriesfromthe
WorldAgroforestryCentreinclude:TechnicalManuals,OccasionalPapersandtheTreesforChange
series.
PublishedbytheWorldAgroforestryCentre
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WorkingPaperNo.237
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Articlesappearingintheworkingpaperseriesmaybequotedorreproducedwithoutcharge,
providedtheirsourceisacknowledged.
iii
Abouttheauthors
RamyaSehmiRamyaSehmiholdsaBScinEnvironmentalSciencesfromtheUniversityofNottingham.She
workedasaresearchassistantundertheBiocarbonandRuralDevelopment(BIODEV)
projectattheWorldAgroforestryCentre.
CheikhMbowDrCheikhMbowservedasaSeniorScientistonClimateChangeandDevelopmentatthe
WorldAgroforestryCentrefrom2012to2016.HeisanAdjunctProfessoratMichiganState
University’sDepartmentofForestryandleadauthoroftheAgriculture,ForestryandOther
LandUse(AFOLU)chapterinIPCC'sFifthAssessmentReport,andtheIntergovernmental
Science-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystemServices(IPBES).Heiscurrentlythe
ExecutiveDirectorofSTARTInternationalinWashington-DC,USA.
SariPitkänenDrSariPitkänenreceivedherPhDinforestryin1998.SheworksattheUniversityofEastern
Finland,SchoolofForestSciencesandisthecoordinatorofUEF’sbioeconomyprogramme.
SheisalsotheSecretaryGeneraloftheInternationalPartnershipforForestryEducation
(IPFE).PitkänenhasalsoservedasaPlanningOfficer,ResearchScientistandResearch
OfficerattheUniversityofJoensuu,andauthoredseveralscientificpapers.
HelenCrossDrHelenCrossisahumanecologistwhospecializesinlivelihoodsresearch.SheholdsaPhD
inAnthropologyfromUniversityCollegeLondonandleadsthemarineturtleconservation
programmeonBastimentosIsland,Panama,fortheEndangeredWildlifeTrust,UK.
NicholasBerryDrNicholasBerry’sexpertiseisinparticipatoryprojectdesign,andthedevelopmentof
monitoringapproacheslinkedtoadaptivemanagementandperformance-basedfinance.He
hasover10years’experienceincommunity-basednaturalresourcemanagementprojects
inAfricaandAsia.BerryhasanMResinEnvironmentalManagement,aPhDinTropical
ForestEcology,andistheformerChairoftheTechnicalAdvisoryCommitteeofthePlanVivo
Foundation.
MikeRiddellDrMikeRiddell’sbackgroundisinpoliticalecologyandinter-disciplinaryresearch.His
expertiseisintheapplicationofparticipatorymethodsandprocessestounderstandthe
linksbetweennaturalresource-basedlivelihoodsandenvironmentalchange,livelihood
monitoring,andtheparticipatorydesignofbenefit-sharingarrangements.HeholdsanMSc
inBiodiversityConservationandManagementandaDPhilfromOxfordUniversity’sCentre
fortheEnvironment.
JanneHeiskanenDrJanneHeiskanenisaresearcherintheDepartmentofGeosciencesandGeography,
UniversityofHelsinki,Finland.Hismainresearchinterestsincludemeasurementand
iv
mappingforestandvegetationbiophysicalattributesusingfieldinventoriesanddifferent
typesofremotesensingdata.HeholdsaPhDinGeography.
ErmiasAynekuluDrErmiasAynekuluisalandhealthscientistattheWorldAgroforestryCentre.Hisresearch
workbroadlyfocusesonlandhealthsurveillancewhichaimsatmeasuringandmonitoring
landhealthconstraintstoprovidesustainableecosystemservicesandtargeting
interventionstoimproveagro-ecosystemhealthandhumanwellbeing.Heleadslandhealth
projectsinAfricaandco-ordinatesUNCCDactivitieswithinICRAF.
v
TableofContentsAbouttheauthors..........................................................................................................................ii
Listofabbreviations....................................................................................................................viii
Summary........................................................................................................................................x
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................x
Keyterms......................................................................................................................................xi
A-1Introduction.............................................................................................................................1
1.1BiocarbonandclimatechangeinWestAfrica..............................................................................1
1.2Purposeofthetoolkitandobjectives..........................................................................................2
1.3Basicconcepts..............................................................................................................................3
A-2Methodsofmonitoringbiocarbon............................................................................................4
2.1Methodsofestimatingcarbonstocks..........................................................................................5
Definingprojectboundaryandmappingland-use.........................................................................5
Stratificationofprojectarea..........................................................................................................8
Carbonpools..................................................................................................................................8
Carbonpoolselectionandfrequencyofmeasurement.................................................................8
Definitionofmeasurementparametersandsamplingmethods:shapeandnumberofplots....10
Samplingmethods:shape,areaandnumberofplots.................................................................10
Conductfieldmeasurements,recordandcompiledata..............................................................12
Biomassestimatesandsourcesofuncertainty............................................................................15
2.2Carbondioxideemissionreductionthroughefficientwoodenergy(improvedstoves)............18
2.3Estimatingthesourcesofuncertainty........................................................................................19
B-1/Developmentoffruitandvegetabletreesforemissionreductionandcarbonsequestration.20
Rationaleandobjectives..................................................................................................................20
Dataandinformationrequirementsforcarbonsequestrationinfruitandvegetabletrees...........21
Carbonabatementpotential............................................................................................................23
Costsandinvestments.....................................................................................................................24
Environmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsoffruitandvegetabletrees.......................................25
Institutionalframeworksandmanagementschemes......................................................................26
Monitoringrequirements.................................................................................................................27
Challengesandbarriers....................................................................................................................28
Capacitydevelopment......................................................................................................................29
vi
References........................................................................................................................................29
B-2/Protectionofstandingbiomassforemissionreductionandcarbonsequestration.................32
Rationaleandobjectives..................................................................................................................32
Dataandinformationrequirementsforbiomassandcarbon.........................................................34
Carbonabatementpotential............................................................................................................35
Costsandinvestments.....................................................................................................................37
Environmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsofconservingstandingbiomass.................................38
Institutionalframeworksandmanagementschemes......................................................................40
Monitoringrequirements.................................................................................................................40
Challengesandbarriers....................................................................................................................40
Capacitydevelopment......................................................................................................................41
References........................................................................................................................................42
B-3/Nitrogen-fixingtreesandsoilfertilization..............................................................................44
Rationaleandobjectives..................................................................................................................44
Dataandinformationrequirementsforcarbonsequestrationbynitrogen-fixingtreesandsoil
fertilization.......................................................................................................................................46
Carbonabatementpotential............................................................................................................47
Costsandinvestments.....................................................................................................................48
Environmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsofnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilization....................49
Institutionalframeworksandmanagementschemes......................................................................49
Monitoringrequirements.................................................................................................................49
Challengesandbarriers....................................................................................................................50
Capacitydevelopment......................................................................................................................51
References........................................................................................................................................51
B-4/Woodenergyorstoves..........................................................................................................53
Rationaleandobjectives..................................................................................................................53
Dataandinformationrequirements................................................................................................55
Carbonabatementpotential............................................................................................................57
Costsandinvestments.....................................................................................................................58
Environmentalandsocioeconomicbenefits....................................................................................59
Institutionalframeworkandmanagementschemes.......................................................................59
Monitoringrequirements.................................................................................................................60
Challengesandbarriers....................................................................................................................60
Capacitydevelopment......................................................................................................................61
vii
Sustainableenergywoodmanagement...........................................................................................62
References........................................................................................................................................63
B-5/Landrestorationforcarbonsequestration.............................................................................65
Rationaleandobjectives..................................................................................................................65
Dataandinformationrequirementsforlandrestoration................................................................66
Carbonabatementpotential............................................................................................................66
Costsandinvestments.....................................................................................................................67
Environmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsoflandrestoration.....................................................68
Institutionalframeworksandmanagementschemes......................................................................68
Monitoringmethods........................................................................................................................68
Challengesandbarriers....................................................................................................................69
Capacitydevelopment......................................................................................................................69
References........................................................................................................................................70
ANNEX1:Carbondioxideequivalent............................................................................................72
ANNEX2:BiocarbonprojectsinAfrica..........................................................................................73
viii
ListofabbreviationsAGB Above-GroundBiomass
ACF AfricaConservationFoundation
AFOLU Agriculture,ForestryandOtherLandUse(
AREAP AfricaRenewableEnergyAccessProgramme
BIODEV BiocarbonandRuralDevelopment
CCC ClimateChangeConnection
CD CrownDiameter
CDM CleanDevelopmentMechanism
CEPF CriticalEcosystemPartnershipFund
CER CertifiedEmissionReduction
CFL CompactFluorescent
CIFOR InternationalCentreforForestryResearch
DBH DiameteratBreastHeight
DM DryMass
DOE DepartmentofEnergy
FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations
FM FreshMass
FMNR Farmer-ManagedNaturalRegeneration
GEF GlobalEnvironmentFacility
GHG GreenhouseGas
GPS GlobalPositioningSystem
GRF GuineanRainForest
GWP GlobalWarmingPotential
HCF Hydrofluorocarbons
ICRAF WorldAgroforestryCentre
ICRISAT InternationalCropsResearchInstituteforSemi-AridTropics
INERA Institutdel'EnvironnementetdeRecherchesAgricoles
IP InternationalProgramme
IPBES IntergovernmentalScience-PolicyPlatformonBiodiversityandEcosystem
Services
IPCC IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange
IPFE InternationalPartnershipforForestryEducation
LULC LandUseandLandCover
LULUCF LandUse,Land-UseChangeandForestry
MAC MarginalAbatementCost
MEDD MinistryofEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment
MEWR MinistryofEnvironmentandWaterResources
MRV Measuring,ReportingandVerifying
NGO Non-GovernmentalOrganization
NMVOC Non-MethaneVolatileOrganicCompounds
NPK Nitrogen,PhosphorusandPotassium
OECD OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment
PFC Perfluorocarbons
REDD ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandforestDegradation
REEEP RenewableEnergyandEnergyEfficiencyPartnership
RMC RelativeMoistureContent
ix
RWEDP RegionalWoodEnergyDevelopmentProgramme
SOCSOM SequestrationofCarboninSoilOrganicMatter
STEWARD SustainableandThrivingEnvironmentsforWestAfricanRegionDevelopment
UEF UniversityofEasternFinland
UK UnitedKingdom
UN UnitedNations
UNCCD UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme
UNFCCC UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange
USA UnitedStatesofAmerica
USAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment
USDA UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture
USFS UnitedStatesForestService
UTM UniversalTransverseMercator
VCA ValueChainAnalysis
WP WorkPackage
x
SummaryThisworkingpaperisintendedtohelpcountriesinWestAfrica,andlocalcommunitiesand
farmerstoadoptclimate-smartlandmanagementpracticesthatenhancecarbon
sequestration.Abatinggreenhousegasemissionfromlanduseshouldnot,intheAfrican
context,limitacommunity’sdevelopment.Hence,promotingaHighValueBiocarbon
communityofpracticeshouldfirstaddressthelivelihoodsofinhabitantsthroughincreased
socioeconomicdevelopmentopportunities.Thedocumenthighlightstheimportanceof
interventionslikeagroforestryinattaininggoodqualityandquantityofproductsby
highlightingthesignificanceofgrowingfruitandvegetabletrees,nitrogen-fixingtrees
againstheavyfertilizerusage,protectionofstandingbiomass,utilizationofimprovedwood
energystovesandlandrestoration.Thesubstantialamountofinformationanddata
requiredtoexecuteeachoftheprojectsaregivenindetailinthisworkingpaper,together
withthesocioeconomicandenvironmentalbenefits,costsincurred,monitoring
requirements,proposedmanagementschemesandcapacitybuilding.Theratesofsuccess
oftheprojectscanbemeasuredbyconductingcarboninventories,estimatingtheamount
ofcarbondioxideemissionsreleased,andcarryingoutsurveysamonglocalstoascertainthe
qualityandquantityofproduceandmarketvalues.Thechallengesandbarriersexperienced
inimplementingbiocarbondevelopmentprojectscanbeaddressedbyincreasingthe
numberoftrainingworkshopsofferedonconductingcarboninventories,bridgingthegaps
inresearchanddevelopment,increasingaccesstocapitalandimprovinginfrastructure
development.Itisfundamentaltoensureprogressinthesestaturestoencouragefurther
sustainablefarmingtechniquesforthebenefitoftheenvironment,societyandthe
economy.
AcknowledgementsThisdocumentispartofaseriesofpublicationsfromWP2oftheBIODEVprojectfundedby
theGovernmentofFinland.WearethankfultothecommunityofCassouinBurkinaFaso
andtheINERAscientistswhofacilitatedtheworkinthefield.ThankstoDr.JeromeTondoh
fortheoverallcoordination.OurwarmthankstoSusanOnyangoforthevaluablereviews.
xi
Keyterms1Agroforestry–Insimpleterms,agroforestrymeansgrowingtreesonfarms.Thiscaninclude
thedevelopmentoffertilizertrees,fruittrees,foddertrees,medicinaltreesandtimberand
fuelwoodtrees.Manyofthesetreesaremultipurpose,providingarangeofbenefits.
Biomass–Organicmaterialderivedfromlivingorrecentlylivingorganisms,oftenreferring
toplantmaterials.Biomassisalsoconsideredasasourceofrenewableenergy.
BiocarbonandRuralDevelopmentproject(BIODEV)–Aninitiativetoachievedevelopmentalandenvironmentalbenefitsthatcanbeaccruedfrombuildingbiologicalor
naturalcarbonthroughimprovedagroforestryandforestrymanagementandtreeplanting.Carbon–OneofthemostabundantelementsonEarthandintheatmosphere.Carbonis
thechemicalbasisforallknownlife.Itisabsorbedandemittedinvariousformsthroughout
thecarboncycle,buttheamountiseffectivelyconstant.Carbonprojectsmeasurethe
carbondioxidesequestratedbytrees.
Carboncredit–Atrade-ableunitorcertificatewhichrepresentsonemetrictonofcarbon.A
carboncreditorcarbonoffsetcanbesoldasareductioninemissionsofcarbondioxideand
othergreenhousegasesmadeinordertocompensatefor,ortooffsetanemissionmade
elsewhere.
Carbondioxide(CO2)–Naturallyoccurringgreenhousegasandaby-productofburningfossilfuelsorbiomass,orland-usechangesandindustrialprocesses.Itistheprincipal
anthropogenicgreenhousegasthataffectstheEarth’sradiativebalanceleadingtoglobal
warming.
Carbonemissions–Inthecarboncycle,carbondioxideisabsorbedbyplantsandmaybere-
emittedascarbondioxidebyorganismswhichconsumethebiomassaccumulatedbyplants.
Thetermisoftenassociatedwiththeenhancedemissionsproducedbyhumanactivities
throughburningoffossilfuels.Carbonemissionsfromdifferentactivitiessuchasflying,
drivingandheatingorcoolinghomescannowbeaccuratelycalculated.Thesecalculations
areusedtomeasuretheamountofcarboncreditsrequiredtooffsetsuchemissions.
Carbonmarkets–Therearetwotypesofcarbonmarketsnamelycomplianceandvoluntary.
ThecompliancemarketsareprescribedbytheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventionon
ClimateChangeandrealizedthroughCleanDevelopmentMechanismProjectsCertified
EmissionReduction(CER)permits,whicharesoldandtradedbetweennations.Voluntary
markets,ontheotherhand,arelesscentralizedandincludetransactionsbetween
individualsandbusinesses,andprivateornot-for-profitcompanieswhichbuyandsell
carboncreditstooffsetthecarbonemissionstheygenerate.
Carbonsequestration–Thisisthedirectremovalofcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere
throughland-usechange,afforestation,reforestationand/orincreasesinsoilcarbon.
Carbonsinkorcarbonpool–Asystemthatcanstoreand/oraccumulatecarbone.g.above-
groundbiomass(treesandvegetation),litter,deadwoodandsoilorganiccarbon.
Carbonstandard–Normallyassociatedwiththevoluntarycarbonmarket,acarbon
standardisasetofqualitystandardsandprocedurestoensurearigorousandtransparent
carbonforestryproject.Eachstandardprovidesguidelinesforvalidating,measuring,and
monitoringcarbonoffsetprojects.
Forestdegradation–Thereductionofaforestsproductivityorecologicalfunctionthroughselectiveloggingalthoughlanduse/coverremainsasforest.Incontrasttodeforestation,
thisisoftenagradualprocessenhancedbychangesinlocalmicro-climatesandforestfires.
1 Sources:Alforteetal.2014,IPCC2013,ICRAF2016
xii
Greenhousegas–Gasesconcentratedintheatmospherewhichenhancesthewarming
effect,effectivelycreatingablanketaroundtheearth.Theyincludecarbondioxide(CO2),
carbonmonoxide(CO),nitrousoxide(N2O),oxidesofnitrogen(NOx),methane(CH4),and
non-methanevolatileorganiccompounds(NMVOCs).TheKyotoProtocolalsoaddresses
hydrofluorocarbons(HCFs),perfluorocarbons(PFCs),andsulphurhexafluoride(SF6).
Landuse,land-usechangeandforestry(LULUCF)–TheUnitedNationsFramework
ConventiononClimateChangedefinesthisas,‘Agreenhousegasinventorysectorthat
coversemissionsandremovalofgreenhousegasesresultingfromdirecthuman-induced
landuse,land-usechangeandforestryactivities.’EmissionsfromLULUCFareestimatedto
representupto20%oftheglobalemissionsannually.
Mitigation–Thereductionandpreventionofgreenhousegasemissionsandenhancement
ofexistingsinks.
Nitrogenfixation–Thisisaprocessbywhichnitrogen(N2)intheatmosphereisconverted
intoammonia(NH3)andmadeavailabletoplants.
Permanence–Akeyconceptincarbonforestryprojects.Ensuring‘permanence’ofthe
claimedcarbonsequestratedthroughproceduresandpracticeswhichguaranteethatthe
treesplantedorprotectedremainso.Inpractice,thisisdifficulttoguaranteeandlossesdue
todisease,firesandevenneglectareareality.Therefore,morecarbonstandardsrequire
theprojecttosetasidea‘buffer’incaseoflossoftreesandthecarbontheystore.
Remotesensing–Istheartandscienceofmakingmeasurementsoftheearthusing
sensorsonairplanesorsatellites.
Technicalspecifications–Aspecifiedland-useactivity,includingthemethodologyusedto
quantifycarbonsequestrated,assessmentofrisksandleakage,themanagementand
monitoringsystemtobeadopted,anddescriptionsoflikelyecosystemservices,including
butnotlimitedtocarbon.Manytechnicalspecificationshavealreadybeendevelopedso
theremaybenoneedtodeveloponesforyourspecificproject.
1
A-1Introduction
1.1BiocarbonandclimatechangeinWestAfricaLossoftreecoverisamajorcontributorofgreenhousegasemissionsinsub-SaharanAfrica.
Thesustainablemanagementofforests,includingtreecropsystems,isvitaltothesuccess
ofcommunityclimatechangeadaptationneedswhilesupportingglobalclimatechange
mitigationefforts.Investmentsinimprovedwoodyvegetationmanagementofferthemost
significantcarbonsequestrationpossibilitiesinrurallandscapes.Moreimportantly,they
alsohavepositiveeffectsonotherenvironmentalservices(e.g.,waterflowsand
biodiversity),energyprovision,agriculturalproductivityandincome(SinareandGordon
2014).Inadditiontobenefitsthroughmitigation,agroforestryandforestscontributeto
communities’abilitytoadapttoclimatechange(Mbowetal.2014,FAO,2010).Treeson
farmsincreasetheresilienceandproductivityofagriculturalsystems,thusincreasingthe
adaptivecapacityofsmallholderfarmers.
Abroad-basedcarbonenrichmentstrategyatlandscapelevelwillalsocontributeto
increasedbiomassforenergy,reducingpressureonforeststhatarecriticalfor
environmentalservices.Italsoenrichessoilssothattheyaremoreproductiveandcapable
ofupliftingagriculturalproductionandincome(Lal2004,Shibu,2009).Productsfromforest
andwoodlandresourcesarelikewiseknowntoprovidelocalcommunitieswithmuch-
neededresourcesandincome,especiallyduringperiodsofdroughtandotherclimate-
relateddisasters.Productsofseveralspeciesmanagedbyfarmershavesalevaluesinthe
tensofmillionsofdollarseachyear.Additionally,fuelwoodfromtreesaccountsforover9%
oftotalprimaryenergyglobally(FAO2016).InAfrica,around92%ofwoodremovalsfrom
forestandwoodlandareforfuel(Amous1997).
Stockandfluxaretwoimportantconceptswhicharesubsequentlylinked;increaseinstock
indicatesthattheecosystemabsorbscarbon.Thisfactcomesfromthelawofconservation
ofmass.Forinstance,ifcarbonstockisgrowing,itmeansthatthereismorecarbon
enteringthangoingout.Inotherwords,thenetbalanceoffluxisaninboundflux.Itmeans
thatifCO2isremovedfromtheatmosphere,theatmosphericconcentrationofgreenhouse
gasesisdecreasedandclimatechangeisreduced.Inthatcase,theprocessiscalledcarbon
fixation,absorptionorremoval,andtheecosystemiscalledacarbonsink.Conversely,ifthe
stockdecreases(forinstanceinadecayingorburningforest),anoutboundfluxwillincrease
atmosphericgreenhousegasconcentrationsandincreaseclimatechange.Theprocessis
knownascarbonemission,andtheecosystemiscalledacarbonsource.
Bothforestedandagriculturallandscapesprovideavarietyofenvironmentalservicesthat
areverysensitivetohumanpressure.Loweringtheratesofdeforestationorenhancingthe
carbonstocksinanecosystemresultsinmitigation.Inparticular,mitigationbenefitscome
fromimprovedmanagementactionsleadingtoloweremissionsorinincreasedremovalof
carbonfromtheatmosphere,thusloweringtheCO2intheatmosphere.Concurrently,these
samelandscapescanprovidebenefitsthatincreaseresiliencyofcommunities.Such
adaptationbenefitsincludeimprovedwaterresources,biodiversityandvariedeconomic
2
opportunitiesthroughagriculturalproductsandservices,timber,non-timberproductsand
culturalvalues.Thoseservicesandlandscapesarethemselvesvulnerabletoclimate
variabilityandchange,forexample,duetohigherfrequencyofforestfiresandotherforms
ofhumanoranimalpressures.Thus,forestoragriculturalmanagementitselfneedstobe
adaptedtobecomemoreresilient.
InAfricathepotentialtobundlemitigationandadaptationthroughsustainableland
managementisdemonstrated,butcommunitieslackthetechnicalskillsandknowledgeto
planandimplementclimate-smartsolutions.Currently,technicalcapacitiesexpressed
throughvariousagreementsareweakinmostcountries.Improvedcapacityisthereforea
requirementforbiocarbonapproachesinthecontinent.Thistoolkitwasdevelopedtofill
thegapandnurtureopportunitiesthroughmainstreamedknowledgetovariousgroupsof
practitioners.
Thekeymessageinthispublicationisthatthesamemanagementactioncanbothprovide
mitigationandadaptationbenefits.Mitigationbenefitsarerealizedthroughreduced
emissionsfromdeforestationandincreasedcarbonsinksfromplantedtrees,while
adaptationbenefitscomethroughthegreaterclimateresilienceoflocalcommunitiesfrom
continuedregulationandprovisionofecosystemservices.
Itisimportantthereforethatstrategiestoimproveagroforestry,treeandforest
managementemphasizetheircontributiontowardsdevelopmentandwellbeing.Those
benefitsgenerallyoffergreaterprivatefinancialrewardsthandothebenefitsfrom
environmentalservices,andthustheytendtodrivetheincentivesforinvestmenttoa
greaterdegree(Bugayong2003).
Buildingcarboninecosystemreservoirsthroughimprovedagroforestryandforest
managementandtreeplantingisreferredtoasbiocarbondevelopmentinthispaper.TheBiocarbonandRuralDevelopment(BIODEV)projectbyICRAFusesforestry,agroforestryand
treestoderiveabroadrangeofdevelopmentandenvironmentaloutcomes(i.e.,notjustfor
carbon);whichisreferredtoashigh-valuebiocarbondevelopment.Approachestosustainableruraldevelopmentarecriticalinthelightofclimatechangeandtheincreasing
importanceofadaptationandmitigation.
1.2PurposeofthetoolkitandobjectivesThereisavarietyofcost-effectivemitigationoptionsavailablethatarebasedonforest
resourcemanagement.TheseoptionsofferopportunitiesformanyAfricancountriestoboth
contributetoclimatechangemitigation,andtoimproveadaptivecapacitiesofpoor
communities.Inthiscontext,theterm‘biocarbon’isdefinedasthebroadsectorthat
includesrenewableenergyderivedfrombiomassandorganicwastes,aswellasthecarbon
sinks(trees,vegetation,soilandpeat)foundinagricultural,forestandotherterrestrial
ecosystems.AsetoftransformativeoptionsthatarewidelyapplicableinruralareasofWest
Africatocontributetothepreventionofemissionsbymaintainingandenhancingcurrent
biocarbonsinks,andcontributetotheremovalofcarbonfromtheatmospherethroughthe
establishmentofnewbiocarbonsinkswereselected.
Thesectorsdescribedinthistoolkitinclude:
1) Developmentoffruitandvegetabletrees
3
2) Protectionofstandingbiomass
3) Developmentofnitrogen-fixingtreesandsoilfertilization
4) Improvedwoodenergy/stoves
5) Landrestorationforcarbonsequestration.
1.3BasicconceptsThecarboncycleisabiogeochemicalcyclewherecarbonisexchangedamongthe
componentsoftheEarth,namelyatmosphere,biosphere,hydrosphere,pedosphereand
geosphere.
Carbondioxideispresentinreservoirswhereitcanbestoredorreleased(e.g.,insoiland
vegetation)calledcarbonpools.Thesecarbonpoolseitherstorethecarbontoforma
carbonsink,orreleasethecarbondioxidetobecomeacarbonsource.Theprocessbywhich
carbondioxideisremovedfromtheatmosphereforstoragebyasubsequentcarbonpoolis
referredtoascarbonsequestration.Carbonemissionistheremovalofbiocarbonfrom
carbonsinksintotheatmosphere.Additionally,acarbonfluxisdefinedastherateof
exchangebetweencarbonpools.
Figure1.1:Termsusedintheexchangeofcarbondioxidebetweencarbonpools
Remotesensingtechnologiescombinedwithgroundmeasurementsplayakeyrolein
measuringandmonitoringthecarbonbudget.
4
A-2MethodsofmonitoringbiocarbonToavoidrepetitioninsubsequentsectionsofthistoolkit(sectionB-X),thegeneralmethods
ofmonitoringbiocarbonarediscussedhere.Anyadditionaldetailsarethencoveredin
specificsections.
Therearethreetechniquesthatcanbeusedtomeasurebiomassandcarboninforests
(RavindranathandOstwald2008).
a) Fieldmeasurements
b) Remotesensing
c) Allometricmodelling
Figure2.1:Asummarizedfigureofthesignificantinformationandstepsrequiredfortheimplementationofasuccessfulcarboninventorywithmeasurementsinvolvedandsubsequenttechniquesused(Source:RavindranathandOstwald2008).
Themostcommonfieldmeasurementsoftreestodeterminecarbonstockincludethestem
diameteratbreastheight(DBH),treeheightandcrowndiameter.Thesebiometric
measurementsareessentialastheycanbeusedtoestimateconvertedtreebiomassusing
allometricmodels(Brown1997,Nairetal.2010).Furthermore,carboncontentcanbe
derivedfrombiomassasapproximately50%ofbiomassiscarbon.
Thegrowthoffruitandvegetabletrees,nitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizer,conservationof
standingbiomass,useofwoodenergyorefficientstovesandlandrestorationallhave
substantialeffectsontheabove-groundbiomassoftheconsequentialecosystems.
Therefore,determiningtheabove-groundbiomassoftreesandmonitoringchangesinitis
veryrelevant.
5
2.1MethodsofestimatingcarbonstocksTreesareimportantfeaturesinfarminglandscapesinWestAfrica.Yetestimatingthe
carbonpotentialofnumerousagroforestsystemshasbeenlimited.Agoodwaytovisualize
astockofcarbonistothinkofthebiomassstoredintheecosystem.Almost50%ofthedry
biomassiscarbon.Ifthedrybiomassofatreeistwotonnes,thenitcontainsaroundone
tonneofcarbon(C=biomassX0.47).
Figure2.2:Simplifiedstepsindicatingtheprocessofestimatingcarbonstocksoffruitandvegetabletreesoragroforestrysystemsinadefinedprojectarea(Source:RavindranathandOstwald2008)
Definingprojectboundaryandmappingland-useIdentifyingtheprojectboundaryisthefirstcrucialsteptoobtainingacarboninventoryof
thespecifiedland-usecategory.Ingeneral,therearetwoapproachesofdevelopingproject
boundaries(RavindranathandOstwald2007):
a) Ground-basedmethods
b) Remotesensing
Themethodusedtoformaprojectboundaryishighlydependentonthestatusofland,the
vegetationandscaleoftheproject.Forexample,alarge-scaleprojectwouldbenefitmost
fromtheuseofremotesensing.
6
Ground-basedmethodsThesemethodsareusefulforsmall-scaleprojectsandincludephysicalmeasurementsor
usingGPScoordinatestoformaprojectboundary.
Table2.1:MethodsandmaterialsrequiredfordefiningprojectboundariesMethods Physicalmeasurements GPSmeasurements RemotesensingandGIS
Materialsrequired
Compass,measuringtape
orchains,permanent
marker,clinometer(ifthe
siteissloped),notebook,
surveypegsandhammer.
GPS,notebook,tagging
deviceandlocalmapsfor
latitudeandlongitude
coordinatesanda
compass.
Multispectralhighto
mediumresolution
satelliteimage(e.g.
LANDSAT,ASTER,SPOT,
GEOEYE,RAPIDEYE,
QUICKBIRDetc.)andGIS
software.
Pictureexamples
PlantedForestInventoryin
Mbao(Senegal)
DelineatedStrateinWelor
(Senegal)
Quickbirdimageofthe
Ferlo(Senegal)
RavindranathandOstwald2008
Directmeasurements
Acompass,measuringtapesorchainscanbeusedtoanalysetheareaandmarkthe
positionsusingpegs,dependingonifthelandislevel.
GPSmeasurements
SelectthecoordinatesystemandunitrequiredandenterthemintotheGPSforrecording
andtrackingtheprojectboundary.TheGPSshouldproperlybecalibratedforprecisionin
dataacquisition.UsingmetricunitsinmapcoordinatessuchasUTM-basedprojectionwill
helpintranslationoffieldcoordinates-basedmaps.Landmarksshouldbeproperlytagged
usingmetalclipsoranydevicethatcanbeusedformarkingandmakenotesoferror
estimatesgivenbytheGPS(RavindranathandOstwald2007).Acompasswouldbe
beneficialasvegetationmaybedenseinsomeareasandthisinterfereswiththe
transmissionsignalsfromthesatellites.
7
Figure2.3:ExampleofahandheldGPS(PhotobyRamyaSehmi)
RemotesensingandGISRemotesensingcomprisesusingsensorsmountedonsatellitesonaircraftsandinvolvesthe
useofpassiveandactivesatellitemethodsandinstruments,includingaerialphotography.
Remotesensingiswidelyusedforlarge-scaleprojects.Thismethodinvolvesthedetection
andmeasurementoflandobjectsusingsatelliteimageries(e.g.LANDSAT,MODIS,ASTER,
SPOT)andaerialphotographsthroughvisualinterpretationorclassificationmethods
(Graham1999).ExamplesofremotesensingsoftwareincludeENVI,ERDAS,GRASS,etc.
Figure2.4:AnexampleofafalsecolourcompositeofLandsat8OLIimage(green,redandnearinfraredspectralbands)fromsouthernBurkinaFaso(top).Close-upimagesdemonstratedifferenceinspatialresolutionbetweenthehighresolutionRapidEyeimage(left)andmediumresolutionOLIimage(right)fortheareaindicatedbytheyellowrectangle.BothimageswereacquiredinFebruary2014.
8
StratificationofprojectareaGivenspatialvariationincarbonstockanddynamics,precisioninmeasurement
requirementsurgeforadifferentiatedassessmentofvariousgeographicalvariationsfor
carbonstockestimatesbyarrangingorclassifyingintogroupstoformrelatively
homogenousclasseswithsimilarcarbonstocks(Pearsonetal.2013).Thestepsinclude:
1) Delineatingcomplexmosaicsintohomogenousareasbyvegetationtypesorland
use.2) Selectandapplysamplingmethodsforeachstratum.3) Finally,compileobtaineddataandestimatecarbonstocksforeachstrataand
projectarea.
MethodsofstratificationStratificationcanbeachievedinthefollowingways:
1) GPS((i).2forinstructions)–ThisiscarriedoutbyusingtheGeographicalInformation
Systemsoftwareprogrammetostore,analyseandreportdata.Althoughthismaybe
atediousandtime-consumingapproach,itischeaperthanothermethodsandis
thereforeconsidered.
2) Remotesensing(section(i).(2).b)–ThisentailstheuseofaerialphotographyorsatelliteimagesandGISsoftwareformappingvegetationtypesandlanduse.
Figure2.5:Exampleofastratifiedplotofland(VelingaraForestinSouthernSenegal)
CarbonpoolsInagivenecosystem,thereareseveralreservoirsofcarbonthatcanbemeasuredand
monitored.Theseareindicatedinfigure2.7.
CarbonpoolselectionandfrequencyofmeasurementSelectingtheprecisecarbonpoolsforinventoryisaffectedbytheprojecttype,sizeofthe
pool,rateofchange,costtomeasureandattainableaccuracy(MacDicken1997a,b,Brown
9
2002).Aselectiveorpartialaccountingsystemcanbeusedbutitmustcontainallrelevant
poolsexpectedtodecreaseorincrease(Brown2002).
Figure2.6:Thevariouscarbonpoolspresentinagivenenvironment
Table2.2:AselectionofcarbonpoolsthatcanbemeasuredindifferentprojectsProjecttypes CarbonPools
LiveBiomass DeadBiomass Soil WoodTrees Understory Roots Fine Coarse Products
Avoidemissions
- Stopdeforestation
- Reducedimpact
logging
- Improvedforest
management
Y
Y
Y
M
M
M
R
R
R
M
M
M
Y
Y
Y
R
M
M
M
M
Y
Sequestercarbon
- Plantations
- Agroforestry
Y
Y
N
Y
R
M
M
N
M
N
R
R
Y
M
Carbonsubstitution
- Shortrotation
energyplantations
Y
N
M
N
N
Y
*
Y=Yes,R=Recommended,M=Maybe,N=Notrecommended,*StorescarboninunburnedfossilfuelsSource:IPCC,2000
Table2.2givesasummaryofpoolsthatcanbemeasuredinvariousland-basedcarbon
projectscenarios;carbonemission,sequestrationandsubstitution.Incarbonsequestration
projects,measuringthecarbonpoolsintreesandwoodproductswouldbemostbeneficial
asthechangeinthepoolswouldbelarge.
Above-groundbiomassisthemostdynamiccarbonpoolforlandusesystemsandprojects
involvingtrees.Itislikelytochangefrequentlyorannually,muchfasterthanotherpoolsfor
allprojectsinvolvingtreeplanting.Themeasurementfrequencydependsonthestockin
above-groundbiomasspoolatthepre-projectimplementationphase(knownasbaseline
10
scenario).Ifthestockiszeroorinsignificant,aswithafforestationorreforestationprojects
inbarelands,theannualcarbonaccumulationislikelytobesignificantandshouldbe
measuredeverythreeyears.Whereasinthescenarioofforestmanagementprojects(also
knownasavoideddeforestation),theabove-groundbiomassislikelytobepresentin
considerableamountsatthestartoftheproject,therefore,annualmonitoringisnot
required,(RavindranathandOstwald2007).
Onthewhole,themeasurementfrequencyofabove-groundbiomasswhichusuallyranges
fromonceayeartoevery2-3yearsisreliantonthecarbonstocksatthebeginningofthe
project,thegrowthrateofthebiomassandtheobjectiveoftheproject.
Definitionofmeasurementparametersandsamplingmethods:shapeandnumberofplots
DefinitionofparametersTheconsequentialestimationandmonitoringofcarbonstocksinaprojectrequiresthe
measurementofparameters.Thesearegivenbelow.
Table2.3:Parametersforestimatingcarbonstocksinabove-groundbiomass
Source:RavindranathandOstwald2007
Samplingmethods:shape,areaandnumberofplotsSamplingistheprocessbywhichinferenceismadetothewholeprojectareabyexamining
partsofit.Themaingoalistogetareliableestimatewithminimalcost(Pearsonetal.2005).Measurementsforcarboninventoriesaretakeninanumberofplots.Theaverage
valueobtainedwhenallplotsarecombinedrepresentthewiderpopulation,andbyusing
theconfidenceinterval,theaccuracyandhowrepresentativethevalueiscanbe
determined.Typically,aconfidencelevelof95%isusedandportraysthat95timesoutof
100,thetruecarbondensitylieswithintheinterval(Pearsonetal.2005).
Carbonpool Parameterstobemeasuredandrecorded
Above-groundbiomassoftreesandshrubs • Nameofspecies(includinglocalnameif
available)
• Diameteratbreastheight(DBH)(cm)
Height(m)
• Crownextent:fullcrownorpercent
crowndamaged
• Freshweightandnumberofstemsfor
shrubs
• Origin:regeneratedorplanted
Above-groundbiomassofherborground-layer
vegetation(smallershrubs)
• Nameofspecies
• Densityofherbsandsmallershrubs
(number/plot)
• Freshweightofherblayerbiomass(g/m2)
11
Therearetwotypesofsampleplotsthatcanbeusedforsamplingtrees:permanentplots
andtemporaryplots.Permanentplotsaremorestatisticallyefficientandpermitverification
overtime,andarethereforemoresuitableforcarbondynamicsestimationinaprojectarea
consistingofmainlytrees.Additionally,thesizesandshapesofthesampleplotshavea
trade-offbetweenaccuracy,precision,measurementtimeandcostofmeasurement.
Temporaryplotsaresuitableforassessingcurrentstocks.Itisalsoimportantto
differentiatebetweensingleplotsoffixedsizesornestedplotscontainingsub-unitsof
differentsizes(Lackmann2011).Plotscanalsobeclassifiedaccordingtotheirshapes,the
mostpopularforvegetationanalysesarecircular,rectangularandsquareplots,though
stripsarealsoused.
Identifyingthenumberofplotsrequiredtobemeasuredormonitoredforestimating
carbonstocksisacrucialstepintheproject.Thenumberofplotsshouldbechosenwith
statisticalrigortogetacorrectassessmentoftheimpactofaland-basedprojectoncarbon
stocks,roundwoodproductionorsoilorganicmatter(RavindranathandOstwald2007).
Thefollowingstepsareusedtocalculatethenumberofplots:
• Step1-Identifytheprecisionlevel.
• Step2-Identifyareatocollectpreliminarydata.
• Step3-Estimatemeancarbonstockandvariancefromthepreliminarydata.
• Step4-Calculatethenumberofplotsusingtheequationbelow:
Equation2.1:Commonformulatoestimatenumberofplots
Where:
• n=numberofplotstobemeasured
• Syx=estimationerror
• t=studenttvalue
• S=variance
• X=meanvalue
Alternatively,anonlinetoolforcalculatingnumberofplotsisavailableat:
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/TM11192.pdf(Aynekulu
etal.2011).
Theselectionofsampleplotlocationsmustbefreeofbias.Thisstatisticalerrorisavoided
byfirstlyexaminingtheprojectboundaryandthemapofthearea,selectingifplotswillbe
randomlyorsystematicallysampledanddeterminingtheexactsitesusingGISdata.Tropical
forestsandwoodlandsrequirelargersamplingplotsduetotheirsizesandextensive
canopies.
Intermediate plot: radius 14 m, trees 20-50 cm dbh
12
Figure2.7:AnexampleoftheDBHoftreesandtheapproximateradiiusedinfixedplots(Source:Pearsonetal.2007)
(a) Randomsampling(b)Systematicsampling
Figure2.8:Anexampleofsamplingdesigns,(a)randomand(b)systematic
Conductfieldmeasurements,recordandcompiledataTobeginfieldmeasurements,anumberofprerequisitesarerequired,namely(Ravindranath
andOstwald2007):
• Trainedstaff
• Informationabouttheprojectarea
• Instrumentsandmaterialsneededforthemeasurements
• Arrangementforplantsamplecollection
• Equipmentforrecordingdata
Followingthesearrangements,fieldexperimentscancommenceassuringfurtheraccuracy
andtimemanagement.Theinstrumentsneededformeasurementsandrecordingdatafor
carboninventoryarelistedbelow.
Table2.4:Alistofallinstrumentsandmaterialsneededtoconductfieldexperiments- Measuringtape–long(5,30,50m)andfinetoallowmeasurementofDBH(1-1.5m)
- Clinometer–estimatingtreeheight
- Pegsformarkingboundaries
- PaintandbrushormarkersformarkingpointofDBHmeasurement
- GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)
- Balance(forweighingshrubsandwoodybiomass)
- Sheetsandpencilsforrecordingdata
- Metalquadratforsamplingherbaceousvegetation
- CaliperstomeasureDBHofsmallstems
- Aluminumtagsformarkingtrees
- Clothbagsorpaperbagstocollectlitterorherbaceousvegetation
Large plot: radius 20m, trees >50 cm dbh
Small plot: radius 4 m, trees 5-20 cm dbh
13
Measuringabove-groundbiomassoftrees.Calculatingtheabove-groundbiomassoftreesrequiresnotesandmeasurementsofa
numberofparameters:thespecies,diameteratbreastheight(DBH),thecrownradiusand
treeheight(Seetable2.3).
• Treediameteratbreastheight(1.3maboveground)ismeasuredusingatapewhich
providesthecircumference,oraDBHtapewhichgivestheDBHdirectly.TheDBHis
thenrecordedincentimetresonthedatasheet.Ifthetreehasanumberofshoots,
theDBHforallshootsaremeasured.
Figure2.9:Measuringthediameteratbreastheightofvaryingshootsandformsoftrees(Pearsonetal.2005
• Measuringtheheightofthetreecanbedoneinanumberofways:
i) Usingmeasuringinstruments–Ifthetreeissmallerthan5m,thenagraduated
heightstickcanbeusedbyholdingthestickagainstthetree.Butifitisabigtree,
aclinometeriscommonlyused(butnotindensevegetation).Hypsometers(for
example,Suunto)arealsowidelyusedanddonotrequirecalculations.When
usingaclinometer,theworkerstandsaconsiderabledistanceawayfromthe
tree(notedowndistancefromtree)suchthatthewholetreecanbeviewed
fromtheclinometer.Ifthesampleplotislocatedonaslopeitisadvisedtoview
thetreefromacrosstheslopetomaintainthedistance.
a) Usingtheclinometer,alignthecenterlinewithbaseofthetreeandusinga
percentagescale,thenrecordthereading.Followingthis,aimtheclinometer
14
tothetopofthetreeandrecordthereadingagainonapercentagescale.
Theheightofthetreecanthenbedeterminedusingtheequationbelow:
Equation2.2:Formulatodetermineheightofthetreeusingclinometerreading
Height(m)=[topangle(%)–baseangle(%)]xhorizontaldistance
100
Figure2.10:Estimatingtreeheightusingtheclinometermethod
ii) Usingaheightequation–Thismethodcorrelateswiththediameteratbreast
height(DBH).Aregressionequationcanbeformulatedforagivennumberof
species,approximately30samples,usingheightandDBHmeasurementsoftrees
withdifferentheights.TheheightcanbeestimatedfromDBHdataforagiven
treespeciesusingthefollowingequation(RavindranathandOstwald2007):
Equation2.3:Where:D=DBH,a=constant,b=regressioncoefficientHeight(H)=a+bD
RecordingandcompilingdataAllmeasurementsoftreespecies,heightsandDBHrecordedonthedatasheetarethen
transferredtoanExcelfileforfurtheranalysis.Anexampleofwhatadatasetmaylooklike
isshowninTable2.5.
Distance to tree
NB:Itisimportanttonotethehealthofthetreesbeingdocumented.Forinstance,
thepercentageofdamageonatreecrown,ifany,andifthetreeisdead,fallenor
standing.Thesefactorsaffectthecarbonstockestimationoftheprojectarea.
15
Table2.5:Asampleofinformationrecordedandcompiledinadatabase
BiomassestimatesandsourcesofuncertaintyBiomasscanbeestimatedusingtwomethods:
- Directmethods:destructivesamplinganddevelopmentofallometricequations.
- Indirectmethods:applicationsofexistingallometricequations,biomassexpansion
factorandvolumeequations.
Treemeasurementsusingtraditionalforestinventorieswillbeanalysedusingallometric
equationstoobtainindividualtrees’biomasswhicharethenusedforestimatingcarbon
stocksoftheprojectarea.
(a) EstimatingbiomassusingdestructivesamplingAgoodsamplingdesignshouldbeestablishedbasedonpre-existingdatasetonabundance
ofvariousspeciesanddistributionoftreeinsizeclass.Anumberofallometricmodelshave
beenbuiltbasedondirectsamplingoftreesofvarioussizeandvariousspecies.Depending
ontheobjectivesandtheavailabilityoftheequations—eitherspeciesspecificallometric
modelsorgenericallometricmodelmosaicscanbeused.Allometricequationsarea
fundamentaltoolfornon-destructiveestimationofbiomassinwoodyvegetation.These
equationsexpresstreebiomassasafunctionofeasy-to-measureparameterssuchas
diameter,height,orwooddensity,oracombinationofthese(Brown2002,Chaveetal.
2005).
Thenumberoftreesselectedvaries,butthepopulation(n)harvestedshouldbe
representativeenoughtoallowstatisticalinferences.Themeasurementprotocolforeach
selectedtreeintheinventoryplotsincluded10successivesteps:
1. MeasureofDBH,heightandcrowndiameter
2. Cutthetreeatthebase
3. Measurethetrunklength(fromthebasetotheinitialramifications)
4. Separatethepartsofthetreeinthreecategories(trunk,branchesandleaves)
5. Weighthedifferentpartsineachcategory
6. Collectsamplesfromeachcategoryandweightheirfreshmass(FM)withan
electronicbalance
7. Dehydratethesamplesinaventilatedovenat60°Cuntiltheirdrymass(DM)
remainsconstant
16
8. CalculatetherelativemoisturecontentRMC=(FM-DM)/FMofthesamples
9. ConverttheFMintoDMbyapplyingtheappropriateconversionfactorsforeach
categoryofthetree
10. Estimatethetotaldrybiomassofthetreebysummingupthemassesofthethree
categories(trunk,branchesandleaves).
Thefundamentalmeasurementsacquiredforeachtreewithineachinventoryplotinclude
thetreespeciesname,theDiameteratBreastHeight(DBH)andtrunkcircumference,the
totalheightandtreeCrownDiameter(CD),thewetanddrymass,aswellastherelative
moisturecontentofsamplesfromeachofthethreecategories(trunk,branches,leaves),
andtheweightsofthesesamples.
Table2.6:Anexampleofadatasetforconstructingallometricequations
EstimatingbiomassusingallometricequationsInputstoanallometricequationusuallyincludeDBH,treeheightandwooddensitywhich
canbederivedfromliteratureoronlinedatabasessuchas:
http://db.worldagroforestry.org.Sometimes,DBHistheonlyinputandthedatahowever
resultsinasignificantamountofbias(Valbuenaetal.2016).
Table2.7:Examplesofsomepublishedallometricequations
S/N Equation Vegetation Author1 930.02 )(051.0 HdbhAGB ´´= Agroforestry,WesternKenya
Henryetal.,2009
2 472.2)(091.0 dbhAGB ´=
Agro-ecosystems,WesternKenya
Kuyahetal.,2012
3 AGB=DBH(1.929+0.116xDBH+0.013XDBH2) Savannasystem,Senegal
Mbowetal.2013
4 AGB=33338×(1–exp(–2×2245×X/33338))² TropicalDryforest Manleyetal.2002
5 AGB=0.0673x(qD2H)0.976 Pantropicalforest
Chaveetal,2014
17
Table2.8:SpeciesspecificallometricequationsSpecies n Equations R2 RSE Country Authors
AcaciaSenegal
44 y=0.032Dbh3-
1.016Dbh2+10.87Dbh+
7.429
0.963 - Sénégal Thiametal.2014
Pterocarpuserinaceus
105 Vf=3.024D2.259 0.873 0.353 Gaya(Niger) Rabiouetal.2015
Faidherbiaalbida
9 y=7.985Dbh+32.277 0.33 0.2447 Kollo(Niger) Larwanouetal.2010
Combretumnigricans
100 y(g)=
1.2289×(X^2.5806)×10^(–
3)
1 N’goukan(Mali) Henryetal.2011
Anogeissusleiocarpa
20 ln(y)=-2.4996+
1.5133ln(Dbh)+1.1256
ln(H)
0.9576 Benin Guendehouetal.2012
Ziziphusmauritiana
9 y=5.46Dbh+6.6167 0.99 0.2182 Kollo(Niger) Larwanouetal.2010
Source:Moussaetal.2015
Chaveetal.(2014),recentlyrevisedageneralallometricequationforestimatingabove-
groundbiomassintropicalforestsandwoodlands.Thisallometricequationdisplayedin
Table3.7canbeusedtodeterminecarbonstocksinvariousecosystems.FAOhasinitiated
thefollowingglobalallometrydatabasehttp://www.globallometree.org.
EstimatingbiomassusinganexpansionfactorandvolumeequationsThebiomassexpansionfactoristherelationshipbetweenthetotaltreebiomassandthe
stembiomass.Itisusedtoestimatethetotaltreebiomassusingthestembiomass.
Equation2.4:AttainingtotaltreebiomassusingabiomassexpansionfactorB
tot=B
stem*BEF
Where:Btot=Totaltreebiomass,Bstem=Stembiomass,BEF=Biomassexpansionfactor
Thismethodestimates;(i)thevolumeofthetimberinthetreestem;(ii)thebiomassinthestem
bymultiplyingthevolumeoftimberbythewooddensity;and(iii)theabove-groundbiomass,by
multiplyingthestembiomassvolumesbyanappropriatebiomassexpansionfactor.
Thegeneralequationforabove-groundbiomass(AGB)is:AGB=VxρxBEF
- whereV=stemvolumeρ=drywooddensity;BEF=biomassexpansionfactorfor
above-groundbiomass(branchesandcanopy).
18
2.2Carbondioxideemissionreductionthroughefficientwoodenergy(improvedstoves)Implementationofefficientcookingstovesbenefitsboththehealthofthepublicandthe
environmentthroughtheconsequentialreductionincarbondioxideemissions.Therateof
deforestationtoattainfuelwoodisreducedaslessfuelwoodisneededwhencookingwith
efficientlydesignedcookingstoves.Additionally,thecookingstovesaredesignedtorelieve
ruralfamiliesacrossWestAfricafromthepossibilitiesofgettingburntandharmful
emissionsproducedwhilecooking.
Therelativeamountsofemissionsproducedfromtheuseofefficientcookingstovesare
difficulttointerpretaseachindividualstoveisdependentonvariousparameterssuchas
thetypeanddesignofthestoveandthesourceofwoodfuel(Bhattacharyaetal.2002).
Grupp(2002)stipulatedthatcookingisresponsibleforapproximately5%ofallgreenhouse
gasesworldwide,whichisnearly2billiontonnesofcarbondioxideequivalentemissionsa
year(AdriaandBethge2013).
Figure2.11:Relativeglobalemissionsofvariouscookingfuels(Source:Grupp2004)
Figure2.11depictsthecarbondioxideemissionsreleasedbyvariouscookingfuels.The
three-stonefireproducesmorethanthree-quartersofthecarbondioxidereleasedfrom
cooking(withseverehealthimplications),whileanimprovedbiomasscookingstovereduces
theseemissionsto6%.Hence,woodenergycookingstovescouldreducegreenhousegas
emissionssignificantlyataneteconomicbenefitorlowcost(AdriaandBethge2013).
FurtherdetailsonwoodfuelsandefficientcookingstovesarediscussedinSectionB-4.
Emissionsfromcookingstovescanbemeasuredandmonitoredusingbothdirectand
indirectmethods(Treemer1997):
i) Directmethods–Thismeasurementiscarriedoutatthesourcewherebyahoodis
placedoverthestovetocaptureemissions.
Ker
osen
e
19
ii) Indirectmethods–Inaroomresemblingaruralhome,theinfluenceofthestoveand
theemissionsaremeasuredusingagaschamberandtheemissionsourcestrengthis
calculatedbyperformingamassbalanceforthepollutantinthechamber.Another
indirectmethodistheuseofemissionfactorsthatconvertflatemissionratefromunits
ofwoodorcharcoalusedforcooking.
2.3EstimatingthesourcesofuncertaintyUncertaintyistheconsequentialdoubtthatarisesfromconductingmeasurements.The
sourcesofuncertaintiesanderrorsincarboninventoriesareattributabletothefollowing
(Bell2001):
i) Themeasurementprocess–Themethodofmeasurementmaybechallengingsuchas
estimatingtheheightoftreesinaslopedarea.Althoughnumerousmethodshavebeen
verifiedinestimatingdifferentformsofbiomass,whichmayperhapsseemimpossibleto
analyse(e.g.talltreesinrainforests,slantingtreetrunks),thereisstillacertainamount
oferroranduncertaintythatarisesasopposedtomeasuringDBH/treeheightsof
simplertreesandbiomass.
ii) Themeasurementinstruments–Instrumentsusedcouldbeoutdated,brokenandold,
withhighusagehistorywhichcouldimpedethevaluesacquiredfromthemeasurement
procedure.
iii) Humanerror–Thisisunavoidableerrorwhichoccursnaturallythroughfaultsinreadinginstrumentsanddatarecording,amongothers.Ausualpracticetoreducethatistoset
peercross-checkwiththeinconvenienceofspendingmoretimeindatacollection.
iv) Allometricmodelsused–Certainallometricmodelsproduceresultswithasignificant
amountofbiasinparticularwhentheconditionsofapplicationareverydifferentfrom
theallometrysources.
Therelativeamountofuncertaintyinacarboninventorycanbereducedbycheckingthe
measurementattainedtwiceorthricebeforeproceeding.However,thismaybetime
consumingifthebenefitofreduceduncertaintyoffsetsthetimeconsumption.Additionally,
attainingaveragesofthemeasurementstoacquirethebestestimate,increasingworkshops
andtrainingworkersonconductingcarboninventoriesandadvancedtechnologywould
greatlyreduceuncertainty.
20
B-1/Developmentoffruitandvegetabletreesforemissionreductionandcarbonsequestration
RationaleandobjectivesFruitandvegetabletreescontainsufficientamountsofwoodybiomasstoactascarbon
sinks.However,thecarbonsequestrationoffruitandvegetabletreeplantationsalonemay
notbeashighasitisinforestsduetoreducedbranchesandwoodymass.Fruitand
vegetabletreeshavethebenefitsofimprovingfoodsecurity,nutritionalvalue,agricultural
incomeandsustainableuseoflandwhenplantedtogether.
Anadditionaladvantageistheabilityoffruitandvegetabletreestosurviveinvarious
environmentswhereforestsmaybeunabletothrive.Thisishighlydependentonthetype
ofplantation,butisbeneficialtoclimatechangeandthesoilenvironmentasnutrient
cyclinganddecompositionoflitterfromtheexistingfruitandvegetabletreesincreasethe
fertilityandorganicmatterofsoil.Thisallowsforthegrowthofmoreherbaceous
vegetationandagriculturalproduce.Suchprocessesincreasetheoverallrateofcarbon
sequestrationtherebyalteringtheconcentrationofcarbondioxidegasintheatmosphere
andreducingclimatechangeasanamplenumberoftreesaregrowninareaswherethere
werenonetobeginwith.
Themainpurposeofpromotingthedevelopmentoffruitandvegetabletreesinthistoolkit
istoincreasecarbonsequestrationandreduceclimatechange.Atthesametime,farmers
areeducatedonmoresustainablemethodstoacquiregoodqualityfood/productsoftheir
preferencethatenablesbetternutritionoftheWestAfricaaswellassocioeconomic
development.
AvastnumberofindigenousfruittreesarefoundinthevaryingclimatesacrossWestAfrica.
Someexamplesare:MangoandAfricanmangoes(MangiferaindicaandIrvingiagabonensis),tamarind(Tamarindusindica),baobab(AdansoniadigitataL.)andsheatree(Vitellariaparadoxa),amongothers.Thesefruittreeswereidentifiedaspriorityspeciesfor
domesticationprogrammesbytheWorldAgroforestryCentre(ICRAF)in1995duetotheir
highnutritional,medicinalandincome-generatingvalues(Kalinganireetal.2008,
Tchoundjeuetal.2008).ThecoastalareasofWestAfricahavecoconutpalm(Cocosnucifera)trees.However,denseforestsarescarceduetothesalinenatureofsoils.
Thepalmtrees(Elaeisguineensis)notonlyenhancethewell-beingoftheenvironment,but
alsocontributetosocioeconomicdevelopment.Martin(1999)highlightedtheimportance
ofshadetreesforsmallerfruitorvegetabletreessuchbanana,coffee,cacaoorplantingsof
annualorperennialvegetables.Withtheshadetrees,yieldsincreasedconsiderablyand
woodharvestinginforestsdecreased.Thishighlightsthevalueofsustainableuseofland
throughtreesandagriculture,knownasagroforestry,wherewoodyperennialsare
deliberatelyintegratedwithcropsand/oranimalsonthesamelandwithbothecological
andeconomicinteractionsbetweenthewoodyandnon-woodycomponents(ICRAF1997).
Developingbiocarbonprojectsinhumanizedlandscapesisabigconundrumduetolackof
clarityonlandtenuresystemsthatdeterminesthesecurityandriskofdeforestation.In
Africa,deforestationisfrequentlyaresultoftheriseindemandforfoodandfuelsdueto
increasingpopulations.Theforestsareclearedforagriculturalpurposesusingtechniques
21
suchasslash-and-burnwheretheremainingashisusedasfertilizerforthecropstobe
grown.Deforestationnotonlyresultsinanincreasednetfluxofcarbondioxideintothe
atmosphere,butalsoposesotherconcernssuchassoilerosion.Thiscandestroynewly
plantedcropsandseedlingsandcauselossofnutrientsleavinglandunsuitableforanyplant
growthwhatsoever.
Thisinturnreducesthequalityandquantityofcashcropsbeinggrown,assoilnutrient
richnessislostandthelandleftbarren.Subsequently,carbondioxideconcentrationinthe
atmosphereisincreased,alongwiththeeffectofglobalwarmingandclimatechange,while
thesocioeconomicdevelopmentofthecountryfacesdrawbacks.
Tocounterdeforestationthroughlandrestoration,theuseofvariousformsofagroforestry
suchasreforestation,edgeorlineplantingandfarmer-managednaturalregeneration
(FMNR)canbeimplemented.Hence,farmerscanopttoplantfruitandvegetabletrees
alongwithtimbertrees,nativeforestsorperhapstogether,suchasthecaseofpalmtrees.
TheWorldCommissiononForestsandSustainableDevelopmentsuggestedradicaland
urgentactionstotackleclimatechange,deforestationandpovertybyimplementingmore
extensivesupporttocommunity-basedagroforestrytopromotegrowthoffruitand
vegetabletreestogether(LeakeyandTchoundjeu2001).Herein,thefarmlandbecomesthe
communities’andtherisksandbenefitsoffoodproductionareshared.
Theseagroforestrysystemsprovidebetterqualityproductswithadequatenutritional
values,andfertilesoilsduetoleaflitterdecomposition.Theyreducetheneedforfrequent
applicationoffertilizer,whileevidentlyenhancingsustainableagricultureandlanduse.As
deforestationisconsiderablyreduced,carbonsequestrationisenhancedasnotreesare
beingcutdownbutinsteadgrown,creatingmorecarbonpoolsinthatarea.Thisevidently
reducesthepressureonforestsandmaximizesthesustainableuseofland,thusensuring
co-benefitsforclimatechangeadaptationandmitigation(Mbowetal.2014).
DataandinformationrequirementsforcarbonsequestrationinfruitandvegetabletreesMeasuringthepreciseamountofcarbonstocksinafruitandvegetabletreedominatedarea
ischallengingduetothevastspatialandtemporalheterogeneityofspecies(Kuyahetal.
2012).However,itisanimportanttaskconsideringthatatleast87%ofagroforestrysystems
insub-SaharanAfricahavemorethan10%treecover(Kuyahetal.2012,Zomeretal.2009).
Carbonstockscanberegulatedthroughagroforestprojectsby:
i) Targetingdegradedordeforestedlandswhereafforestationisfeasibleandallowed
ii) Analysingtheclimateofthedegradedareaandotheraspectssuchaseconomicand
ecologicalbenefitstoenableselectionofthemostsuitablespeciestogrow;priority
species:“therighttreefortherightplace”althoughthevegetationmapforWestAfrica
hasnotyetbeendeveloped.(ICRAFwebpage:
http://vegetationmap4africa.org/Vegetation_map.html).
iii) Selectingcommunitiesandchoosingappropriatemanagementandmonitoring
techniquesbasedonthenatureoftheplantation,silviculturalpracticessuchaspruning,
harvesting,croprotationandfertilizing,andselectingmethodsforfieldandlaboratory
22
studies.Figure3.1.1demonstratesthecycleofcarbonsequestrationinanygiven
agroforest.
Figure3.1.1:Thedrivers,processesandeffectsofsilviculturalpracticesoncarbonsequestrationpotentialonagroforestry(Source:Nairetal.2010)
Thesequestrationpotentialofcarboninagroforestsishighlydependentonthespecies,site
quality,managementpracticesandageorrotationlength(Nairetal.2009,Nairetal.2010).
Toenablesuccessfulprojectdevelopment,thefollowingfactorsmustbedetermined:
a) Baselinescenario–Enablesclearanalysisofcarbonstockadditioninthetargeted
landbeforeimplementationoftheprojectscenarioandafter.
b) Additionality–Theestimatedamountofcarbonthatwillbestoredasbiomass
throughoutthedevelopmentoftheprojectfromthebaselinescenario.
c) Leakage–Theconsequentnetlossofbiomasscarbonduetoconversionofland
outsidetheprojectboundaryaffiliatedwithdisplacementoffarmersandlocals.
d) Permanence–Thedurationofthecarbonsequestrationprojectshouldbealong
termschemetoenablemaximumstoragepotentialofcarbonbyallspecies.
23
Figure3.1.2:IllustratesadditionalcarbonsequestrationdenotedbyA,BandC,throughtheimplementationofaprojectscenariotothreevaryingbaselinescenarios
Beforetheexecutionofaproject,itisimportanttoassessthebaselinescenarioto
determinetheadditionalcarbonsequestration(shownbyA,BandC)expectedbythe
implementationoftheproject.Thebaselinescenariosgiveninfigure3.1.2depictthe
standardcarbonbiomasspatternsindicating:nochangesincarbonstocks,decreasing
carbonstocksorsteadilyincreasingcarbonstocks.Furthermore,theleakageandthe
expectedpermanenceoftheprojectmustbequantifiedsoastoallowanaccurate
estimationofcarbonsequestrationbyfruitandvegetabletrees.
CarbonabatementpotentialThissectiontargetsexamplesofsuccessfulcarbonsequestrationprojectsregarding
developmentoffruitandvegetabletreesinWestAfrica.Thecarbonabatementpotential
referstotheabilityofthefruitandvegetabletreestoreducecarbondioxideconcentration
fromtheatmospherebyconvertingitintobiomassorcarbonstocks.Belowisatable
providinginformationoncarbonsequestrationpotentialofdifferentspeciesgrownin
variouscountrieswithdifferentclimaticandecologicalnichesacrossWestAfrica.
Table3.1.1:Examplesofcarbonsequestrationpotentials(t/ha/yr)ofvariousspeciesandclimatesSpecies Conditionsofgrowth CarbonsequestrationpotentialCocosnucifera(coconuttrees)
Humidtropics,hot
temperaturesandalong
coastlines
1-5t/ha/yr
Musaacuminata,Musabalbisiana(bananaplantations)
Sub-tropicalclimates 6t/ha/yr
Elaeisguineensis(Africanoilpalmtrees)
Humidtropics,semi-arid
tropics
6t/ha/yr
Dacryodesedulis(Safou) Humidandsub-humidtropics 8t/ha/yr
Theobromacacao(cacaotrees)
Humidtropics 7t/ha/yr
Source:Toensmeier2016
A B C
24
Table3.1.1providesadditionalexamplesandinformationonspeciesthatcanbegrownin
varyingenvironments.Farmerscanoptfortreesthatsequestermorecarbonintheproject
areainordertoincreasesustainablefarmingandagriculturalpractices.Additionally,the
speciesselectedmustalsoprovideasubstantialamountofeconomicprofits.
CostsandinvestmentsThedevelopmentoffruitandvegetabletreesonfarmstoenhancecarbonsequestrationin
WestAfricarequiresproperinvestment.Theprojectneedstogeneratemorefinancial
advantagesratherthanoutgoingcostsinwhole.Anumberofcheaper,moreefficient
alternativescanbeusedandaregiveninthemethodologysection(seesectionA-2).
Primarily,acarboninventorybeginsbyestimatingtheprojectboundary,stratifyingthe
area,identifyingparametersandconductingmeasurementsandlaboratoryanalysis.Thisis
wheremostcostsandinvestmentsareprocured.Thefollowingstepsinacarboninventory
requiresubstantialamountsoffunding:
i) Trainingstaff–Thisenablesattainmentofimprovedaccuracyandprecision.The
selectedstaffmustbewellskilledtocarryoutprocessessuchasremotesensing,
handlingGPSdata,stratification,conductingtreemeasurementswhichrequire
readingclinometersandasignificantamountofinformationontheprojectarea.ii) Incentivesforfarmerstoenablethemtocontinuetheiragriculturalpracticesoutside
theprojectboundary–Incasetheselectedprojectareaisagriculturalland,farmers
mayneedtobedisplacedandforcedtocarryouttheiractivitiesoutsideofthe
conservationarea.Thismeanshavingtostartalloveragainandthereforemayrequire
somefinancialsupport.
iii) Incentivesforworkers–Thisismandatoryforallworkersthatarepartoftheproject.
Itadherestothelawsofeverycountrytopayforlabour.iv) Capitalforcarryingoutremotesensingtechniques–Remotesensingcomprises
receivingdatafromsatellites.Thismethodrequirescertainsatelliteimageswhichcan
beboughtsuchasLANDSAT,SPOT,Quickbird.Nonetheless,thereareanumberoffree
softwareavailableontheinternetsuchasQGIS,GRASS,Interimage,E-fotoandgvSIG,
amongothers.Satelliteimageryissoldatpricesthatrangefrom$5-$3000persquare
kilometre.Thepricesaredependentonthesoftwarepackagebeingusedandthe
resolution.However,therearegooddataavailableforfree,suchasLANDSAT8OU
andSentinel-2images.v) Purchasingequipmentformeasurementsandprojectboundarydelineation–The
materialsrequiredare:clinometerswhichcostroughlybetween$130-$170,aGPS
whichusuallyrangesbetween$150-$400,measuringtape,surveypegs,compass,
markersanddatasheets.vi) Seedlingsandfertilizers–Oncethespeciestobegrownareselected,fundsneedto
beputasidetobuythefruitandvegetabletreeseedsandfertilizer.vii) Managementtechniques–Themanagementtechniquesrefertotheadditional
requirementsassessedthroughstratificationoftheprojectarea,suchaslivefencing
forsilvopastoralpractices,fertilizers,irrigationpumpsandtillageequipment.viii) Monitoringtechniques–Thecostsrelatedtomonitoringaredependentonthe
frequenciesofmeasurement.Theamountsofcarbonstockspresentbeforethe
implementationoftheprojectdeterminethemeasurementfrequencies.Iftheproject
includesafforestationorreforestation,carbonstocksshouldbemeasuredannually.
25
Thismayturnouttobemorecostlyasopposedtomeasuringcarbonstocksevery2-3
yearsinaforestoragroforestrymanagementproject.Basedonthefundingavailable,themethodstouseandimplementintheprojectcanbe
determinedtofitwithinthespecifiedbudget.
EnvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsoffruitandvegetabletreesTheprimaryreasonsforcultivationoffruitandvegetabletreesaretoincreasethepotential
ofcarbonsequestration,tomitigateclimatechangeandenhancesocioeconomic
development.Theenvironmentalbenefitsrefertothenon-carbonbenefitsofvariousfruit
andvegetabletreespeciesandthesubsequentadvantagestothesoilenvironmentthrough
decompositionandnutrientcyclingwhichenhancesoilfertilityandintensifybiodiversity.
Furthermore,fruitandvegetabletreeshavetheabilitytothriveinvaryingclimatic
conditionswhereforestsmaybeunabletoexist.ExamplesofWestAfricanindigenous
speciesarepalmtrees(Cocosnucifera)whichgrowinsalinesalts,baobabtrees(AdasoniadigitataL.)whicharecapableofsurvivingdryclimateandsheanuttree(Vitalleriaparadoxa)foundindrysavannah,amongothers.Theadditionofcarbonsinkstothe
environmentincreasethelikelihoodofmitigatingclimatechangethroughthesequestration
ofcarbonfromtheatmosphere.
Alongwiththeenvironmentalbenefitsoffruitandvegetabletreeplantations,thesocialand
economicaspectsperformakeyroleinthedeterminationofwhatspeciestogrowand
where.Fruitandvegetableplantationsenhancefoodsecurity,thelivelihoodsofrural
peopleandcontainvastamountsofnutritionalvaluesthatarefundamentalforahealthy
lifestyle.TheWestAfricanSahelisanexampleofwherethereareanumberoffruitand
vegetabletreeswithsocioeconomicbenefitsthatcanimprovethedietandlivelihoodsof
theruralpoor.Table3.1.2givesafewexamplesoftheenvironmental,economicandsocial
benefitsofdomesticatedtreesintheWestAfricanSahel.
Table3.1.2:FruitandvegetabletreesthataredomesticatedintheWestAfricanSahelandtheireconomicandsocialbenefitsTreespecies Socialbenefits Economicbenefits Environmental
benefitsPriceperkg(CFA)(1USD=550CFAroughly)
AdansoniadigitataL.(Baobab)
RichinvitaminC,
vitaminAand
protein
Fruitpulp,ropesand
medicines
Carbon
sequestration
250-500
FCFA/kg
DetariummicrocarpumG.etPerr.(Detar)
3.2gvitaminC,4.9
gprotein64.5gof
sugar.
Cakes,woodusedfor
fuel,constructionpoles
andtoolhandles.
Seedsusedasfragrance
Carbon
sequestration
Cakessellat25
FCFA/kg,fruit
soldat100
FCFA/kg
Parkiabiglobosa(Nere)
Richinproteins,
lipids,and
phosphorus,
vitaminCand
carbohydrates.
Fruitpulp,driedseeds,
soldasmedicine
Carbon
sequestration,
agroforestry,soil
fertility
Driedseedssell
for600F
CFA/kg,fruit
pulpfor200F
CFA/kg
TamarindusindicaL.(Tamarind)
Highlevelsof
proteins,
carbohydrates
Snacks,makingsauces,
wine,icecream,drinks,
jam,confectionery,
Carbon
sequestration
Fruitpulpsells
for400FCFA/kg
26
Treespecies Socialbenefits Economicbenefits Environmentalbenefits
Priceperkg(CFA)(1USD=550CFAroughly)
andmineralssuch
aspotassium,
phosphorus,
calciumandiron
edibleoil,dyes.Wood
usedformakingtool
handles,furniture,
charcoalandfuelwood
Vitalleriaparadoxa(Sheanuttree)
Highlevelsof
omega6
Beneficialforskin
health
Sheabutter.Exportedfor
useinchocolateproducts
andbypharmaceutical
companies
Carbon
sequestration.
Sheabuttersells
for400FCFA/kg
In2004/2005
Maliexported
10,000tofdry
kernelforabout
800millionF
CFA
Ziziphusmauritiana(Ber)
Leaves,roots,and
barkusedfor
medicinal
purposes
Freshjuice,freshfruit
pulpanddryfruitpaste.
Woodusedforkitchen
utensils,firewood,
charcoalandhandles
Carbon
sequestration,
leavesusedfor
fodder,
recommended
forplantingalong
contourlinesfor
erosioncontrol
Fruitpulpsells
for350FCFA/kg
Source:Kalinganireetal.2007
Thefruittreesaboveallgrowinthesemi-aridlandscapeoftheSahelandthroughmore
sustainablepractices,increasedplantationsandagroforestrydomesticatedindigenoustrees
canthriveandcreatemoreenvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefits.
InstitutionalframeworksandmanagementschemesAframeworkreferstothebasicstructureunderlyingasystemorprocedure.Thesuccessful
developmentoffruitandvegetabletreesrequiresamanagementschemeorframework
involvingthecooperationofanumberofinstitutionstoenablemoresustainableand
beneficialagriculturalpracticestargetingthelivelihoodsofcommunities.
Primarily,anagroforestryprojectorfruitandvegetabletreeplantationrequiresadequate
planning,measurementsandresearchtocomeupwithareasonable,moresustainable
projectproposaltocontractfunds.ThisiscarriedoutbyinstitutionssuchasICRAF,the
InternationalCropsResearchInstituteforSemi-AridTropics(ICRISAT)andUnitedNations
EnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),amongothers.Theseinstitutionsencouragefarmersand
otheragriculturalpractitionerstopracticesustainableagriculturalwhilealsopromoting
qualityofproduce,therecommendeddietforhealthierlifestyles,improvementof
livelihoodsofcommunitiesandthesocioeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry.
Additionally,ICRISATcanoffergeneticallymodifiedseedssoastoguaranteegoodquality
producetoeradicatefoodinsecurityandenhancenutrientsinthedietsofcommunities.The
fundingrequiredfortheprojectscanbesoughtfrombodiessuchasTheWorldBank,Africa
ChallengeEnterpriseFund,AfricanDevelopmentBank,ConcernUniversalandStarfish
Initiativesamongothers.
27
Devex,aninternationalcompany,currentlyhasaprojectwhichaimstoimprovethe
livelihoodsofsmall-scaleAfricanfarmersbyincreasingtheiraccesstolocal,regionaland
internationalmarkets.Suchcompanieshaveexpertiseandlinkstointernationalmarkets.
Thiscouldhelpfarmersselltheirproducetosmall-andlarge-scalemarkets,thusincreasing
theirincomesandimprovingtheirlivelihoods.
Atthenationallevel,forestservicesandgovernmentalorganizationscanraisefundsunder
theUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)agreementsor
bilateralsupports.ThecurrentREDD+frameworkisachanneltoinvestinbiocarbon.Many
NGOs(CARE,Bioclimatic,LIVELIHOOD)canaccessfundsforvariousstakeholderstopromote
biocarbon.
MonitoringrequirementsMonitoringofcarbonpoolsrequiresmeasuring,reportingandverifying(MRV)changesin
carbonstocksintheprojectimplementationarea.Thisprojectisdesignedtoenhance
carbonsequestration,thereforechangesinallcarbonstocksclaimedneedtobere-
measuredperiodically.Thiscanbedonebythere-measurementofmarkedtreesinthe
permanentselectedplotsandre-measuringothercomponentsasshownbelow(Brown
2002).
Figure3.1.3:Ameasuringandmonitoringplan(Source:IPCC2003)
28
Theabove-groundbiomassismonitoredthroughthemeasurementofthediameterat
breastheight(DBH),heightofthetreeandcrowncover.Thedataistheninsertedinto
generalallometricequationsorspeciesspecificallometricequationstoassesstheincrease
incarbonstockssincethepreviousmeasurementsweretaken.Foradetailedanalysison
stratificationandmeasurementsseeA-2forthemethodology.
Additionally,theimpactsoftheprojectonsocioeconomicaspectsneedtobemonitored.
Thesecanbeassessedbyhandingoutsurveystolocalsandconductingforumstocollect
feedbackonthequalityandquantityoffruitsandvegetablesattained,includingtheir
marketvaluesandtheirsales.
ChallengesandbarriersThekeypurposeofpromotingthedevelopmentoffruitandvegetabletreesotherthan
carbonsequestration,istheaptitudeofthetreestoenhancefoodsecurity,boost
nutritionalvaluesinthedietsofruralcommunities,andimprovetheeconomicstabilityof
thegivenregions.Developingcountrieshavebeenlesssuccessfulintheimplementationof
large-scalefruittreesplantationforimprovedfoodandnutrition(Mwaniki2006).Thisis
attributedtotheunstablesocialandpoliticalenvironmentsthatprecludesustainable
economicgrowth,warandcivilstrife,macroeconomicimbalancesintradeandnatural
resourceconstraints.Otherreasonsincludepoorhumanresourcebase,genderinequality,
inadequateeducation,poorhealth,naturaldisasterssuchasfloodsandlocustinfestation,
andtheabsenceofgoodgovernance.Allthesefactorscontributetoeitherinsufficient
nationalfoodavailabilityorinsufficientaccesstofoodbyhouseholdsandindividuals.
Someofthebarriersandchallengesfacingthedevelopmentoffruitandvegetabletreesare:
i) Landtenure–Owningthetitledeedallowstheproprietortodeterminethefate
ofthedesignatedprojectareasite.Thetenants,womenandthelandlessareless
fortunateandareunabletocarryoutagroforestrypracticesorplantperennial
cropsduetolackoflandresources,tenureinsecurityandcroprestrictions(refto
UN-HABITATconceptofsecuredlanduseforall).Stateinterventionsand
conflictsbetweenfarmersandpastoralistsfurtherlimitlandtenuresecurityof
theruralpopulation.Thisreducesthewillingnessoffarmerstoinvestonalong-
termbasisandtoprotectnaturalresources.Anexampleofsuchacasewas
notedinBenin(NeefandHeidhues1994).Thefateofthelandliesinthehands
ofthelandlord.Thiscausesrestrictionsintheimplementationoffruitand
vegetabletreeplantationprojectsoragroforestryasthechoiceofthepossessor
mayinsteadleantowardshousing.
ii) Adequatefunding–Facilitatingthesuccessfulimplementationofaproject
developmentprogrammedemandsfundsthatarereadilyavailableforallrelated
costs.Insufficientfundinghinderstheproject.
iii) Anunder-developedagriculturalsector–InAfrica,theunder-developedagriculturalsectorreferstothepoorsoilquality,environmentaldegradationand
over-relianceonprimaryagriculture,amongothers.Fruitandvegetable
productionisvulnerabletoadverseweatherconditionsandisthereforea
challengetoovercomeduetothealreadycontinuingglobalclimatechange
scenario.Additionally,therehasbeenadeclineinfarminputinvestmentssuch
asfertilizers,seedsandtechnologyadoptions(Mwaniki2006).
29
iv) Diseases,infectionsandpests–Fruitandvegetabletreescaneasilybeaffectedbyvariousdiseasesandinfectionsresultinginreductioninthequalityandyield
ofthespecies.Particularly,ifthediseaseorinfectionsareunknownandthereis
nocure,theentirepopulationcouldbewipedout.Additionally,theoccurrences
ofpestssuchaslocustsandgrasshoppersareamenacetofruitandvegetable
plantationsandmustbedealtwithquickly.
v) Trainingworkersonmeasuringandmonitoringtechniques–Anumberof
workerstendtolackadequateknowledgeonsustainablepractices,measuring
andmonitoringtechniques.Therefore,itisfundamentaltoeducatethemon
thesepracticesbeforeimplementationoftheproject.
vi) Environmentalconstraints–Poorseedlingestablishment,forexampledryseed
bedsandbadweather.
Challengesandbarrierscanbeeasilyovercomethroughadequateplanningand
strategizinginthepre-projectimplementationphase.
CapacitydevelopmentThereareanumberofgapsincapacitydevelopmentwhichcanbefilledwithfocuson
education,researchanddevelopment,accesstocapitalandinfrastructuredevelopment.
Educatinglocalsonvarioussustainablefarmingmethodscanhelpthefarmersselectthe
mostbeneficialmethod.
Africanssteppingupandplayinganactiveroleinresearchanddevelopmentmatterswhich
affectthemiscrucialforbridgingthegapsincapacitydevelopment.Thisincludesfood
preservationatthevillagelevel,alternativemedicinestomakehealthmoreaffordableand
accessibletothelocals,efficientagriculturalextensionservices,optionsforimprovingsoil
fertility,bestapproachesformanagingthedifferentagriculturalsystems,andoptimal
marketingstrategies.Careshouldbetakentomodifyavailabletechnologiestosuitthe
communitysetting,andnottheotherwayround.Forbenefitstoberealizedinallareas,
infrastructuredevelopmentmustbeahighpriority(Mwaniki2006).
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Domestication,utilizationandmarketingofindigenousfruittreesinWestandCentralAfrica.In:AkinnifesiFK,LeakeyRRB,AjayiOC,SileshiG,TchoundjeuZ,MatakalaP,KwesigaF(Eds)
32
Indigenousfruittreesinthetropics:domestication,utilizationandcommercialization.CABI,
Oxfordshire,pp171–185.
TappanG,CushingM.2013.WestAfricaLandUseandLandCoverTrendsProject.Available:http://lca.usgs.gov/lca/africalulc/results.php.Accessed15
thApril2016.
ToensmeierE.2016.Carbonsequestrationpotentials.In:JorstadL.TheCarbonFarmingSolution.Vermont:ChelseaGreenPublishing.p29-37.
TheWorldAgroforestryCentre.2016.TheBiocarbonandRuralDevelopment(BIODEV)Programme.Available:http://www.worldagroforestry.org/project/biocarbon-and-rural-development-biodev.Lastaccessed30
thAugust2016.
ValbuenaR,HeiskanenJ,AynekuluE,PitkänenS,PackalenP.2016.Sensitivityofabove-groundbiomassestimatestoheight-diametermodellinginmixed-speciesWestAfrican
woodlands.PLoSONE11(7):e0158198.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158198.
VineE,SathayeJ.2000.Themonitoring,evaluation,reporting,verification,andcertification
ofenergy-efficiencyprojects.MitigationandAdaptationStrategiesforGlobalChange.5(2),p189-216.ZomerR,TrabuccoA,CoeR,PlaceF.2009.TreesonFarm:Analysisofglobalextentand
geographicalpatternsofagroforestry.WorldAgroforestryCentre.
B-2/Protectionofstandingbiomassforemissionreductionandcarbonsequestration
RationaleandobjectivesAforest,likeanyecosystem,isseenascarboninvariousreservoirs.Carbonisfound
everywhere,fromtheleavestothesoil.Atropicalrainforestcanstoreupto430tonnesof
carbonperhectareintheabove-groundbiomassandadegradedsavannadowntofew
tonnesperhectare.
Standingbiomassreferstothetotalbiomassofagivenareaatthepresenttime.The
strategicapproachtoclimatechangemitigationinvolvestheconservationofcarbonstocks
throughsustainablemanagementpracticesandincreasingthecarbonsinksandreducing
carbonsourcesthroughreforestationandafforestation.Over90%ofWestAfrica’soriginal
forestisaffectedbyhumanactivities,andwhatremainsisheavilyfragmentedanddegraded
byhumans(Onadekoetal.2013),throughdeforestationtoaccommodateincreasing
populationsbymakingroomforagriculturalexpansionandhousing.Theresultant
phenomenonisacceleratedclimatechangethroughrisingemissionsofcarbondioxidegas
intotheatmosphere,lossofbiodiversityandcertaingenepools.
33
Figure3.2.1:ChangeinforestedlandcoverinBurkinaFaso,Mali,GuineaandSierraLeoneovertheyears1990,2000,2005and2010(Source:FAO2010)
Figure3.2.1indicatesasubsequentreductioninforestedlandcoverinBurkinaFaso,Mali,
GuineaandSierraLeonefrom1990to2010.Theannualdeforestationrates/reductionin
forestcoveraregiveninthetablebelow.
Table3.2.1:TheannualchangerateofforestsinBurkinaFaso,Mali,GuineaandSierraLeone
Table3.2.1showsthatthehighestreductioninforestcoverinallfourWestAfrican
countrieswasexperiencedbetween2005and2010.Standingbiomassnotonlyassistsinthe
mitigationofclimatechangebutalsohasotheradvantagesforlocalcommunitiesandthe
socioeconomicdevelopmentofacountry.Severalspeciesinecosystemsprovidelocal
communitieswithmedicines,timberproducts,foodandvitalnutrients.Additionally,
standingbiomasscanbeincorporatedwiththedevelopmentoffruits,vegetablesand
breedinglivestockforagriculturalpracticessuchasagrisilvicultural,silvopastoraland
agrisilvopastoral.
Country/area
Annualchangerate
1990-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010
Percentage(%)
1000
ha/yr
Percentage(%)
1000
ha/yr
Percentage(%)
1000
ha/yr
Burkina -60 -0.91 -60 -0.98 -60 -1.03
Mali -79 -0.58 -79 -0.60 -79 -0.62
Guinea -36 -0.51 -36 -0.53 -36 -0.54
SierraLeone -20 -0.65 -20 -0.68 -20 -0.70
34
Failuretoimplementappropriateconservationpracticesmayeventuallyleadtolossesin
biodiversityandacceleratedemissionsofcarbondioxideintotheatmosphereintensifying
climatechange.Forinstance,extensiveresearchontheGuineanrainforest(GRF)inWest
Africaindicatedareductionintheforestbiomassduetoexpansionofextensivesmallholder
agriculture.Over20yearsago,theecosystemwasaglobalbiodiversityhotspotwhich
substantiallydecreasedto113,000km2inthebeginningofthemillennium,comprising
about18%ofitsoriginalarea.Thissubsequentlyledtoemissionofapproximately1.4billion
tonnesofCO2intotheatmosphere(GockowskiandSonwa2010).Hadtherebeen
appropriateconservationpractices,deforestationandcarbondioxideemissionsfromthe
well-knownbiodiversityhotspotcouldhavebeenavoided.
Conservingstandingbiomassnotonlyreferstothepreventionofdeforestation,butalso
entailsmethodsofsustainablemanagementforsocioeconomicpurposes.Examplesof
methodsofconservationinclude:
a) Fencing–Toabolishillegalharvestingofwoodbylocalcommunitiesinconserved
areascontainingendangeredspecies.Fencingissuitableforasmallareaofland
beingconservedwithendangeredspecies.Ontheotherhand,conservingalarge
forestedareamayrequirelocalstouseanalternativesource,whichinacarbon
inventoryisreferredtoasleakage.b) Reforestation–Re-plantingtreeswheretheyhadbeencutdown,perhapstwoor
threemoreintheplaceofeachtreethatwaslogged.
c) Afforestation–Plantingtreeswheretherewerenone.Thisisbeneficialinincreasingcarbonsequestrationasstandingbiomassisincreased.
d) Sustainableharvesting–Withsustainableharvestingtechniques,localscanderive
productssuchasmedicines,timber,fruitsandsoon,withoutcausingsubstantial
amountsofharmtotheconservedarea.
e) Sustainablemanagementtechniques–Suchaspruningandcoppicing.Theconservedareamayalsocontaindeadlogswhichcanbeusedbylocalcommunities
astimberoranyotherpreferredpurpose.Thiswouldultimatelyreducetheamount
oftreeslogged.
Activitiesthatincreasebiomassandcarbonsequestrationincludeplantingnewtreesand
protectingexistingtrees.Alternatively,activitiesthatdecreasebiomasscomprise
harvesting,fires,deforestationanddisturbances(forexample,destructionoftreeseedlings
bywildanimals),amongothers.
Formaximumcarbonsequestration,itisessentialtoprotectexistingbiomasswhichhas
sequestratedconsiderableamountsofCO2fromtheatmosphereovertheyearsofgrowth
andpromoteafforestationandreforestation.
DataandinformationrequirementsforbiomassandcarbonThecarbonstocksinaconservationprojectcanbeestimatedby:
i) Targetingforestedlandorecosystemtocarryoutconservationalpractices.
ii) Identifyingtheconservationalpracticestobeimplementedintheareaby
investigatingthetypeofvegetationandspeciesinthearea.
35
iii) Measurementsforestimatingcarbonstocksoftheregion,usingmethodologies
similartoassessingcarbonsequestrationoffruitandvegetabletrees(seeA2).
iv) Estimatingtheproductionoffuelwood,timberanddestructivesampling(ifany).
v) Calculatingtheuncertainty.
vi) Monitoringchangeintreecarbonstocksovertime.
Above-groundbiomassisgreatlyaffectedbyconservation,protectionandnatural
regeneration,andhaltingthefellingoftrees.Thereforeitisimportanttoestimateand
monitorcarbonstocksusingabove-groundbiomassvalues.Additionally,the
implementationofprojectstargetingmitigationofclimatechangethroughcarbon
sequestration,landrestoration,afforestation,reforestationandconservationshouldtake
intoconsiderationthebaselinescenario,additionality,leakageandtheprojectscenariofor
monitoringpurposes.Inthecaseofconservingstandingbiomass,theexpectedoutcomeis
givenbelow.
Figure3.2.2:Thegraphaboveillustratestwodifferentscenariosthatmaytakeplaceintheabsenceofeffectiveconservationresultinginactivedeforestationinanecosystem
Inanecosystemwhichlacksappropriateconservationpractices,thebaselinescenario
(conditionoftheareabeforetheimplementationoftheproject)depictsadecliningtrendof
carbonstocks.Thisisasaresultofdeforestationtocreatelandforagricultureandhousing,
fortimberandforfuel.Addingconservationtechniquesandimposingabanon
deforestationintheselectedareacouldleadtostableorincreasingcarbonstocks,
consequentiallyreducingclimatechangethroughlessenedcarbondioxideemissions(figure
3.2.2)–indicatedbyaredstableline.Theamountofcarbonstocksinaforest,beforeand
afterprojectimplementation,canbemeasuredanddeterminedinasimilarwaytothat
statedandexplainedinthedevelopmentforfruitandvegetabletrees(figure3.1.2).
CarbonabatementpotentialThecarbonabatementpotentialregardingtheconservationofstandingbiomasswould
refertotheamountofcarbonstockspresentintheselectedareabeforeandafterproject
36
implementation.Thekeypurposeofconservingthestandingbiomassistoavoid
deforestationandlossofbiomass.Therefore,itisfundamentaltoensurecarbonstocksare
eitherstableorincreasingduringeverymonitoringperiod.Table3.2.2presentsexamplesof
someecosystemsandthehighamountsofcarbonstockstheyharbour,revealingthe
positivesignificanceofenhancingstrategiesfortheconservationofstandingbiomass.
Theestimatedamountofcarbonsequesteredbytropicalforests,whichformmajorityofthe
vegetationinWestAfrica,isatotalof428GtCayear.Additionally,thehighestcarbons
stockswerefoundtobelocatedintheabove-groundbiomassoftheecosystem
(RavindranathandOstwald2008).
37
Table3.2.2:ExamplesofspeciesfoundinforestsofWAfricaandtheirestimatedcarbonsequestrationpotentials(t/ha/yr)
SpeciesfoundintheforestsofWestAfrica
WestAfricancountries
Carbonsequestrationpotential(t/ha/yr)
References
EucalyptuscamaldulensisDehn(Eucalyptustrees)
Guinea 7.80t/ha/yr Bordbarand
Mortazavi2008
Bambusavulgaris(Bambootrees)
Ghana 8-34t/ha/yr Toensmeier2016
Eucalyptusurophylla(Eucalyptustrees)
Côted'Ivoire
5.52t/ha/yr Chenetal.2015
Heveabrasiliensis(Rubbertrees) Nigeria,Ghana 2t/ha/yr Toensmeier2016
Therearevariousreferencesofnaturalforestcarbonpotentialintheliteraturethatcanbe
referredtoinassessingthepotentialofvariousecosystems(FAOstatistics).
CostsandinvestmentsThecost-benefitanalysisisanimportantfactortoconsiderwhenimplementing
conservationalpractices.Theseanalysesindicatewhethertheaggregatebenefitsofpolicy
decisionsoutweighthecosts.Informationprovidedoncost-benefitanalysescanhelpin
makingefficientdecisionsabouthowtobestallocatescarceresourcesinpursuitofvarious
conservationalobjectives(NaidooandRicketts2006).Beforeaconservationprojectis
executed,theconsequentialcostsandamountoffundingmustbeoutlinedandtakeninto
considerationtoensurethebenefitsofconservingthelandoffsetthecostsprocured.
Toestimateasetbudgetforaconservationproject,anumberofcostsareincurred,
relativelysimilartothosedescribedinB-1:
i) Trainingstaff–Estimatingtherelativeamountofcarbonstocksinanecosystem
involvesasubsequentnumberofmeasurements,includingtreeheight,diameterat
breastheightandcrowndiameter.Theworkersalsoneedtobeproficientin
interpretingdataobtainedfromclinometers,GPSsystemsandsatellites.
Additionally,furthertrainingmayberequiredforanyphysicalconservational
practicesbeingimplemented,suchasfencing.
ii) Educatinglocalcommunitiesandfarmersontheimportanceofconservationandsustainablemethodsofconservation–Thisisimperativeasdeforestationemits
carbondioxideintotheatmospherewhichistheleadingcauseofclimatechange.
Henceeducatinglocalsontheimportanceofconservationandvarioussustainable
managementpracticesisfundamental.Thecostshereareprocuredinattaining
qualifiedstafftoheadtheinformativegroups,fortransportation,tofindasuitable
locationfortheclassesandprovidesomelearningmaterials.
iii) Advertising,talksandforums–Althoughadvertisingiscostly,ithasitsprosasitcreatesawarenessonalargerscale.Advertisementsonbillboards,noticeboards,
televisionandradionetworksontheimportanceofconservingstandingbiomass
andalertingthepublicondeforestationratesandtheresultingconsequences.
Advertisementscanbealsousefulinfundraising.Additionally,somecitizenswould
altertheirlifestylesandattainamoregreenandsustainableprospectonlifeby
reducingtheircarbonfootprintswillingly.
iv) Incentivesforworkers–Thisismandatoryforallworkerswhoarepartofthe
project.Incentivescanbeinvariousforms,includingfinancialorin-kindbenefits,
assetsandproductsoutofforests.
38
v) Payingdividendstofarmersbeginningsustainablepractices–Farmersmayneed
toaltertheircurrentagriculturalpracticestoattainmoreenvironmentally-friendly
agriculturalsystemswhichmayrequireabandoningtheconservationarea.
Therefore,farmersmustbecompensatedifthisisthecase.
vi) Investingininstrumentsforcarboninventories–Theseincludeclinometers,GPS,
measuringtapes,surveypegs,compass,markersanddatasheets.
vii) Capitalforremotesensingtechniques–Remotesensingisrequiredfor
stratificationandprojectdelineationandmaybecostly,butisnecessary.
ProgrammessuchasLANDSATandSPOTarewidelyusedtogeneratesatellite
images.Alternatively,thereareanumberoffreeonlinesatelliteimagery
programmessuchasGRASS,InterimageandE-foto.
viii) Fencing–Optingtofencetheareacomesatahighcostdependingonthe
perimeteroftheland,numberofposts,thesizeofpostsandthematerialthe
fencingisderivedof.Commonly,electricfencingorbarbedwireisused,butthese
mayimposedangersforanimalsintheprojectarea.Moreover,migrationof
animalsisgreatlyrestrictedandlocalsarecompletelycutofffromsources,thus
forcingthemtofetchtheircommoditiesfromelsewhere,resultinginleakage.The
approximatecostoffencingperfootis$15-$20forbarbedwireand$1-$3for
electricfencing.
ix) Seedlingsandfertilizers–Theseexpensesoccurwhenconsideringafforestationandreforestationstrategiesintheconservedarea,fortherecommendedspeciesof
treestogrow.Ensuretheseinputsareavailablefromtheshortestdistancepossible
withrequiredquality.
x) Sustainablemanagementtechniques–Thesearethetechniquesthatareimplementedintheprojectareatomaintainconservationofthestandingbiomass
andpromotesustainableagricultureinthearea,ifany.Examplesarepruningto
avoidcompetitionintheareaforgroundvegetationandcoppicingtostimulate
growth.xi) Monitoringofcarbonstocks–Theestimatedexpenditureishighlydependenton
thefrequencyofmeasurements.Carbonstocksinareforestationorafforestation
projectmustbemeasuredannuallytomonitorgrowthcarbonsequestration
potentialofthenewlyplantedtrees.Ontheotherhand,aforestconservation
projectexcludingadditionofnewbiomasscanbemeasuredevery2-3years,
resultinginlessexpenses.
Overall,thecostsaffiliatedwiththeconservationprogrammemustbeoffsetbythebenefits
achievedenvironmentally,sociallyandeconomically.
EnvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsofconservingstandingbiomassConservingstandingbiomassnotonlybenefitstheenvironmentbyactingasacarbonsink
andmitigatingclimatechange,butalsodevisesseveralsocialandeconomicadvantagesfor
localcommunitiesprovidedthesourcesaremanagedandacquiredinasustainablemanner.
Afewofthesustainablemanagementtechniqueshavebeenmentioned(seesectionon
rationaleandobjectives)andfollowingtheseapproachescangreatlybenefittheeconomy
andtheenvironment.
39
Theprotectionofforestsisvastlynecessarywiththegrowingamountsofdeforestation.Not
onlydocarbondioxideconcentrationsintheatmosphereincrease,butbiodiversityis
significantlylost.Thisinturnaffectsthelivelihoodsoflocalcommunitieswhodependonthe
forestforincomeasaportionofthelostdiversitycouldbethecapitalgeneratingsourcefor
theirfamilies.
Toenjoybothenvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsfromstandingbiomass
conservation,localcommunitiesmustcarryoutsustainablepractices,suchasobtaining
certainmedicines,timber,fruitsandherbsfromharvestingonlythepartofthetreesor
plantsthatbeartherequiredproduct.Applyingtheuseofcoppicingasamanagement
techniqueisrecommendedasthechoppedtreeremainscanbeusedbythecommunity.At
thesametime,thisstimulatesgrowthoftrees.Pruningalsoresultsinlargeamountsof
twigsandwoodystemswhichareofeconomicvalue.Thesearesuitableconservative
methodswhichprominentlyreducetheloggingoftheentiretreeandpromote
socioeconomicdevelopmentsimultaneously.Furthermore,deadlogsortwigsfoundinthe
protectedforestedareacanbeusedfortimberandfirewood.
Table3.2.3highlightssomespeciesfoundinforestsacrossWestAfricathatareharvestedin
sustainableways,thusbenefitingboththeenvironmentandsocioeconomicdevelopment.
Table3.2.3:ExamplesofspeciesthatareharvestedinsustainabletechniquesacrossWestAfricaTreespecies Socialbenefits Economic
benefitsEnvironmentalbenefits
Estimatedprices(1USD=550CFAroughly)
Dacryodesedulis(Safou)
Highlevelsof
protein,fibreand
appreciable
amountsofK,Ca,
Na,MgandP
Fruitpulp,flowers
usedin
apiculture,herbal
medicinesand
sustainably
harvestedwood
canbeusedfor
doorhandlesand
timber
Sustainably
harvestedand
environmental
policies
implemented
18-440CFAwith
yieldof20-50kg
pertree
Laccospermasecundiflorum
(Rattan)
Furniture Furniture,laundry
baskets,shopping
andflower
baskets,serving
trays,diningsets
Sustainable
harvestingand
permissionfrom
districtforest
managerrequired
tocarryoutany
harvesting
4500-4700CFA–
approximately20
pieces
Vitellariaparadoxa(sheanuttree)
Highlevelsof
omega6.
Beneficialforskin
health
Sheabutterand
soap.Exportedfor
useinchocolate
productsand
pharmaceutical
companies
Encouraging
sufficient
incentivestolocal
peopletoensure
theconservation
ofrainforest
resources
Sheabuttersells
for400CFA/kg
Source:CIFOR2004
40
InstitutionalframeworksandmanagementschemesSuccessfulconservationprojectsareallmanaged,fundedandconductedbyanumberof
institutionsfollowingasetframeworkandpoliciesthatareadheredto.Numerous
conservationprojectsinWestAfricaarecoordinated,plannedandimplementedby
organizationssuchastheInternationalCentreforForestryResearch(CIFOR),ICRAF,the
UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)inconjunctionwithUnitedNations–
ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandforestDegradation(UN-REDD),Sustainableand
ThrivingEnvironmentsforWestAfricanRegionDevelopment(STEWARD)which
concentratesontheupperGuineanforestecosystems,andTheAfricanConservation
Foundation.Therolesoftheseinstitutionsaretoconductconservation-basedprojectson
landscapesexperiencingincreasingdeforestationandprotectthebiodiversityofboth
animalsandplantsspecies.Theyalsodevelopprojectproposals,carryoutmeasurements
andfrequentmonitoringofcarbonstockssoastoenhancethelivelihoodsofsurrounding
localcommunities.
Understandably,everyprojectrequiresadecentamountoffunding.Itistheroleofthe
institutionheadingtheconservationactivitiestoobtainthefinancesandrequiredresources
bypresentingadequateprojectproposals.Thesemoniescanbeacquiredfrom
establishmentssuchasTheWorldBank,AfricaChallengeEnterpriseFund,Starfish
initiatives,AfricanDevelopmentBank,ConcernUniversal,UnitedStatesAgencyfor
InternationalDevelopment(USAID)andUnitedStatesForestService/International
Programmes(USFS/IP).
Aspreviouslymentioned(seeB-1:Institutionalframeworks),localscanselltheirproduce
throughlinksintointernationalmarketsbycompaniessuchasDevex.Suchexposurecan
substantiallyimprovesocioeconomicdevelopment.Whatissuperlativeaboutthisisthat
theenvironmentbenefitsthroughconservationandsustainablepracticeswhilefarmersgain
theirshareofadvantages.
MonitoringrequirementsThisentailstheMeasuring,ReportingandVerifying(MRVs)ofcarbonstocks.Ina
conservationprojectexcludinganyreforestationordeforestation,thecarbonstockscanbe
measuredevery2-3years.Carbonstocksforreforestationorafforestationprogrammes
wouldbeexpectedtobemonitoredatleasteveryyeartoobservetheeffectivenessofthe
projectimplementation.Therefore,inaconservationproject,carbonstocksarepredictedto
eitherremainsteadyorincrease.
Inadditiontomonitoringcarbonstocks,theprogressoftheconservationofstanding
biomasscanalsobeassessedthroughdirectviewing,remotesensingtechniquesand
surveys.Forumsheldtoobtaininformationoftheadvancementoftheconservationproject
fromlocalsintheareaarealsouseful.
ChallengesandbarriersConservationofstandingbiomasscomeswithgreatamountsofimplications,mostly
becauseoftheeconomicvalueoftheresources.However,conservingstandingbiomassalso
comprisessustainablemanagementtechniques,sofarmersarenotbannedfromthe
resources.Thisisacommonmisunderstandingandneedsfurtherinputandelaboration.
41
Somechallengesandbarrierswhenconductingaconservationprojectinclude:
i) Landtenure–Thisisoneofthebiggestchallengesonlybecausetheforestedlandrequiredtoundergoaconservationprojectmaybeentitledtoalandholderthat
wantstousethelandforotherpersonalpurposes.Thiswouldmeanthatthe
involvedinstitutionswouldhavetocometoasettlementwherebothpartiesbenefit
tocreateawin-winsituation.Itcouldbethroughpayingthetitleholderasumof
moneyeverymonthorinvestinginnewpropertyawayfromtheproject
conservationareaentitledtothelandlord.ii) Adequatefunding–Conservationprojectscomeatahighcostandtoensurea
successfulprogramme,substantialamountsofcapitalisrequired.Herein,theissueis
thatanumberoffundingorganizationscutbacksubsidiestoassistotherglobal
causesandcrisesatcertainperiodsoftime.Therefore,fundingmayattimesbe
insufficient,resultinginprojectdelays.iii) Diseases,infectionsandpests–Inareforestationorafforestationconservation
programmetheonsetofdiseases,infectionsandpestsimpedetheprogressionof
theproject.Thespeciestobeimplantedmustthereforebecarefullyselected.iv) Educatingfarmersonsustainablemanagementandharvesting–Theknowledge
andskillsofindividualfarmersandorganizationsneedtobedevelopedforaccurate
projectimplementation.v) Traininglabouronmeasuringandmonitoringcarbonstocks–Humanerrorisa
common,unavoidablefault.However,throughsufficientamountsoftrainingthese
errorscanbeavoided.vi) Developmentofbioenergy–Bioenergyisrenewableenergythatcansubstantially
reducecarbondioxideemissions.Acquisitionofbioenergymayhowevercomeatthe
expenseoftheecosystemssuchthatforestscouldbeclearedtoplantmorebiofuel
plantationssuchassugarcaneandpalmoiltrees.Additionally,theseplantations
requirelargeramountsoflandandwatertogeneratehighqualityyields.
Throughdefiningclear,practicalmeasuresofconservationsuccessanddevelopingtheskills
andknowledgeofindividualsinorganizationsthechallengesandbarrierscanbeovercome
(Salafskyetal.2006).
CapacitydevelopmentConservativecapacitydevelopmentencompasseskeystrategiestocombatdrawbacksthat
couldaffectaproject.Themainbarriersandgapsinconservationinitiativesareexplored
andstepsaretakentoensuresuccessfulimplementation.Anumberofmeasuresthat
facilitateconservationcapacitybuildingare:
i) Enhancededucationandtrainingonsustainability–Theaptitudeofconservationprojectscanbeimprovedbybridgingthegapsinthequalityoftrainingand
educationthestaffandfarmersreceive.Itisfundamentaltoencouragefarmersto
startoffbygrowingtheirproduceusingsustainableapproachestoavoidlanduse
changelaterwhichmaybemorecostly.
ii) Advancedconservationmethods–Furtherresearchandinitiationofworkshopsonup-to-dateconservationtoolsandtechniques,whichcouldpossiblymaketheproject
moresustainableandconsiderablyeasiertoexecute.
iii) Suitablemarketingstrategies–Throughsustainableharvestingtechniques,deliveringappropriatemarketingstrategiestothefarmers,dependingonthe
42
produce,wouldinturnallowthemtoreceivehigherincomewithbetterquality
yield.Therefore,farmerswouldsupporttheideaofsustainableharvestingand
conservationprovidedtheeconomicbenefitsareplenty.
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CentreforInternationalForestryResearch.2004.Fruitsandoils,woodcarvingandwoodproducts,fibresandweavingmaterials.In:SunderlandT,OusseynouN.ForestProducts,LivelihoodsandConservation.2nded.Indonesia:CentreforInternationalForestryResearch.p91-291.
ChenY,LiuZ,RaoX,WangX,LiangC,LinY,ZhouL,CaiX,FuS.2015.Carbonstorageand
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GockowskiJ,SonwaD.2010.Cocoaintensificationscenariosandtheirpredictedimpacton
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projects.WinrockInternational,Arlington,VA,USA,87pp,availableat:
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NaidooR,RickettsT.2006.Mappingtheeconomiccostsandbenefitsofconservation.PLOSbiology.4(11):e360.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040360.OECD.2001.Carbondioxideequivalent.Available:https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=285.Lastaccessed2
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44
B-3/Nitrogen-fixingtreesandsoilfertilization
RationaleandobjectivesNitrogenfixationisaprocessbywhichnitrogen(N2)fromtheatmosphereisconvertedinto
ammonia(NH3),afreeformthatcanbeusedbyplants,animalsandmicro-organismsto
manufactureaminoacids,proteins,nucleicacidsandothernitrogen-containingcomponents
necessaryforlife.ThisprocessismediatedinnaturebyN-fixingrhizobiabacteria
(Rhizobiaceae,α-Proteobacteria)(SørensenandSessitsch2007).Inlegumesandafewother
plants,therhizobiabacteriaarepresentinsmallnodulesfoundontherootsthatconvert
thenitrogentoammoniawhichisthenabsorbedbytheplants.
Figure3.3.1:Alegumeplantrootcontainingnoduleswherethenitrogen-fixingbacteriaispresent(Source:LindemannandGlover2015)
Otherthanbacteria-fillednodulespresentonselectedplantandtreespecies,biological
nitrogenfixationtakesmanyotherformsinnatureincludingblue-greenalgae,lichensand
free-livingsoilbacteria.Thesenitrogen-fixingtechniquescontributesignificantamountsof
ammoniatonaturalecosystems(butnotcroppingsystems)togeneratebiomass.However,
furtherresearchhasindicatedthatnitrogenfixationbyleguminousplantsandtreesismuch
higherrangingfromabout25-75lbperacreperyearinnaturalecosystems.Itisevenhigher
incroppingsystemsasopposedto5lbperacreperyearbythealternativebiological
nitrogen-fixingmethods(LindemannandGlover2015,Frankow-LindbergandDahlin2013,
Guldanetal.1996,Burton1972).
However,itisimportanttonotethatnotallplantsareefficientinconvertingnitrogeninto
ammoniaandthereforerequireadditionalnitrogenapplicationintheformoffertilizers.
Commonbeansarepoorfixersofnitrogenandusuallyconvertlessthantheiractual
nitrogenneeds.Formaximumyield,anextra30-50lbofnitrogenfertilizerperacreneedsto
beapplied.However,ifthebeansarenotnodulatedtheyieldmaystillremainlowas
researchhassuggestedthatthenodulesalsoenhancetheefficientuseoffertilizer
(LindemannandGlover2015).
45
Nitrogen-fixingplantspeciesmayrespondmorepositivelytoelevatedatmosphericcarbon
dioxideconcentrationsthanotherspeciesbecauseoftheirabilitytomaintainahighinternal
nutrientsupply(Tempertonetal,2003).Alnusglutinosa(aldertrees)growninelevatedlevelsofcarbondioxideillustratedasignificantincreaseinnitrogenaseactivityandsmaller
morenumerous,lessclumpedrootnodules.Thesesmallernodulesenhancethesurface
area,therebyincreasingthenitrogen-fixingcapacity(KingandPurcell2001,Tempertonet
al.2003)whichinturnincreasesthecarbonsequestration.Additionally,rootnodulesof
unfertilizedaldertreesgrowinginelevatedcarbondioxideconditionshadalargerbiomass
comparedtounfertilizedtreesgrowinginambientsettings.Theseresultsindicatea
subsequentdependenceofnitrogenfixationinplantsoncarbondioxidelevels.Moreover,
thedatadepictsexactlyhowimportantnitrogen-fixingtreescanbeforcarbon
sequestrationandmitigatingclimatechange.
Anexampleofawidelyplantednitrogen-fixingspeciesinAfricaistheFaidherbiaalbidawhichisusuallyfoundinparklands.Ithasauniquecompatibilitywithcroppingsystemsdue
toits‘reverseleafphenology’–itisdormantduringthewetseasonanddropsitsleavesto
fertilizeassociatedcropsthroughleaflitterdecomposition.Itsleavesonlygrowduringthe
dryseasonandprovidenutritiouslivestockfodderduringcriticalperiodsofdrought.
Additionally,theF.albidacontributessignificantlytomaintainingcropyieldthroughthe
biologicalnitrogenfixationandfavourablemicroclimatewhileminimizingtreecompetition
(Verchotetal.2005).Otherexamplesofnitrogen-fixingspeciesacrossWestAfricaare
Albizzialebbek,AcaciaauriculiformisandGliricidiasepium,amongothers.
Theadditionoffertilizerstosoilsimilarlyresultsinincreasedcarbonsequestrationand
higherbiomassproduction.Thisisbecausethemostcommonlyusedfertilizerscontain
relativeamountsofNitrogen,PhosphorusandPotassium(NPKfertilizers)foroptimumyield
production.However,iffertilizationisnotwellmanaged,excessamountsofnitrogencan
resultindeteriorationofcropresidueinsteadofincreasingthebiomassthroughtheprocess
ofphotosynthesisbysequestratingcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere.Nitratepollution
ofgroundandsurfacewater,soilqualitydegradationandincreasedcarbondioxideoffset
areconsequencesofexcessnitrogenfertilization(Khanetal.2007).Therefore,nitrogen
fertilizationshouldbemanagedbysite-specificassessmentofsoilnitrogenavailabilityto
avoidsurplussoilnitrogen(Khanetal.2007).
Thekeyobjectiveofplantingnitrogen-fixingtreesandsoilfertilizationistoallowmaximum
carbonsequestrationtomitigateclimatechange.Thetreesalsocreateappropriateshading
forsmallercropsandhelpcontrolsoilerosion.Decomposedleaflitterandtwigsfrom
nitrogen-fixingspeciesenhancefertilityofsoilsresultinginbetterqualityproduce.A
numberofnitrogen-fixingtreeshaveeconomicvaluefromtimberandmedicinaluse.TheF.albidacangrowindryclimatesincreasingsoilfertilityoftheareaandincreasingbiomass
productionwhichresultsinreducedcarbondioxideintheatmosphereandinturnreducing
theeffectsofclimatechange.
Inagroforestry,plantations,homegardensandforests,fertilizationandnitrogen-fixingtrees
canbeutilizedtoenhancethequalityandyieldoftheproducewhilesimultaneouslyhelping
theenvironment.Therefore,thecommunitiesandenvironmentbenefitgreatly,provided
sustainablemanagementtechniquesareapplied.
46
Dataandinformationrequirementsforcarbonsequestrationbynitrogen-fixingtreesandsoilfertilizationAssessingcarbonstocksinnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizedtreescanbedoneby
measuringtherelativechangesandamountofcarboninabove-groundbiomass.Asimilar
proceduretothatofestimatingcarbonstocksinfruitandvegetabletreesandstanding
biomassisfollowedasshownbelow:
i) First,targetthelandforprojectimplementation.
ii) Identifytheecosystempracticesandspeciesoftreesinthearea.
iii) Conductresearchtoestimatetheamountofnitrogeninthesoiloftheselected
ecosystembeforeplantingnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizer.Thisisbecauseexcess
amountsofnitrogencancausenitratepollutionofsurfaceandgroundwater,soil
deterioration,destroycropsandultimatelyleadtooffsetofcarbondioxide
emissions.
iv) Estimatetheamountsofcarbonstocksintheareabeforeprojectimplementation.
v) Selectthespeciesofnitrogen-fixingtreestogrowandfertilizertoapply(ifnitrogen
isnotadequate).
vi) Estimatethenumberoftreesandamountoffertilizertoadd.
vii) Calculatetheuncertainty.viii) Monitorcarbonstockseveryyeartoassessprogress.
Inthecaseofnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizerapplicationinaprojectscenario,thestocks
ofcarbonarepredictedtoincreaseunlessthenitrogeninthesoilisinexcessamounts
whichmaycauseacontrastingresult.Thepredictedcarbonstocksinabaselinescenario
andprojectscenarioareshowninfigure3.3.2.
.
Figure3.3.2:ThegraphaboveillustratesadditionalcarbonsequestrationdenotedbyA,BandC,throughtheimplementationofaprojectscenariotothreevaryingbaselinescenarios(seefigure3.2.2)
Theselectedareaforprojectimplementationmayeitherhavecarbonstocksthatarereadily
increasingwithtimethroughnaturalregeneration(A),steadycarbonstocks(B)orreducing
carbonstocks(C).However,nitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizerapplicationgreatlyincreases
thesequestrationofcarbonandalsocontaintheleakage,permanenceandadditionality
aspectofeveryprojectdevelopmentprotocol.Remotesensing,fieldmeasurementsand
47
modellingcanbeusedtomeasurethebiomassinthebaselinescenarioandmonitoring
phases(seeA-2).
CarbonabatementpotentialThecarbonabatementpotentialofnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizationisrelativelyhigh
andhaspositiveeffectsonthesoilandvegetationoftheecosystems.Afewexamplesofthe
carbonsequestrationpotentialofnitrogen-fixingspeciesaregivenintable3.3.1.
Table3.3.1:Carbonsequestrationpotentialsofnitrogen-fixingtreesinWestAfricaSpecies Carbonsequestration(t/ha/yr) ReferencesFaidherbiaalbida(evergreenagriculture)
2-4t/ha/yr Toensmeier2016
Leucaenaleucocephala(White
leadtree)
19.81±0.44t/ha/yr Sheikhetal.2015
DalbergiasissooRox.(Rosewood)
27.35±0.19t/ha/yr Sheikhetal.2015
Pterocarpuslucens(Padauk)
0.325t/ha/yr Ngometal.2014
Nitrogen-fixingspeciesareoftengrowninvariousecosystemsandsometimesmixedwith
othernitrogen-fixingspeciestoenhancecarbonsequestration.Examplesofecosystems
containingnitrogen-fixingspeciesandtheircarbonsequestrationpotentialsaregivenin
table3.3.2.
Table3.3.2:Carbonsequestrationofsomeagroforestscontainingnitrogen-fixingspeciesinWestAfricaAgroforestrysystems Country Ages
(yrs)C(MgCha-1yr-1)
Authors
Fodderbanks(Gliricidiaseptum,PterocarpuslucensandP.erinaceus)
Mali 7.5 0.29 Takimotoetal.
(2008)Hedges(Acacianilotica,Acaciasenegal,Bauhiniarufescens,ZiziphusmauritianaandLawsoniainermis)
Mali 8 0.59 Takimotoetal.
(2008)
Parklands(FaidherbiaalbidaandVitellariaparadoxa)
Mali 35 1.09 Takimotoetal.
(2008)Culturealley(Leucaena) Nigeria 5 13.6 Lal(2005)Source:Moussaetal.2015Sheikhetal.(2015),conductedresearchonthecarbonsequestrationpotentialoftwonitrogen-fixingspecies,namelyDalbergiasissooRox.andLeucaenaleucocephala.Theyfoundthatcarbonsequestrationwashighestwhenbothnitrogen-fixingspeciesweregrown
togetherinthesameecosystem.Therefore,plantinganumberofnitrogen-fixingspecies
togethermaybehighlybeneficialinmitigatingclimatechange,increasingsoilfertilityand
producingbetterqualityyield.
Furthermore,addingnitrogenfertilizerinthecorrectamountstothesoilwouldincrease
yieldandcarbonsequestrationinthesamewaynitrogen-fixingtreeswould,although
excessfertilizershouldbeavoidedtopreventnitratepollution.Therefore,planting
nitrogen-fixingspeciesisrecommended,ratherthanusenitrogenfertilizersinexcessto
attaintherequiredyield.
48
CostsandinvestmentsEverycarbonsequestrationprojecthasasetnumberofexpensesandinvestmentsto
adhereto,toenableasuccessfulandreliablecarbonsequestrationplan.Thefollowingare
thecostsandinvestmentsprocuredinthecaseofplantingnitrogen-fixingtreesand
fertilizerapplication:
i) Trainingthestaff–Theworkersneedtobequalifiedtoconductaccuratetreemeasurements,interpretGPSdataandremotesensingdata,carryout
stratificationandreadanduseinstrumentssuchasclinometersandmeasuring
tapespreciselytoavoidhumanerror.
ii) Incentivesforworkers–Fundingmustbeenoughtopaysufficientamountsof
labourtoeveryworker.
iii) Dividendsforfarmerstoenablethemtocontinuetheiragriculturalpracticesoutsidetheprojectboundary–Dependingonthenatureoftheecosystem,
farmersmayneedtostoppracticessuchaslivestockfarmingandcropfarmingto
enabletheplantingofnitrogen-fixingtreessoastorestoresoilfertilityand
increasecarbonsequestration.Thismayrequirethefarmerstomoveoutofthe
projectplotandcarryouttheirpracticeselsewhereusingsustainablemethods.
iv) Laboratoryanalysisforestimatingtheamountsofnitrogeninthesoiloftheprojectarea–Thismustbecarriedouttoguaranteethatnitrogenlevelsarenot
high.Thiscouldbedisastrousiffurthernitrogenisaddedtothesoilscausing
nitratesurfacewaterandgroundpollution,soildeterioration,cropdiebackand
offsetofCO2emissions.
v) Capitalforcarryingoutremotesensingtechniques–Conductingremotesensing
isfairlycostlydependingontheimagequality,size,softwareandexactlyhow
recenttheprocessedimageoftheplotis.However,costscanbereducedbyusing
freeremotesensingsoftwarefoundonline;examplesareQuantumGIS,E-foto,
GRASSandInter-image.
vi) Obtainingequipmentandmaterialsformeasurementsandprojectboundarydelineation–FormaterialsrequiredseeA-2.
vii) Seedlingsandfertilizers–Plantingnitrogen-fixingtreesandapplyingnitrogenfertilizerscomeatacostandthereforeacertainamountoffundingmustbe
reservedfortheseexpenses.Nitrogenfertilizersmayneedtobeapplied
frequently;thesecostsmustalsobetakenintoconsideration.
viii) Managementtechniques–Thesearethepracticesappliedtotheprojectareatoenablesocioeconomicbenefitsthroughsustainablemanagementsuchaspruning,
coppicing,agrosilviculture,fertilizersandirrigationpumps,amongothers.
ix) Monitoringmethods–Thecostsincurredheredependonhowfrequentlythecarbonstocksoftheongoingprojectshouldbemonitored.Inthecaseofplanting
nitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilization,thecarbonstocksneedtobemonitored
morefrequentlyasopposedtoconservationprojects.
x) Educatinglocalsandfarmersonthebenefitsofnitrogen-fixingtreesanduseofnitrogenfertilization–Qualifiedandskilledstaffarerequiredtoconductforums
toeducatelocalsandfarmersontheenvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsof
nitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilization.Additionally,farmersandlocalcommunities
mustalsobewarnedontheadverseeffectsofexcessuseofnitrogenfertilizers.
Theexpensesareincurredinattainingqualifiedstafftoheadtheinformative
49
groups,transportation,findingasuitablelocationfortheclasses,providingsome
learningmaterialsandsoon.
Environmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsofnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizationTheenvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsofplantingnitrogen-fixingtreesand
fertilizationaresubstantial.Thisisbecausethenitrogen-fixingtreescanbeplantedinavast
numberofecosystemsandcangrowindrylands.Fertilizerscanalsobeappliedtoanumber
ofplantationsitestoincreasethequalityandyieldofcropsandplants.
Asufficientnumberofstudieshavepostulatedanincreaseincarbonsequestrationand
biomassthroughtheplantingofnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizerapplication.Kingand
Purcell(2001)andTempertonetal.(2003)foundthatthenodulesinthealdertrees
increasedtheirsurfaceareainelevatedlevelsofcarbondioxidesoastoincreasenitrogen-
fixingcapacity.Thisinturnleadstoenhancedcarbonsequestrationasthebiomassofthe
treeandplantgrows.Therefore,nitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizerwhengrownorapplied
inanagroforestoranyotherecosystemcouldsequesterevenlargeramountsofcarbon
dioxidefromtheatmosphereresultinginthereductionofclimatechange.
Nitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizerenhancethequalityandyieldsoffruitandvegetable
trees,cashcrops,herbsandotherstandingbiomass.Therefore,farmerswouldbeableto
harvestrequiredpartoftheplantortreeatlargeryieldsandattainmorecapitalbyselling
betterqualityproduce.Forinstance,sheabutterthatsellsatapriceof400CFA/kg(USD
0.550)couldbesoldatahigherpriceprovidedtheyieldisofbetterquality.Additionally,
morekilogramsofsheabuttercouldbesoldatacertaintimegeneratingahigherincome.
InstitutionalframeworksandmanagementschemesAsufficientamountofplanningisrequiredtoimplementacarbonsequestrationproject.
Herein,agreatdealofresearchisrequired.Theseincludetheeffectsofnitrogen-fixing
speciesandfertilizerapplicationonvariousecosystemsandwhichplantations,forestsor
homegardenswouldbenefitfromnitrogenadditiontothesoils.Alsoimportantisthe
amountofnitrogenalreadypresentinthesoils,andwhichspeciesofnitrogen-fixingtreesto
plant.Theseevaluations,includingaprojectproposalandcostestimationfortheproject
canbepreparedbyorganizationssuchasICRAF,UNEPandACF.
Additionally,theseinstitutionscansourcethefundingneededfromorganizations
mentionedinB-1.Ultimately,throughsustainablemanagementtechniquesandusing
alternativemeasurementmethods,costscanbereduced.
Throughplantingnitrogen-fixingtreesandapplyingfertilizer,thequalityandyieldofthe
producewouldgreatlyincrease.ThroughcompaniessuchasDevexwhichhaveaccessto
internationalmarkets,localcommunitiesandfarmerswouldbenefit.
MonitoringrequirementsMonitoringrequirementsareconstitutedbyMeasuring,ReportingandVerifying(MRV).
Carbonstocksandsocioeconomicdevelopmentaremonitored.Toestimatetheabove-
groundbiomassofthetreesandsurroundingvegetation,refertoA-2foradetailed
50
explanationonmaterialsrequired,alternativeandcheapermethodsofconducting
measurementsoftrees,stratificationprocess,samplingmethodsandallometricequation
modellingusingdestructivesamplingforspecificspeciesiftherearenoequationsavailable.
Moussaetal.(2015)presentedalistofspeciesspecificallometricequationsderivedfrom
WestAfrica,someofwhichoutlinedbelow.
Table3.3.3:Speciesspecificallometricequationsofnitrogen-fixingvegetationinWestAfrica()Species Equation Country ReferenceAcaciasenegal y=0.032Dbh
3-1.016Dbh
2+
10.87Dbh+7.429Senegal Thiametal.2015
Faidherbiaalbida
y=7.985Dbh+32.277 Niger Larwanouetal.2010
Pterocarpuserinaceus
Vf=3.024D2.259 Niger Rabiouetal.2015
Guierasenegalensis
log10y(g)=
(0.55+(1.89×log(X)))×10^(–3)Tongomayel
(BurkinaFaso)Henryetal.2011
Source:Moussaetal.2015
Theallometricequationsabovecanbeusedtodeterminethecarbonstocksinthe
nodulatednitrogen-fixingtreesorshrubsafterretrievingtheappropriatemeasurements
requiredandinsertingthemintothebiomassequations(seeA-2).Alternatively,Chaveetal.(2014)publishedamoregenericequationthatcanbeusedtoestimatecarbonstocksina
widerangeofecosystems.Thus,thesurroundingbiomassaroundthenitrogen-fixingtrees
andthetreesthatarefertilizedcanbeanalysedusingagenericequation.
Thesocioeconomicimpactsofgrowingnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizercanbeassessed
throughdirectviewingofbiomass/fruitsandvegetables,conductingsurveysamongfarmers
andlocalstokeeptrackofthequantityandqualityofproduce,andassessingthenutritional
andmarketvalueforincreasedincomeduetobetterproduce.
ChallengesandbarriersEverycarbonsequestrationprojecthassomehindrancestoovercometoensurea
sustainablymanaged,wellthought-out,successfulproject.Afewofthecommonchallenges
andbarriersare:
i) Landtenure–Principally,thefateofthelandselectedfortheprojectimplementationisdependentontheplansofthetitleholder.Theownermayhave
otherpersonalproposalsfordevelopmentoftheland.ii) Selectlandthatmeetstheprojectcriteria–Thismeansthatthesoilofthechosen
plotmustnotbehighinnitrogenlevels,asaddingmorenitrogencanhavea
devastatingeffectthatmaytakeyearstoundo.iii) Adequatefunding–Withoutsufficientamountofcapitalfromdonors,theproject
maycometoahalt.iv) Diseases,insectsandpests–Allplantsandtreesaresusceptibletoattackfrom
diseases,pestsandinsectsandthismaybeathreattotheprojectassubstantial
amountsofbiomasscouldbedestroyed.v) Farmersandlocalsmayapplytoomuchfertilizer–Trainingandeducationfor
farmersandlocalcommunitiesonthetypeofnitrogen-fixingspeciestogrowand
51
thecorrectamountsandtypesfertilizersisfundamentalastoomuchnitrogencan
bedestructivetosoilsandplants.vi) Requirementofwellskilledlabour–Carryingoutcarboninventoriesisanintrinsic
taskthereforeworkersemployedmustbewelltrainedandsuitedforthejobsto
minimizehumanerror.
CapacitydevelopmentCapacitydevelopmentandsuccessoftheprojectcanbeenhancedbytargetingthe
challengesandbarriersthatimpedetheprogressofcarbonsequestrationprojects.The
mostbeneficialmethodsofcapacitybuildingarebycreatingawarenessoftheimportance
ofnitrogen-fixingtreesandfertilizationincarbonsequestration.Alsoimportantisthe
advancementoftrainingandeducationonconductingcarboninventoriessoastoachieve
themostaccurateresults.Promotingsustainablemanagementtechniquessuchascoppicing
andpruning,andestablishingabroadermarketwherefarmerscanselltheirproduceandin
turngainhigherincomesisessential.Sustainablemanagementmethodsalsobenefitthe
environment.Capacitybuildingshouldfocusontheenvironmentandsocioeconomic
developmentofacountry.
ReferencesBurtonJC.1972.Nodulationandsymbioticnitrogenfixation.In:HansonCH(Ed),AlfalfaScienceandTechnology(Monograph15;pp.229-246).Madison,WI:AmericanSocietyof
Agronomy.
Frankow-LindbergBE,DahlinAS.2013.N2fixation,Ntransfer,andyieldingrassland
communitiesincludingadeep-rootedlegumeornon-legumespecies.PlantandSoil,370,567-581.
GuldanSJ,MartinCA,Cueto-WongJ,SteinerRL.1996.InterseedinglegumesintoChile:
LegumeproductivityandeffectonChileyield.HortScience,31,1126-1128.HenryM,PicardN,TrottaC,ManlayRJ,ValentiniR,BernouxM,Saint-AndréL.2011.
Estimatingtreebiomassofsub-SaharanAfricanforests:areviewofavailableallometric
equations.SilvaFennica.45(3B):477-569.KhanS,MulvaneyR,EllsworthT,BoastC.2007.Themythofnitrogenfertilizationforsoil
carbonsequestration.EnvironmentalQuality.36(1),p1821-1832.KingCA,PurcellLC.2001.Soybeannodulesizeandrelationshiptonitrogenfixationresponsetowaterdeficit.CropSci.41:1099-1107.LalR.2005.Forestsoilsandcarbonsequestration.For.Ecol.Manage.220.242-258.LandonJR(Ed)1991.Bookertropicalmanual.Ahandbookforsoilsurveyandagricultural
landevaluationinthetropicsandsubtropics.London:Longman.
LarwanouM,YemshawY,SaadouM.2010.Predictionmodelsforestimatingfoliarandfruit
drybiomassesoffiveSavannahtreespeciesintheWestAfricanSahel.Int.J.Biol.Chem.Sci.4(6):p2245-2256.LindemannW,GloverC.2015.Nitrogenfixationbylegumes.Available:http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_a/A129/Lastaccessed22
ndMay2016.
MoussaM,MahamaneL,SaadouM.2015.Allometricequationsforbiomassestimationof
woodyspeciesandorganicsoilcarbonstocksofagroforestrysystemsinWestAfrican:State
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NgomD,AgbangbaEC,FallT,DiattaS,AkpoLE.2014.Quantificationofecosystemservices
providedbyPterocarpuslucensLepr.ExGuill.andPerrott.:Forageproduction,timberand
carbonsequestrationinthebiospherereserveofFerlo(NorthernSenegal).AmericanJournalofPlantSciences,2014,5.p766-777.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2014.55091.RabiouH,BationoBA,SeglaKN,DioufA,KossiA,KokutseAD,RadjiR,MahamaneA,Kokou
K,SâadouM.2015.EstimationdevolumecommercialduboisdePterocarpuserinaceusPoir.(Fabaceae)dansleszonessahélo-soudaniennesetSoudaniennesduNigeretdu
BurkinaFaso(Afriquedel’ouest).JournalofAppliedBiosciences.87:p8131–8143.doi.org/10.4314/jab.v87i1.13.
RobledoC,KanninenM,PedroniL.2005.Tropicalforestsandadaptationtoclimatechange:Insearchofsynergies.Indonesia:CentreforInternationalForestryResearch.p103-116.SheikhM,KumarM,TodariaN.2015.Carbonsequestrationpotentialofnitrogen-fixingtree
stands.ForestryStudies,62(1),p39-47.SørensenJ,SessitschA.2007.Plant-associatedbacteria—lifestyleandmolecular
interactions.In:vanElsasJD,JanssonJK,TrevorsJT(Eds),ModernSoilMicrobiology,2nded.(pp.211–236).BocaRaton,FL:CRCPress,TaylorandFrancisGroup.
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potentialoftraditionalandimprovedagroforestrysystemsintheWestAfricanSahel.
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carbondioxideconcentrationongrowthandnitrogenfixationinAlnusglutinosainalong-termfieldexperiment.TreePhysiology,23(1),p1051-1059.ToensmeierE.2016.Carbonsequestrationpotentials.In:JorstadL.TheCarbonFarmingSolution.Vermont:ChelseaGreenPublishing.p29-37.
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accessed22ndMay2016.
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B-4/Woodenergyorstoves
RationaleandobjectivesWhenusedandmanagedappropriately,woodenergyisarenewablesourceofenergy
obtainedfromtimberinforestsorplantations.Ifnotproperlyplannedandmanaged,the
expansionofthisbioenergyproductionwilltriggerbothdirectandindirectland-use
changes,leadingtodestructionofforestsandthelossofcertainecosystems,resourcesand
theservicesthatsuchsystemsprovide.Unfortunately,thisisalreadythecasenotonlyin
WestAfrican,butalsoinotherAfricancountries.Annualdeforestationratesarecommonly
at1%inWestAfrica,whichinpracticemeansthelossoftensofthousandsofhectaresof
landperyear.Eventhoughreforestationcampaignsandsustainableforestmanagement
campaignshavebeeninitiated,theirscaleisnowhereclosetothatofdeforestation.
Furthermore,deforestationintheSaheliancountriesisoftenthefirststeptowards
desertification.Thesituationismadeworsebythefactthatwoodybiomassandresidues
frombothagricultureandforestry–intheformoffuelwoodandcharcoal–arethemain
sourcesofenergyformostofthesecountries.Thisismoreprevalentinruralareasandat
thehouseholdlevel(forbothcookingandheating),wherewoodfuelsmayrepresentupto
96%oftheusedenergy(Arevalo2016).Thusitisunderstandablethatpopulationincrease
andagricultureareoneofthemainreasonsforthereductionofnaturalresourcesasthis
resultsinahigherdemandforbothfoodandfuelwood.Itfollowsthatagricultural
developmentandsustainableforestmanagementarethenumberonepracticalmethods
withwhichtobattledeforestationandlanddegradation.
Anotherpointofviewtousingwoodasenergyisprovidedwhenclimatechangeis
considered.Theimplicationsofusingwoodasfuelontheglobalenvironmentcanbe
evaluatedbyestimatingtheassociatedgreenhousegasemissions.Thesecalculatedcarbon
dioxideemissionscanthenbecomparedtothoseproducedbyusingalternativefuelssuch
ascoal,petroleumandnaturalgas(RWEDP1997).Agivenadvantageofusingwoodfuelas
energyisthatitisrenewable.Thismeansthatmoretreescanbereplantedtosequester
carbondioxideemissionsthatareproducedfromtransportingandburningofthewood.But
thisisthecaseonlyifforestgrowthandincrementofforestareaishigherthancuttings
(industrialcutting+energywoodcuttings).
Additionally,theimplementationoffuel-efficientcookingstovescangreatlyreducethe
amountofenergylostwhilecooking.Thisdecreasestheamountoffirewoodused,exposure
ofchildrentoaccidentsinthehome,risksofcontractingrespiratorydiseasesandthe
numberoftripsmadebylocalcommunitiestofetchthisfirewoodwhichcanberisky.
Consequentially,thisresultindecreasedamountofdeforestationandharvestingfirewood
whichinturnhelpsmitigateclimatechange.InBIODEVWP1.4thecalculationsindicateda
30-40%savingsintheamountofsolidfuelwoodinimprovedstovesand10-15%savings
usingcharcoal.Thisisaremarkableamountofwood(Torssonenetal.2015).
Utilizingwoodasafuelandultimatelypairingitupwiththeuseoffuel-efficientcooking
stovescanlargelyreducetheoverallamountofcarbondioxideproduced.Althoughburning
woodstillresultsinemissionofCO2gas,thecarbonfootprintisgreatlyreducedasopposed
tonon-renewablesourcesofenergy.Thisissupportedbytheempiricalresultsobtainedby
54
ShafieiandSalim(2014),wheretheypostulatedthatnon-renewableenergyconsumption
increasedCO2emissions,whereasrenewableenergyconsumptiondecreasedCO2emissions
inOECDcountries.WestAfricaisnotamemberoftheOrganizationforEconomicCo-
operationandDevelopment(OECD),butishighlydependentonwoodforfuels.
Figure3.4.1:Examplesofimprovedenergystoves
Implementingtheuseofcookingstovescouldgreatlyreducetheamountofcarbondioxide
emissionsproducedfromburningwood.Thiscaninstigateacarbonnegativecountrythat
enhancescarbonsequestrationratherthanemittingcarbondioxide.Woodcanalsobe
convertedintocharcoal.Thisisprobablythestepinthecharcoalvaluechainwiththe
highestpotentialforreducinggreenhousegasemissions.However,charcoalisstillbeing
producedusingtraditionalmethodsandfurtherdevelopmentoncharcoalproductionfrom
woodcanplayanimportantroleinthemitigationofclimatechange(WorldBankGroup
2011).InthecharcoalexperimentsofWP1.4itwasfoundoutthattheprocesscanbe
improvedby10-15%(comparinghowmuchwoodisneededtothesameamountof
charcoalandenergy)ifthemethodsareconvertedmoreefficientbyverysimplemeans
(Vilppo2015).
Solidbiofuelssuchaswoodhaveanumberofadvantagesanddisadvantages,someofwhich
arepresentedintable3.4.1(Siegel2012).
Table3.4.1:AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofsolidbiofuelsAdvantages DisadvantagesGenerallylowcostinputs Landutilizationcanbeconsiderable.Canleadto
deforestation
Abundantsupply Maycompetedirectlywithfoodproduction(e.g.
corn,soy)
Widelyavailableandnaturallydistributed Nottotallycleanwhenburned(NOX,soot,ash,
CO,CO2)
Canbedomesticallyproducedforenergy
independence
Heavyfeedstocksrequireenergytotransport
Lowcarbon,cleanerthanfossilfuels Noteasilyscalable
Canconvertwasteintoenergy,helpingtodeal
withwaste
Energyintensivetoproduce.Insomecases,with
littleornonetgain
Renewableenergy AtthemomentnotsustainableinAfrica
Source:Siegel2012
55
Thedisadvantageslistedabovecanbeovercomethroughsustainablemanagement
techniquessuchascoppicing,pruningandusingcookingstovestoreducetheamountof
firewoodneeded.Thiswilldecreasedeforestation,cutdownemissionsfromburningwood
andlessentheloadoffirewoodfortransportation.Therefore,inthiscontextitisclearthat
usingwoodfuelthatismanagedsustainablycanhelpsequestercarbondioxidewhichin
turnmitigatesclimatechange.
Dataandinformationrequirements
Figure3.4.2:Fuelwoodvaluechainwithmainstakeholders,quantities(steres/day)andprices(FCFA/stere)ineachprocessandconsideringformalityoftheactivities
Thedemandmodulerequiressocioeconomicanddemographicdata,aswellasdataon
woodfuelconsumptionfromlocalsurveys.Forthesupplymodule,detailedlanduse/land
coverinventoriesandanationalforestryinventoryshouldbeinplace.Inaddition,data
wouldberequiredon:biomassstockingfromnon-forestland-useclasses(typicallyfrom
localstudies);availableinfrastructureforwood/biomasstransportandprocessing;and
agriculturalareaespeciallydataonwoodfuelsupply,whichhasbeenamajorissueinwood
fuelanalysisformanyyears.InWP1.4oftheBIODEVproject,avaluechainanalysis(VCA)of
energywoodwascarriedout(Puentesetal.2016)basedoninterviewsofstakeholdersand
thefielddatameasured.ItshowedthatoneofthemainproblemsinVCA,andalsoinforest
management,istheinformalchainandespeciallyinthedeterminationoftheamountof
56
informalcuttingsfordomesticuseandforinformalmarkets.Thereisbasicallynocontrolin
thatandiftheforestmanagementdecisionsarebasedontheformalinformation,itleadsto
forestloss.Thisstudyalsoprovedhowimportantitistocombineinformationfrommany
sourceslikeforestinventoryandVCAtobeabletogetaclearunderstandingofthecomplex
situation.
Often,theonlypieceofdataavailableforthesupplymoduleisthenationalforest
inventory.Detailedinformationonnon-forestandotherlanduseclassesisnotavailablein
mostcases.Withregardtoconsumption,dataisoftenavailableforonlypartofthecountry
andsometimesiscollectedusingincompatiblemethodologies.Thisdatagapcanbe
overcomeby:
1) Usingaproxyvariableto“spatialize”discontinuousvalues.2) Extrapolatinginformationavailableattheprojectleveltoanentirestudyregion.
3) Fillingspecificorcriticaldatagapswithnewdatacomingfromfieldstudies.
Themainchallengeistofinddirectorproxyvariablesavailableatthenationallevelthatcan
beusedtoestimateproduction/consumptionparametersandtheirspatialdistribution.A
projectpromotingtheuseofwoodfuelandcookingstoveswouldportrayabaseline
scenarioandprojectscenarioinrelationtoreducingcarbondioxideemissionsasshownin
figure3.4.3.
Figure3.4.3:Thebaselinescenarioandprojectscenarioinacarbondioxideemissionreductionproject
Inthebusinessasusualscenario(baseline)emissiontrendfollowsanincreasingsteep
curve.Theprojectscenarioshowsareversetrendmagnifyingtheabatementeffortofthe
project.Figure3.4.3illustratestheexpectedtrendsofcarbondioxideemissionswhen
instigatingtheuseofwoodfuelsandcookingstovesinaprojectscenarioandbeforethe
planiscommencedinabaselinescenario.Thecarbondioxideemissionsreducewhenfossil
fuelsarereplacedwithrenewableenergytherebydepictingadecreasingtrendlineina
projectscenarioandanincreasingtrendlineinthecaseofabaselinescenario.
57
Asimilartrendcouldbeobservedintheamountofforestresources:theiramountincreases
astheamountofsustainably-managedlandsincreases.Futuretrendscanevenbecome
suchthattheamountofforestlandstaysstable,buttheamountofforestresourceskeeps
ongrowingduetobetterforestmanagementandmoreefficientstovesandfuelwood
productionmethods.
CarbonabatementpotentialThecarbonabatementpotentialreferstotherelativeamountsofcarbondioxideemissions
thatarereducedandsequestratedthroughtheuseofwoodasfuelandefficientcooking
stoves.Globalenergyconsumptionisincreasingwithrespecttorisinghumanpopulations
andindustrialization.Therefore,itisfundamentaltomakeenergychangesassoonas
possibletoavoidacceleratingtheprocessofclimatechangeandriskingtheexploitationof
fossilfuelswhichtakeyearsandyearstobeproduced.TheGhanaianNationalClimate
ChangePolicyFrameworkconstructedaMarginalAbatementCostCurve(MACcurve)for
householdenergydemandinthecountryfortheyear2020disclosingfivestrategiesto
lowercarbondioxideemissions.Theseareshowninfigure3.4.4:
Figure3.4.4:AMarginalAbatementCostCurveforhouseholdenergyinGhanafortheyear2020(Source:Tilburgetal.2011)
Figure3.4.4indicatesthatatleastfourofthestatedCO2loweringstrategieshavenegative
costsandthereforeprovideneteconomicbenefitswhilereducingtheemissionsof
greenhousegases.ThereplacementoflightbulbswithCompactFluorescentBulbs(CFLs)is
themostcosteffective,buttheimplementationofefficientcookingstovesandimproved
Abatement potential (Mt CO2 -eq)
Carbon abatement costs (USD/tCO2 –eq)
58
charcoalproductionsdepictthelargestpotentialforreducingcarbondioxideemissions
(Tilburgetal.2011).Thecostofimprovedcharcoalproductionusingwoodaccordingto
Tilburgetal.(2011)isonlyindicativeduetolackofdataavailableintheunder-developed
sector.Tosecurethepositiveeffectofusingthesemoreefficientmethodsandtechniquesit
isimportanttosecuretheforestgrowthandsustainabilityaswell.Theimplementationof
moreefficienttechniquesalonedonotimprovethesituationifnoattentionispaidto
increasetheforestcover.
Thus,thisdataandinformationobtainedfromGhanacanbeexpandedthroughoutthe
remainingWestAfricancountries.Thedataputsemphasisoncarbondioxideemissions
producedinurbanhouseholdsandruralareas.
CostsandinvestmentsPromotingtheuseofwoodforfuelsandcharcoalproductionandsimultaneouslyutilizing
efficientcookingstovesinhouseholdscanberelativelycostly.Althoughthebenefits
accruedbytheimplementationofrenewablewoodenergyandefficientcookingstoves
surpassthecosts,itisstillimportanttoanalysetheproposaltoensureasuccessful,well
thoughtout,budgetedprojectthatcanbeexpandedacrossSub-SaharanAfrica.Anumber
ofcostsandinvestmentstoconsiderare:
i) Educatingfarmersandlocalcommunitiesonsustainableharvestingtechniques–Thisisaninvestmentpresentinalmosteverycarbonproject.Alargenumberof
localshavenotreceivedformaleducationforalmostalltheirlives,soitisnecessary
totutorthemregularlyonadvancedmethodsofsustainableharvestingtechniques
andtools.Additionally,thisreducestheratesofdeforestation,thushindering
climatechangewhileconcurrentlyallowingthesurroundingcommunitiestoutilize
sourcesfromtheforestedlandorplantationsthroughtechniquessuchascoppicing
andpruning.ii) Educatingfarmersandlocalcommunitiestosecuretheregenerationthrough
seedlingproductionandplanting–Seedlingproductionisakeyelementinmostof
theareasaroundthevillagesandifnoplantingisdoneitisbasicallyimpossibleto
secureforestsinthefuture.Inaddition,politicaldecisionsandchangeinforest
policyisrequiredtoensurethatfarmershavecontrolovertheland.iii) Costsofestimatingcarbondioxideemissionsfromwoodfuelsandcookingstoves
–Theserefertoconductinglandcover/forestinventories.iv) Seedlingsandfertilizers–Thisisconditionalasthespeciesoftreesrequiredfor
timbermayvary,thereforeseedsandfertilizermayberequired.Additionally,
nitrogen-fixingtreescanbeplantedalongwiththetreestoenhancethequalityand
yield.
v) Approximatingwoodfuelusageusinglocalsurveys–DistributingthesurveyscouldbetimeconsumingandcostlybutisfundamentalinassessingCO2emissions
produced.
vi) Trainingthestaff–Inordertoattainaccuratefiguresoncarbondioxideemissions
fromusingwoodasafuelandefficientcookingstoves,staffmustbeskilledand
havedeepknowledgeontheprocessrequired.Itisvitaltoacquireaccurateresults
asthesedataarethencomparedtothoseoffossilfuelstoassesswhichofthefuels
arelessharmfultotheenvironment.
59
vii) Capitalforprovidingefficientcookingstovestolocalcommunities–Overtheyears,thecookingstoveshavebecomemoreandmoreefficientreducingthe
amountofemissionsproducedandtheamountofwoodfuelrequired.Amodern
efficientcookingstovecomesatanaveragepricerangingfrom$100-$400
dependingonthematerial,thesizeandthemakeofthestoves.
viii) Thecostsoftransportingthewood–Thisdependsonthepurposeofthewood.Localscancarryalimitedamountofwoodtoandfromthesite.However,
companiesusingwoodforalternativepurposeswoulduseheavydutytruckswhich
arecarbonemittingandcostly.Additionally,localcommunitiesmakeuseoftheir
livestockorinvestinlivestocktoassistinthetransportationofwood.
Theseareonlyanumberofthecostsandinvestmentsprocuredinthegeneralproject.
Theremaybeadditionalcostsrelatedtotheimplementationofwoodenergyandefficient
cookingstoveswhichmayhowever,beminor.Supplementaryfundswouldbebeneficialin
thiscase.
EnvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsAlthoughtheuseofwoodenergycontributestoenvironmentaldegradation,when
evaluatedagainstfossilfuelsthelatterispositive,especiallywhensustainabilityandforest
regenerationareincluded.Eventhoughtheharvestingofwoodforcookingandheating
resultsinemissionofcarbondioxide,thefactthatitisrenewable,isreadilyavailableand
cansequestercarbondioxidethroughreplantingoftreesmakesitamorefavourablesource
ofenergy.Incontrast,fossilfuelsemitlargeramountsofcarbondioxide,require
investmentsandprocessingbeforetheycanbeused,andmayonedaybeexhausted.World
Vision(2011)establishedthatinstallationandcorrectuseofimprovedstovesreduced
greenhousegasemissionsbyapproximately74%.Furthermore,therewasreductioninsoil
erosion,improvementinthesoilfertilityandwaterholdingcapacityofthesoil.
Usingwoodforfuelenhancestheconservationofforestsonlythroughsustainable
harvestingpracticesandsecuredregeneration(plating)andalsobytheuseofefficient
cookingstoves,astheamountofwoodfuelrequiredissubstantiallyreduced.Thesocial
benefitsinthiscontextare:saferenvironmentforchildrenasthereisreductioninthe
amountofsmokeproducedandtheriskofaccidents,andwomencanspendlesstime
collectingfuelandcaninsteadtakecareoftheirchildrenorstartworkingforadditional
income(WorldVision2011).Inaddition,iftheforestcoverisincreased,thelivelihoodsof
communitiescouldimprove–byadequatefood,shelterandincomegeneratingactivities.
Inregardstoeconomicbenefits,thewoodenergysectorcreatesconsiderableamountsof
employmentandincome,assomeofthewoodfetchedcanalsobesoldtoothercompanies
athigherprices.Additionally,thewoodenergycanbeusedtoproducevaryinggoodsand
servicessuchasheating,cookingandlighting.
InstitutionalframeworkandmanagementschemesThedevelopmentofwoodenergyandefficientcookingstovescanbeachievedthroughthe
implementationofeffectivemanagementschemesandinstitutionalframeworksthatwork
towardssustainabledevelopmentforfuturegenerations.Inaddition,educationfordecision
makersandpoliticianstoensurethepoliticalwillisimportant.
60
FurtherresearchandprojectimplementationbyinstitutionsincludingICRAF,CIFOR,USAID,
UNEP,FAO,WorldVisionandtheAfricaRenewableEnergyAccessProgramme(AREAP),
amongothers,isrequired.TheseinstitutionshavemadeadifferencetoAfrican
communitiesbypromotingsustainableharvestingtechniques,reducingdependenceon
fossilfuelsandsupplyinghomeswithefficientcookingstoves.Thisismadepossiblewith
fundingreceivedfromdonorssuchastheWorldBank,AfricaDevelopmentBankandGood
Samaritans.
MonitoringrequirementsAsstatedabovejustincreasingtheefficiencyofcookingandcharcoalprocessesdonot
ensuresustainableandrenewablewoodenergy.Infact,atthemoment,woodenergyisnot
renewableinAfricancountriesascanbeseenfromthehugedeforestationrates.Sierra
LeoneandBurkinaFasoaregoodexamplesofthis.AccordingtotheMinistryofEnergyand
WaterResources,SierraLeone,vastdeforestationoccursinthecountryduetothemassive
dependenceofitsover7millionpeopleonwoodfuels(MEWR2009).InBurkinaFasofrom
the5.4millionhectaresofforests(FAOSTAT2015)—including3.9millionhectaresofstate-
ownedforestreserves—theannualforestlossduring1992-2002accordingtothe
governmentwas107,626hectaresandannualforestdegradationequivalentto0.5million
hectares(MEDD2012a).90%ofthepopulationutilizeswoodenergyintheformoffirewood
andcharcoal(REEEP2012).Thesefiguresshowclearlythattheforestmanagementisnot
sustainableandthewoodenergyisnotrenewableatthemoment.
Toimprovethesituationandtomakewoodenergyatrulyrenewablesource,forestloss
mustbestoppedthroughactiveandmassiveregenerationactions,intensificationof
agriculture,aswellaspromotionofagroforestry.Thiswillrequirepoliticalwill,educationat
alllevelsandactiveinputtoseedlings.Peopleatalllevelswillneedtobemotivatedtocarry
outregeneration,notonlythroughplanting,butalsothroughsustainableforest
management.
Tomonitorthesuccessintheseactivitiesaproperforestinventoryisneeded.InBIODEV
projectWP1.4,asuitablemethodformonitoringandmeasuringtheabove-groundbiomass
aswellasthecalculationprocedureforavailableenergywoodinsampleplotswere
presented(HeiskanenandPackalen2013,Valbuenaetal.2016).Thiskindinventorysystem
withremotesensingdatashouldbeappliedtobeabletomonitorthechangesinforestland
areaandamountofavailablewoodybiomass.Onlythencanpropermanagementplansbe
madeforsustainability.
Inaddition,thereisneedtoexaminethedifferentvaluechainsandthebusinessaround
forestgoodstoimproveefficiency(likeinmarketingandtransportinggoods)andtomake
surethattherearenooverlapsintheuseofnaturalresources.Equallyimportantisthe
needtolearnaboutthedifferentformalandinformalprocessesandchainssincetheyboth
affecttheamountofavailablebiomass(Puentesetal.2016).Thiswouldpromote
developmentofnewbusinessmodelsforwomenandthusimprovetheirstandardsofliving.
ChallengesandbarriersSomeofthedifficultiesexperiencedbyinstitutionsinsuccessfullyimplementingtheswitch
towoodenergyandefficientcookingstovesare:
61
i) Alternativepurposesofanopenfire–Indoorfiresforcookingfoodoftenserveotherpurposessuchasheatingindoorareas,preservingfoodthroughsmoking,
keepingthatchedroofsdryandrot-free,repellingmosquitoesandlighting.
Improvedstovesdonotaddressalloftheseneeds,andhenceneedtobepartof
thebroadersustainabledevelopmentefforts(WorldVision2011).
ii) Compatibilitywithlocalfuelsandfoods–Cookingstoveshavetocomeina
varietyofshapesandsizestoenablecertainpotsandpanstoaccuratelyfitand
consumeenergyfromthestoveentirelysothatnoneiswasted(WorldVision
2011).
iii) Communityacceptance–Differentcommunitiesandindividualsmayhave
differentcriteriabywhichtheyevaluateastove’smerits–andoftenthosecriteria
differfromtheonesdictatingastove’sdesign.Astovemaybedesignedto
maximizeenergyefficiencyandreducesmoke,forexample,butstoveusersmay
alsojudgethemodelbasedonfactorslikesafety,convenience,priceand
perceiveddurability(WorldVision2011).
iv) Insufficientfunding–Appropriateamountsofcapitalarerequiredtoenablethe
commencementoftheproject.
v) Deforestation–Ifwoodisnotharvestedinsustainably,theoutcomewouldbea
reductioninoveralltreecoverandexcessemissionsofcarbondioxideintothe
atmosphere,furthertriggeringclimatechange.
vi) Usinglandtogrowtreesforwoodfuelleadingtodirectcompetitionwithfoodcrops–Thismatterwouldrequireprecisesustainablelandmanagement
strategies,forexample,instigatingagroforestrysystems.
vii) ProducesCO2emissionsthroughburningofwoodandtransportation–Thepublicneedstobeawarethattheseemissionsproducedarelessthanthoseemittedby
fossilfuels.Additionally,harvestingtechniquessuchascoppicingandpruningand
usingefficientcookingstovescanultimatelyreducecarbondioxideemitted
throughburningandtransportation.Plantingmoretreescansequesterexcess
carbondioxideproducedthroughburningandtransportationofwood.
Furtherresearchonsustainabledevelopmentandneedsoflocalcommunitiescould
enhancetheeffectivenessoftheprojectinreducingcarbondioxideemissions.
CapacitydevelopmentCapacitydevelopmentonwoodenergyandefficientcookingstovesspecificallyfocuseson
improvingthesocioeconomicviability,ecologicalsustainability,resourceefficiencyand
emissionsofgreenhousegases(FAO2015).Projectsimplementingtheuseofwoodenergy
andefficientcookingstovescanbemoresuccessfulandresourceful.Thiscanbeachieved
throughbridgingthegapsineducation,collectingandimprovingdataacquiredandraising
awarenessoftheimportanceofwoodenergy.Additionally,researchingonmodernand
improvedsustainableandresource-efficientproductionandconsumptionofwood,and
increasingthefrequencyoftrainingworkshopssothatlocalscanlearnfromoneanother
arealsokey.
Capacitybuildingallowstheadvancementoftheproposedprojectssoastoattainthe
expectedresultsandimproveenvironmentalandsocioeconomicfactors.Institutions
62
workingtogetheronalargescalecanbridgethesegapsinresearchandimprovetheaspects
offuturesustainabledevelopment.
Equallyimportantistoofferandcarryouttrainingatalllevels(fromdecisionmakersand
politicians,tofarmers)aboutsustainableforestmanagement,whileofferingknowledgeon
ecologyandeconomyrelatedtoforests.Itmustbeclearforeverybodythatthereareno
markets,nobusinessesandnomoneyiftheforestsarelost.Theconnectionbetweenthe
differentitemsmustbecleartoeveryone.
SustainableenergywoodmanagementBasedontheworkandresearchofWP1.4onenergywood,itisclearthatonlyrenewable
andsustainableenergywoodcanbeobtainediftheforestmanagementisbasedon
sustainabilityandtheforestedlandareacoverisincreased.BasedontheresultsofWP1.4
issuestouchingonthesustainabilityofthewoodbasedenergyincludethefollowing
(Torssonenetal.2015):
i) Thereisneedtodevelopforestpolicyandforestlaw.
ii) Asystematicnationalforestinventorymustbelaunchedtotrackchangesinwood
biomass.
iii) Trainingatalllevelsisakeyfactor.Thereisneedtobuildthecapacityofcommunities,farmers,forestmanagers,woodsellers,researchers,teachers,
businesspeople,politiciansanddecisionmakers.
iv) Needtobuildupastrategicplanforsustainablewoodfuelmanagement.Inthis
paper,thisworkisstartedandtherecommendationsoftheWP1.4workinggroup
arepresented.
v) Improvedandup-to-dateteachingonclimateissues,biodiversity,forestsand
forestryatalllevelsofeducation,fromprimaryschoolstouniversities.Inthis
BIODEVproject,theworkinggroupofWP1.4tookthefirststepbytrainingstafffrom
NjalaandOugadougouUniversitiesonsustainablewoodenergymanagementandby
publishingatextbookforuniversities.
vi) Needtoimprovecharcoalproductiontoreducetheenergylossintheprocess.
vii) Needtocombineagroforestryandfuelwoodproductiontoincreaseaccessto
fuelwoodplantationsandincomeforfarmers(producingandsellingfuelwoodinthe
area).
Figure3.4.5highlightsthesuggestedchaintoguaranteethesustainabilityinforest
management(Torssonenetal.2015).
63
Figure3.4.5:Aflowchartdepictingtheidealwayofmanagingtheforestsandproducingincome,productsanddevelopmentonasustainablebasis
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http://faostat3.fao.org/home/EFoodandAgricultureOrganization.2015.WoodEnergy.Available:http://www.fao.org/forestry/energy/90828/en/.Lastaccessed29
thMay2016.
HeiskanenJ,PackalenP.2013.Fieldmeasurementprotocoltoestimateaboveground
biomassandfuelwoodstocks.12p
MEDD2012a.ReadinesspreparationplanforREDD.MinistryofEnvironmentand
SustainableDevelopment,BurkinaFaso.
MEWR2009.NationalEnergyPolicyandStrategicPlan.MinistryofEnergyandWater
Resources,SierraLeone.
PuentesRodriguezY,TorssonenP,Ramcilovik-SuominenS,PitkänenS.2016.Fuelwood
valuechainanalysisinCassouandOuagadougou,BurkinaFaso:Fromtheproductiontothe
consumption.Manuscript.21p.
REEEP2012.Web-basedResources,PolicyDatabase,RenewableEnergyandEnergy
EfficiencyPartnership.Retrievedon11thJanuary2016fromhttp://www.reegle.info/
RegionalWoodEnergyDevelopmentProgramme.1997.RegionalStudyonWoodEnergyTodayandTomorrowinAsia.Available:http://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/W7744E/W7744E00.pdf.Lastaccessed26
thMay2016.
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ShafieiS,SalimR.2014.Non-renewableandrenewableenergyconsumptionandCO2
emissionsinOECDcountries:Acomparativeanalysis.EnergyPolicy.66(1),p547–556.SiegelR.2012.BiomassEnergy:ProsandCons.Available:http://www.triplepundit.com/special/energy-options-pros-and-cons/biomass-energy-pros-
cons/.Lastaccessed27thMay2016.
TilburgX,WürtenbergerL,RiveraR,Atta-OwusuF.2011.Policybrief:Lowcarbonoptionsforenergydemand.Available:https://www.ecn.nl/docs/library/report/2011/o11022.pdf.Lastaccessed28
thMay2016.
TorssonenP,PitkänenS,MelinM,KilpeläinenA,PackalenP,PuentesY,Ramcilociv-
SuominenS,ValbuenaR.2016.Towardssustainablewoodfuelmanagement.Strategicplan.
AvailableonthewebsiteofBIODEV.
ValbuenaR,HeiskanenJ,AynekuluE,PitkänenS,PackalenP.2016.Sensitivityofabove-groundbiomassestimatestoheight-diametermodellinginmixed-speciesWestAfrican
woodlands.Manuscript.45p.
VilppoT.2015.Simplemethodstoimprovebiocharyield.3p.Availableonthewebsiteof
BIODEV.WorldBankGroup.2011.Wood-BasedBiomassEnergyDevelopmentforSub-SaharanAfrica:Issuesandapproaches.Washington:AfricaRenewableEnergyAccessProgramme.
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WorldVision.2011.Fuel-efficientcookingstoves:atriplewinforchildhealth,developmentandtheenvironment.Available:https://www.worldvision.com.au/docs/default-
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65
B-5/Landrestorationforcarbonsequestration
RationaleandobjectivesLandUseLandCover(LULC)changecontributesaconsiderableamountofglobal
anthropogenicgreenhousegasemissions,accountingforanestimated12.5%ofcarbon
emissionsfrom1990to2010(Houghtonetal.2012).Approximately52%oftheworld’s
forestsareconcentratedinthetropics,whichhavethehighestratesofdeforestationand
landconversionglobally(Brownetal.1996).WestAfricaisdominatedbytropicalforests
whichstretchfromSierraLeoneallthewaytovastregionsofGhana.Onlyabout15%ofthe
originalforesthotspotvegetationcoverofGuinearemainstodayduetodeforestationfor
agriculturalpurposesandhumansettlements,comparedto18%ofhotspotvegetation
coveratthebeginningofthemillennium(GockowskiandSonwa2010,CEPF2016).Thisland
usechangeresultedinsubstantialamountsofcarbondioxideemissionsduetothe
reductioninstandingbiomassforgrowingcashcrops.
Figure3.5.1:AnimageofdegradedlandinNiger(Source:Hannah2013)
Althoughclearinglandtogrowcropsforsocialandeconomicpurposesmayseemnormalin
developingcountries,itisgreatlyaffectingtheenvironment,thesoilsandthequalityofthe
produce.Reductioninsoilfertilityandqualityofproducecouldbeattributedtothe
subsequentincreaseinsoilerosion,lackofnutrientsduetoleachingandreducedlitter
decompositionwhichenhanceandregulatethenitrogenandcarboncycles.Additionally,
deforestationrateshaveledtoemissionsofcarbondioxide,thusacceleratingclimate
change.
Thefateoflanduseiscontrolledbythehumanpopulationandtoalargeextent,individuals,
businesses,non-profitorganizationsandgovernmentsthatcanmakelanddecisionsto
adapt/reducetheeffectsofclimatechange(Brownetal.2014).Afewadaptationoptions
postulatedbyBrownetal.(2014)aimedatreducingtheprocessofclimatechangeinclude:
i) Expandingforeststoaccelerateremovalofcarbonfromtheatmosphere.
ii) Modifyingthewaycitiesarebuiltandorganizedtoreduceenergyconsumptionand
reducelandusechange.
iii) Alteringagriculturalmanagementpracticestoincreasecarbonstorageinabove-
groundbiomassandsoil.
66
Thesesolutionscanbeappliedacrosstheworldtominimizethegrowingemissionsof
carbondioxideproducedthroughlandusechange.Landrestorationentailstechniquessuch
asreforestation,afforestation,agroforestry,agropastoral,agrisilvicultureand
agrosilvopastoralmethodswhichsubstantiallyincreasecarbonsequestrationandinturn
reducetheprocessandeffectsofclimatechange.
DataandinformationrequirementsforlandrestorationQuantifyingemissionsfromLULCchangeremainsoneofthemostuncertaincomponentsin
carbonbudgeting,particularlyinlandscapesdominatedbysmallholderagriculture(Brown
etal.2007,Houghtonetal.2012,Smithetal.2012,KearneyandSmulker2015).According
toKearneyandSmulker(2015),anumberofstepsarerequiredtoestimategreenhousegas
emissions/removalsfromLULC.Theseinclude:
i) DeterminevariationsinLandUseLandCoverChanges–Thismustbedoneby
comparingdatafromtwoormorepointsintime.
ii) Developabaseline–Theobservedchangesincarbonstocksmustbecomparedtoa
scenariowithouttheimplementationoflandrestoration.Thisiscarriedoutbyeither
developingabaselinescenarioorthroughdirectobservationofaregion.
iii) Calculatecarbonstockchanges–Greenhousegasemissionscanbeusedor
alternatively,thecarbonstockscanbemeasuredusingthemethodologystatedinA-
2foreachlandclass.iv) Assessaccuracyandcalculateuncertainty–Accuracyofeachstepmustbeassessed
inordertodeterminetheuncertaintyassociatedwithfinalemissions/removals
estimatesassociatedwithLULCchanges.
DeterminingthechangesinLULCcanbedonethroughremotesensingtechniqueswhich
yieldaccuratedata.Comparisonscanbemadewiththesatelliteimagesobtainedfromtwo
ormorepointsintimetogiveanestimationofthefateofthecarbonstocksinthe
ecosystemovertime.Additionally,developingabaselineandprojectscenarioforland
restorationaredependentonthetypeofland-usecategorywhichcouldbe:forestland,
cropland,grassland,wetlands,orsettlements.Changingcroplandtoforestlandand
incorporatingagroforestrywouldincreasecarbonsequestrationlargelyduetoincreasein
standingbiomass.Landrestorationprojectsshouldaimtoincreasethecarbon
sequestrationtothegreatestpotentialbyevenplantingnitrogen-fixingtreesandadding
fertilizersoastoincreaseproductionandyieldofbiomass,aswellassequesterlarge
amountsofcarbondioxide.Therefore,inalandrestorationprojectthebaseline-project
scenariographwouldbesimilartothatillustratedfigure3.1.2.
CarbonabatementpotentialThecarbonabatementpotentialvariesacrosseachlandusecategory.Evidently,tropical
forestsarethelargestcarbonsinksduetotheirvastcanopies,diversespeciesandecological
systems.Landrestorationcanhowever,alsosequestratecarbondioxideinpossiblysimilar
amountswiththeintegrationoffertilizers,nitrogen-fixingspeciesandagroforestry.
Table3.5.1presentsexamplesofcarbonstocksinvariousland-usecategoriestoillustrate
thehighestcarbonsequestratingecosystemsthatcouldbelargelybeneficialtothe
environment.
67
Table3.5.1:CarbonsequestrationpotentialsofvaryingbiomesBiomes/ecosystems Carbonsequestration(PgCperyear)Agriculturallands 0.85–0.90Biomasscroplands 0.50–0.80Grasslands 0.50Forests 1–3Desertsanddegradedlands 0.80–1.30Terrestrialsediments 0.70–1.70
DOE1999
Forestscontainthelargestamountofstandingbiomassandthereforesequestergreat
amountsofcarbondioxidethroughtheprocessofphotosynthesis.Increasingtheamountof
carbonsequesteredinthebiomeslistedabovecouldbedonebyplantingmoretreesand
usingsustainablemanagementandharvestingpractices.
Therefore,convertingevenagriculturallandtoaforestedlandscapedeliverslarge
environmentalbenefitsandsimultaneouslycarryingoutcroppingandintercropping,the
socioeconomicbenefitscanalsobeincreased.
CostsandinvestmentsLaunchingalandrestorationprojectinvolvesahugeinvestment.Anumberofthecostsand
investmentsprocuredinclude:
i) Educatingthepublic,localcommunitiesandfarmersontheimportanceoflandrestorationandsustainablefarming–Thisinvolvesadvertisements,seminars,
forumsandpossiblycoursestaughtbywelltrainedandskilledindividuals.
ii) Incentivesforworkers–Fundingmustbeadequatetopayforlabourandsufficient
amountsofcapital.
iii) Incentivesforfarmerstoenablethemtocontinuetheiragriculturalpracticesoutsidetheprojectsite–Torestorelandthathasbeenexcessivelydegradedthroughagriculture,farmersmaybeforcedtotemporarilycarryouttheirpractices
elsewhere.Thisrequiresacertainsumofcapitaltoallowthemtostartallover
againandensuretheybeginusingsustainablemanagementtechniques.
iv) Capitalformaterialsandinstrumentsforcarboninventoryandestimatinggreenhousegasemissions–Estimatingcarbonstocksandemissionsrequire
greenhousegaschambers,measuringtapes,clinometers,compasses,pegs,remote
sensingsoftwareandGPS(seeA-2).
v) Seedsandfertilizers–Restoringlandrequiresinvestmentsinseedsandfertilizers
formaximumyieldproductionandcarbonsequestration.vi) Managementtechniques–Materialsrequiredforprocessessuchascoppicing,
pruning,livefencing,andreducedtillage,amongothers.vii) Monitoringmethods–Landrestorationmustbemonitoredfrequently,atleast
onceayear.viii) Restoringsoilfertilityandconductinglaboratorytestsonsoils–Ifthelandtobe
recoveredwasapreviouscoalmine,substantialamountsoffertilizerandsoil
analysistestsarerequiredtoensurethereisnoarsenicpoisoningifthelandis
beingrestoredforagriculturaluse.
Thecostbenefitanalysisinthiscasemustcarefullybeexaminedtoensurethatthebenefits
attainedfromtheconversionoflandoffsettheexpenses.
68
EnvironmentalandsocioeconomicbenefitsoflandrestorationDependingonthelandusecategoryandcarbonsequestrationpotential,theenvironmental
andsocioeconomicbenefitsarevast.However,themostefficientmethodofincreasing
carbonsequestrationwhileconcurrentlyencouragingsocioeconomicdevelopmentisby
plantingspeciesoftreesthataremostusedandbeneficialforlocalcommunities,and
incorporatingnitrogen-fixingtreesforsoilfertility.Furtherenvironmentalbenefitsother
thanmitigatingclimatechangeincludeimprovementinsoilfertility,reductioninsoil
erosion,improvementincropyieldsduetoincreasedcarbonsequestrationbynitrogen-
fixingtreesandfertilizertreeswhichactaswindbreaksandpreventflooding.Inthesocial
andeconomicaspectsoflandrestoration,benefitsinclude:
• Landrestoration–Localfarmers,communitiesandinstitutionsareabletowork
togetheronasocialleveltoattainacertaingoal.
• Additionoffertilizersandnitrogen-fixingspeciesimprovesqualityandyieldofany
cashcropsbeinggrown.Thisincreasesthevalueoftheproducewhichcanbesoldat
higherprices,thusincreasinghouseholds’incomes.
• Agroforestrylandrestorationcanimprovethenutritionaldietsofthelocal
communities,thusenhancingtheirhealth.
• Growingavarietyofspeciesbringsforthavarietyofeconomicvaluesuchastimber,
herbalmedicines,fruitpulpandfibres.
InstitutionalframeworksandmanagementschemesExperiencesuggeststhatrestorationusuallyonlyworksinthelongtermifithassupport
fromasignificantproportionoflocalstakeholders(Vallaurietal.1986).InWestAfrica,
collaborativeinterestinlandrestorationbyinstitutionssuchasICRAF,UNEP,USAID,could
behelpfulastheseorganizationshaveskilledprofessionalswhocandevelopproposalsand
securefundsfromdonorssuchastheWorldBank,AfricaDevelopmentBankandtheprivate
sector.
Additionally,landrestorationrequiresavarietyofexpertiselikeecology,silviculture,
economics,publicpolicy,andthesocialsciences,whichneedtobecombinedinanefficient
way.Institutionalframeworksandmanagementschemescanappropriatelyadheretothese
requirementsandprovidesufficientskilledandtrainedstaff.
MonitoringmethodsMonitoringistheprocessofperiodicallycollectingandusingdatatoinformmanagement
decisions(O’Connoretal.1986).Inlandrestorationprojects,monitoringinvolvesthe
estimationofcarbonstockstoassesstheprogressandsurveysanddirectobservationto
assessifthecommunitiesareusingsustainablemanagementtechniquesandifnot,what
actionstoundertake.Figure3.5.1summarizesthestepsofmonitoringalandrestoration
project:
69
Figure3.5.1:Thestepstakentomonitorprogressoflandrestorationprojects
ChallengesandbarriersAsuccessfullandrestorationprojectrequiresanenormousamountofinstitutionaland
communitycooperationandeffort.Thisisperhapsasocialadvantageasitbringstogethera
networkofpeopleworkingtowardsasimilargoal.However,italsocomeswithchallenges
suchas:
i) Expensiveprojectsthatneedsufficientfunding–Convertinglandisanenormous
projecttotakeonandconsistsofalargenumberofcostsandexpenses.
ii) Itisdifficulttoestimategreenhousegasremovalsandemissionsiii) Landrestorationprojectarelongandextensive–Restoringaforestonhighly
degradedlandcantakeapproximately10-15yearswithregularcorrectionsand
intensive-tuning(Vallaurietal.1986).iv) Theextentofsoildamagemayhindertheproject–Ifthedegradedlandwasfor
instance,anex-coalmine,thehighlevelsofarseniccouldbedamagingforthe
growingvegetationandconsequentlyreducethebiomassproduction.
v) Requirementofwellskilledlabour–Estimatingcarbonstocksandemissionsfrom
landuselandcoverchangeneedstrainedstaffsoastoensureprojectaccuracy.
vi) Landtenure–Theprojectcanonlybeexecutedoncethego-aheadisgivenbytheownerofthelandwhocouldhavealternativeplansforthearea.
CapacitydevelopmentAlandrestorationprojectcanbemademoreeffectivebycarefulplanningthroughadapting
short-termrestorationgoalsandtechniquestominimizethenumberofcostlycorrective
actions.Planningaheadtosecurefundsforcarryingoutmonitoringandevaluation,
correctiveactions,or“aftercare”inthelongtermisalsoimportant(Vallaurietal.1986).
Furthermore,long-termgoalsmustalsobeconsideredtoensurethattheprojectcanbe
sustainedovertheperiodoftimerequired.
Stakeholdersandcommunitiesmustworkondevelopingasharedandacceptedvisionand
goalforthelandscapewhichwouldenableamoresuccessfulrestorationprocess(Vallauriet
al.1986).Beforethelaunchoftheproject,thereasonsforlanddegradation,therootcauses
70
andsolutionstoimplementmustbecleartoallpartners.Fundingandsubsequentpartners
mustbesecuredtoavoidanychallengesduringprojectimplementation.
Figure3.5.2:Aseriesofstepstakentoenhancecapacitybuildingofalandrestorationproject.(Source:Vallaurietal.1986)
Followingthestepsinthefigureabovecanhelpreducechallengesandbarriersexperienced
intheproject.
ReferencesBrownS,SayantJ,CannellM,KauppiPE.1996a.Mitigationofcarbonemissionstothe
atmospherebyforestmanagement.CommonwealthForestryReview.75:p80-91.BrownD,PolskyC,BolstadP,BrodyS,HulseD,KrohR,LovelandT,ThomsonA.2014.Land
useandlandcoverchange.ClimatechangeimpactsintheUnitedStates.In:MelilloJM,
TereseTC,YoheGW(Eds)TheThirdNationalClimateAssessment,USGlobalChange
ResearchProgramme.p318-332.doi:10.7930/J05Q4T1Q.
BrownS,HallM,AndraskoK,RuizF,MarzoliW,GuerreroG,MaseraO,DushkuA,DeJongB,
CornellJ.2007.Baselinesforland-usechangeinthetropics:applicationtoavoided
deforestationprojects.MitigAdaptStrategGlobChang.12:p1001–1026.doi:10.1007/s11027-006-9062-5.
CriticalEcosystemPartnershipFund(CEPF)2016.GuineanForestsofWestAfrica.Available:http://www.cepf.net/resources/hotspots/africa/Pages/Guinean-Forests-of-West-
Africa.aspx.Lastaccessed29thMay2016.
DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)1999.CarbonSequestration:StateoftheScience.UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy(DOE),Washington,DC.
GockowskiJ,SonwaD.2010.Cocoaintensificationscenariosandtheirpredictedimpacton
CO2emissions,biodiversityconservation,andrurallivelihoodsintheGuineaRainForestof
WestAfrica.EnvironmentalManagement.48,p307-321.HannaH.2013.Communicatingenvironmentalchallengeswithphotography.Available:https://thepalebluedot.me/author/hafdishanna/.Accessed5
thJul2016.
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HoughtonR,HouseI,PongratzJ,vanderWerfR,DeFriesR,HansenMC,LeQuéréC,
RamankuttyN.2012.Carbonemissionsfromlanduseandland-coverchange.Biogeosciences.9:p5125–5142.doi:10.5194/bg-9-5125-2012.KearneyS,SmuklerS.2015.Standardassessmentofagriculturalmitigationpotentialand
livelihoods.Available:http://samples.ccafs.cgiar.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/06/Chapter-3-Land-use-and-land-cover-change.pdf.Lastaccessed
29thMay2016.
O’ConnorS,SalafskyN,SalzeD.1986.Monitoringforestrestorationprojectsinthecontext
ofanadaptivemanagementcycle.ForestRestorationinLandscapes.p145-149.SmithP,DaviesC,OgleS,ZanchiG,BellarbyJ,BirdN,BoddeyRM,McNamaraNP,Powlson
D,CowieA,NoordwijkM,DavisSC,RichterDDB,KryzanowskiL,WijkMT,StuartJ,KirtonA,
EggarD,Newton-CrossG,AdhyaTK,BraimohAK.2012.Towardsanintegratedglobal
frameworktoassesstheimpactsoflanduseandmanagementchangeonsoilcarbon:
currentcapabilityandfuturevision.GlobChangBiol.18:p2089–2101.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02689.x.
VallauriD,AronsonJ,DudleyN.1986.Anattempttodevelopaframeworkforrestoration
planning.ForestRestorationinLandscapes.(1)p65-70.
72
ANNEX1:CarbondioxideequivalentAcarbondioxideequivalentisameasureusedtocomparetheemissionsfromvarious
greenhousegasesbasedontheirglobalwarmingpotentials(OECD2001).Apartfromwater
vapour,themaingreenhousegasesintheEarth’satmospherearecarbondioxide(CO2),
methane(CH4),nitrousoxide(N2O)andozone(Brander2012).Eachofthegaseshas
differentglobalwarmingpotentialsandresidesintheatmospherefordifferentlengthsof
time(ClimateChangeConnection2014).Althoughthesegreenhousegasesoccurnaturally
intheearth’satmosphere,humanactivitieshaveacceleratedtheconcentrationsofthese
gasesresultinginincreasedclimatechange.
ThemostcommonconversionusedbetweenCO2andCOistherateof3.7.Thisfactoris
usedtoconverttonnesofcarbondioxideintocarbon.Theseconversionsallowabetter
calculationofaradiativeforcingeffectthatleadstoglobalwarming.Theglobalwarming
potential(GWP)ofagreenhousegasindicatestheamountofwarmingitcancauseovera
givenperiodoftime,normallyabout100years.Carbondioxidehasaglobalwarming
potentialof1.Additionally,theglobalwarmingpotentialsoftheremaininggreenhouse
gaseslistedabovedepictthenumberoftimesmorewarmingtheycauseascomparedto
carbondioxide(Brander2012).
TableA1.1belowgivestheglobalwarmingpotentialsofvariousgreenhousegasesfromland
usechange.
TableA1.1:The‘Kyotogases’andtheirrelevantglobalwarmingpotentialsGreenhousegas Globalwarmingpotential(GWP)Carbondioxide(CO2) 1
Methane(CH4) 25
Nitrousoxide(N2O) 298
Source:IPCC2007,Brander2012
Inthisreport,thecarbonequivalentisusedthroughout,andthereforeallgreenhousegases
emittedaremeasuredundercarbondioxideequivalent.
73
ANNEX2:BiocarbonprojectsinAfrica
Biocarbonproject Country WebpagelinkVillage-Based
Managementof
WoodySavanna&
Establishmentof
Woodlotsfor
Carbon
Sequestration
Benin GEF
(http://www.gefonline.org/projectDetails.cfm?projID=389)
FAO,2004
SustainableEnergy
Management
Project
BurkinaFaso UNFCCC**(http://unfccc.int/kyoto_mechanisms/aij/activities_
implemented_jointly/items/2005.php)
HumboAssisted
Regeneration
Ethiopia WBBioCarbonFund
(http://carbonfinance.org/Router.cfm?Page=Projport&ProjID=
9625)
WesternKenya
Integrated
Ecosystem
Management
Project
Kenya GEF
(http://www.gefonline.org/projectDetails.cfm?projID=1362)
(MutungaandMwangi2006)
GreenBelt
Movement
Kenya WBBioCarbonFund
(http://carbonfinance.org/Router.cfm?Page=Projport&ProjID=
9635)
Reforestationon
DegradedLandfor
SustainableWood
Productionof
Woodchips
Madagascar CDMpipelineupdatedbyUNEPRisoCentre
http://cdmpipeline.org/
Carbonfrom
Communities
Mali VirginiaTechUniversity
(http://www.oired.vt.edu/resanddev/projects/carbon.htm)
Participatory
Rehabilitationof
DegradedLands
Mauritania
and
Senegal
GEFhttp://www.gefonline.org/projectDetails.cfm?projID=457
Nhambita
Community
CarbonProject
Mozambique UniversityofEdinburghhttp://www.miombo.org.uk/(Jindal
2004)
AcaciaCommunity
Plantations
Niger WBBioCarbonFund
(http://carbonfinance.org/Router.cfm?Page=Projport&ProjID=
9634)
Sequestrationof
CarboninSoil
OrganicMatter
(SOCSOM)
Senegal USGeologicalSurvey
(http://edcintl.cr.usgs.gov/carboninfosheet.html)(Tieszenet
al.2004)
74
Biocarbonproject Country WebpagelinkTheNamwasa
ForestationProject
Uganda CDMpipelineupdatedbyUNEP
RisoCentre(http://cdmpipeline.org/)
PlanVivoProject Uganda PlanVivo
(www.planvivo.org)CarbonNeutralCompany
(http://www.carbonneutral.com/projects/projects.asp?id=13)
NileBasin
Reforestation
Uganda WBBioCarbonFund(http://carbonfinance.org/Router.cfm?
Page=Projport&ProjID=9644)
75
WorkingPaperseries213. Vulnerability of smallholder farmers and their preferences on farming practices in Buol
District, Indonesia http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP15724.PDF 214. Dynamics of land use/cover change and carbon emission in Buol District, Indonesia
http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP15725.PDF 215. Gender perspective in smallholder farming practices in Lantapan, Philippines
http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP15726.PDF 216. Vulnerability of smallholder farmers in Lantapan, Bukidnon
http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP15727.PDF 217. Vulnerability and adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers in Ho Ho Sub-watershed, Ha Tinh
Province, Vietnam http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP15728.PDF 218. Local knowledge on the role of trees to enhance livelihoods and ecosystem services in
northern central Vietnam http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP15729.PDF 219. Land-use/cover change in Ho Ho Sub-watershed, Ha Tinh Province, Vietnam
http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP15730.PDF 220. Agroforestry and forestry in Sulawesi series: evaluation of the agroforestry farmer field
schools on agroforestry management in South and Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16002.PDF
221. Farmer-to-farmer extension of livestock feed technologies in Rwanda: A survey of volunteer farmer trainers and organizations http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16005.PDF
222. Projected climate change impact on hydrology, bioclimatic conditions, and terrestrial ecosystems in the Asian highlands http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16006.PDF
223. Adoption of agroforestry and its impact on household food security among farmers in Malawi http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16013.PDF
224. Agroforestry and forestry in Sulawesi series: Information channels for disseminating innovative agroforestry practices to villages in Southern Sulawesi, Indonesia http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16034.PDF
225. Agroforestry and forestry in Sulawesi series: Unravelling rural migration networks. Land-tenure arrangements among Bugis migrant communities in Southeast Sulawesi http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16035.PDF
226. Agroforestry and forestry in Sulawesi series: Women’s participation in agroforestry: more benefit or burden? A gendered analysis of Gorontalo Province http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16036.PDF
227. Kajian Kelayakan dan Pengembangan Desain Teknis Rehabilitasi Pesisir di Sulawesi Tengah http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16037.PDF
228. Selection of son tra clones in North West Vietnam http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16038.PDF 229. Growth and fruit yield of seedlings, cuttings and grafts from selected son tra trees in
Northwest Vietnam http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16046.PDF 230. Gender-Focused Analysis of Poverty and Vulnerability in Yunnan, China
http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16071.PDF 231. Seri Agroforestri dan Kehutanan di Sulawesi: Kebutuhan Penyuluhan Agroforestri untuk
Rehabilitasi Lahan di Sumba Timur, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16077.PDF
232. Agroforestry and Forestry in Sulawesi series: Agroforestry extension needs for land rehabilitation in East Sumba, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16078.PDF
233. Central hypotheses for the third agroforestry paradigm within a common definition. http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16079.PDF
234. Assessing smallholder farmers’ interest in shade coffee trees: the farming systems of smallholder coffee producers in Gisenyi Area, Rwanda http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16104.PDF
235. Review of agricultural market information systems in sub-Saharan Africa. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16110.PDF
236. Vision and road map for establishment of a protected area in Lag Badana, Lower Jubba, Somalia. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16127.PDF
The World Agroforestry Centre is an autonomous, non-profit research organization whose vision is a rural transformation in the developing world as smallholder households increase their use of trees in agricultural landscapes to improve food security, nutrition, income, health, shelter, social cohesion, energy resources and environmental sustainability. The Centre generates science-based knowledge about the diverse roles that trees play in agricultural landscapes, and uses its research to advance policies and practices, and their implementation that benefit the poor and the environment. It aims to ensure that all this is achieved by enhancing the quality of its science work, increasing operational efficiency, building and maintaining strong partnerships, accelerating the use and impact of its research, and promoting greater cohesion, interdependence and alignment within the organization.
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