1

The Roman Empire (part 2)

2

Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace looking northeast), Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE.

Ara Pacis 13-9 BCEThe Altar of Augustan peace:

Documents a specific event

Commemorates Augustus’ return after the conquer of GaulUnion of

portraiture and allegory

religion and politics

private and public message

Virgil’s Aeneid

Others will cast more tenderly in bronze,

Their breathing figures, I can well believe,

And bring more lifelike portraits out of marble;

Argue more eloquently, use the pointer

To trace the paths of heaven accurately

And accurately foretell the rising stars.

Roman, remember by your strength to rule

Earth’s peoples-for your arts are to be these:

To pacify, to impose the rule of law,to spare the conquered, battle down the proud.

God Aeneas making a sacrifice

Aeneas: son of VenusAugustus’ forefather

7

Female personification (Tellus?), panel from the east facade of the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE. Marble, 5’ 3” high.

Allegory of peace, prosperity, and fertility

Goddess Pax( peace) Ceres( grain) or Venus( love)?

Goddess Pax-mother earth-nurtures the Roman people-babies

Women with billowing veils=sea wind & land

fertility of Roman farms

domination over the Mediterranean

Ara Pacis Procession of the Imperial familyRome 13-19 BCE

Decline in birth rate-Emperor Augustus encouraged marriage, marital fidelity, tax relief and large families

10

Procession of the imperial family, detail of the south frieze of the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE. Marble, 5’ 3” high.

Similar to Greek Parthenon frieze

Except: the procession is of actual individuals, a specific event at a known time, includes children, Roman senators, Imperial family, crowded, not classical

12

Model of a typical sixth-century BCE Etruscan temple, as described by Vitruvius. Istituto di Etruscologia e di Antichità Italiche, Università di Roma, Rome.

Maison Carree, 1-10 AD

Classicizing “Augustan” stylepseudoperipteral

Rome is transformed into a city of Carrera marble

14

Maison Carrée, Nîmes, France, ca. 1–10 CE.

Pont du Gard Nimes, France

Largest span 82’

The Fruits of Pax AugustusEarly Empire

Pont-du-Gard, 16 BCE Nimes Frances

Function: Bridge and aqueductEach person had 100 gallons of water per day

17

Pont-du-Gard, Nîmes, France, ca. 16 BCE.

18

Porta Maggiore, Rome, Italy, ca. 50 CE.

19

SEVERUS and CELER, section (left) and plan (right) of the octagonal hall of the Domus Aurea (Golden House) of Nero, Rome, Italy, 64–68 CE.

The Flavian Dynasty 69-96 CE

General Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian ruled for 25 years

STRUCTURES:

Colosseum 70-80 CE

Arch of Titus, Rome 81 CE

Spoils of Jerusalem

Triumph of Titus

Vespasian 69-79 ADGood Character: simple, honest, able

21

Portrait of Vespasian, ca. 75–79 CE. Marble, 1’ 4” high. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.

22

Portrait bust of a Flavian woman, from Rome, Italy, ca. 90 CE. Marble, 2’ 1” high. Museo Capitolino, Rome.

Portrait bust of Flavian woman, 90 AD

Portraits of people of all agesElegant and delicate figureContrast between hair and skin.

How different than republic?Change from verism to idealism

24

Coliseum: Flavian Amphitheater 70-80 CE

Former site of Nero’s Domus Aurea

Held 50,000 spectatorsGames for 100 days runningGladiators, animal combats, dead Christians

Colosseum: Flavian Amphitheater 70-80 CE

Exterior travertine marble, interior concrete

Unification of the multistoried façade

ARCH COLUMN construction Used 3 orders of architecture: Tuscan Doric, Ionic and CorinthianEquivalent to 16 stories tall

76 entrances

Elliptical shape, concentric circles, banked seats with valerium

Ground level First level

2nd level 3rd level

Sequence based on the proportion of the orders

Roman DoricIonic

Corinthian

28

Aerial view of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Rome, Italy, ca. 70–80 CE.

Interior barrel and groin vaults

Arch of Titus, 81 CE

• Triumphal Arch:– Commemorative– celebrate military victories,

propaganda for ruler

• Engaged columns

• Composite capitals:– Corinthian and Ionic mixed

31

Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE.

Spandrels; Arch Titus

Spandrels: area between the curve of the arch and the framePersonified Victories: (Nike)winged women as in Greek art

33

Spoils of Jerusalem, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE. Marble, 7’ 10” high.

Triumph of Titus, relief panel from Arch of Titus, 81 AD Allegorical

First incident of divine and human interact on an official Roman relief.

Titus in the chariot with VictoryPersonifications of Honor and Valor below- mixture of divine and human figures on an official governmental relief

35

Triumph of Titus, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE. Marble, 7’ 10” high.

36

Aerial view of Timgad (Thamugadi), Algeria, founded 100 CE.

Trajan: The First Spanish Emperor 98CE

He became all things to all people: popular

Instituted Social Programs

He and Augustus became the yardsticks for success

Goal of all Emperors: Felicior Augusto, Melior Traiano

luckier than Augustus, better than Trajan

The Forum of Trajan; Architect Apollodorus of DamascusRome 112 CE

Rome’s greatest forum to glorify Emperor Trajan

Huge Basilica rather than temple dominates the colonnaded square.

Celebration of victory over the Dacians

39

APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. (James E. Packer and John Burge). 1) Temple of Trajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 3) libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) forum, 6) equestrian statue of Trajan.

1

2

3

3

4

6

5

40

Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE.

41

42

43

44

APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, aerial view of the Markets of Trajan, Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE.

45

Trajan’s Markets, Reconstruction

47

APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, interior of the great hall, Markets of Trajan, Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE.

48

Arch of Trajan, Benevento, Italy, ca. 114–118 CE.

Relief panelsBillboard functionAdvertise Emperors achievements

Trajan granting land

Arch Relief: Trajan distributing largess to the poor

Funerary Relief of a Circus Official, Ostia, Italy 110-130 CE Marble 1’8”

Handshake=marriageStatue: not living Continuous narration

How were the rules of classical design ignored?

Distorted perspectiveCommon ground lineOut of proportionUnnatural movementcrowded

Hadrian as General, Israel 130-138 AD 2’11” high, bronze

Successor to Trajan; also Spaniard

Age 49 forever

Synthesis of the real and the ideal

Power restrained

Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118 – 125 CE.54

55

Interior: Revolutionary use of space

57

Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.

Metamorphis from real to virtual -earth to heavens

Pantheon: all the godsInterior orb of the earth

7 planets: seven nichesDome: vault of the heavens

27’d. oculus-the sunstars in the

coffers

60

Al-Khazneh (“Treasury”), Petra, Jordan, second century CE.

Al- Khazneh “Treasury” Petra, Jordan, 2nd cent. CE

Classical architecture

Disregard for rules

Uneven spacing on columns

Pediment?

Split entablature

Dynamic patterns of light and shade

“Baroque”

62

Funerary relief of a vegetable vendor, from Ostia, Italy, second half of second century CE. Painted terracotta, 1’ 5” high, respectively. Museo Ostiense, Ostia.

63

Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, 8’ 1 1/2” high. Musei Vaticani, Rome.

64

Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, 8’ 1 1/2” high. Musei Vaticani, Rome.

65

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE. Bronze, 11’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

The Antonines 138-192 CE

Peaceful Succession: from Hadrian Antoninus Pius, 23 yrs, Marcus Aurelius

138-Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius (age 51)

Antoninus adopted Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius

• Emperor /Philosopher

Marcus Aurelius

Turning point in art history

Classical style being challenged

Beyond Republican verism- exposure of the soul

His personality appears

End of Antonine DynastyCommodus as Hercules 191-192 CE marble

CommodusSon of Marcus AureliusDecadent and insaneAssassinated

Septimius Severus takes powerAfrican Born General

70

Portrait of Caracalla, ca. 211–217 CE. Marble, 1’ 2” high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

71

Painted portrait of Septimius Severus and his family, from Egypt, ca. 200 CE. Tempera on wood, 1’ 2” diameter. Staatliche Museen, Berlin.

Baths of Caracalla Rome Italy 212 AD-216• Exercise• Lecture halls• libraries• Conduct Business• Opera performances

73

74

Plan of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216 CE. 1) natatio, 2) frigidarium, 3) tepidarium, 4) caldarium, 5) palaestra.

Roman Portraiture

Augustus – 27 BC-14 AD – A more idealized portrait.

Caracalla – 217 AD – A highly realistic portrait.

76

Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, relief from the Arch of Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, Libya, 203 CE. Marble, 5’ 6” high. Castle Museum, Tripoli.

The Third Century: Soldier Emperors235-284CE

Soldier emperors for the next 70 years

Troubled times-out of controlDeath by assassination- frequently

Little building activityArt expressed general/symbolic qualitiesSimplified and geometric formsDefensive building

Increased demand for engravers & sculptors

Designing coinsBusts of ever changing emperors

79

Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, from Rome, Italy, 251–253 CE. Bronze, 7’ 11” high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, Rome , Italy 251-253 7’-11”

How does it reflect the art of the “soldier emperors”?

Heroic Nudity

Wrestlers body

Not Greek Idealism-

Image of brute force

81

Battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), from Rome, Italy, ca. 250–260 CE. Marble, 5’ high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Rome.

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus, 250-260, marble 5’ tall What aspects would define this as Late Roman Empire art?

Battle scene between Roman and Goths

83

Sarcophagus of a philosopher, ca. 270–280 CE. Marble, 4’ 11” high. Vaticani, Rome.

84

Restored view (top) and plan (bottom) of the Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon, third century CE.

The Four Tetrachs 305 CE porphyry, 4’3” high Saint Marks Venice

Characteristics of Roman sculpture in 4th century

Cubic heads

Squat bodies

schematic drapery

Shapeless bodies

Emotionless masks

ICONIC

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy284-306 CE

• Division of the Roman Empire into West and East– Diocletian: Augustus of the East– Power sharing “rule by four”

• Division continued throughout the Middle Ages; – Latin west– Byzantine (Greek)East

• What do these statues tell us about the rule of the four tetrachs?

– No indiv. identity– Embracing each other

87

Portraits of the four tetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca. 305 CE. Porphyry, 4’ 3” high. Saint Mark’s, Venice.

Restored view of the palace of Diocletian, Split, Croatia, ca. 298-306.88

Arch of Constantine 312-315 CE Rome

Reuse of statues and reliefs

From Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius

Why?

Decline in creativity

Association with “good” emperors

Continuity of the empire

90

Arch of Constantine (south side), Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE.

• Commemorates defeat of Maxentius

Constantine (in center without head) addressing the people.

What stylistic changes do you see?

94

Distribution of largess, detail of the north frieze of the Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE. Marble, 3’ 4” high.

95

Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca. 315–330 CE. Marble, 8’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

Constantine 306-337

313:Issued Edict of Milan- no persecution of ChristiansThe beginning of the Middle Ages

324: Founded New Rome: Constantinople

325: Christianity becomes the official religion

Late Antique Style – c.284 - 325 AD

Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337 AD) Initiates many major changes:

•Recognizes the new religion of Christianity. Gives freedom for Christians to worship.• Moves away from the classical style.• Changes the scale and materials of some sculpture.• Borrows reliefs from previous “good” Emperors. These are called ‘Spolia’

Coins with portraits of Constantine. Nummus (left), 307 CE. Billon, diameter 1”. American Numismatic Society, New York. Medallion (right), ca. 315 CE. Silver, diameter 1”. Staatliche Munzsammlung, Munich.

99

The Late Empire 192-337CE The Fall of Rome

Lack of order and challenges to authority

Under attack on all fronts-military important

Economy in decline

Bureaucracy disintegrating

Decline of state religion :moving from a pagan to a Christian world

Rome: Date of Its Decline and Fall

• Edward Gibbon fixes the date of the fall in 476 CE, when Odoacer, a Germanic officer in the Roman army overthrew the last emperor Romulus Augustulus

• Odoacer leads the “Barbarians at the Gates”

• Others fix the date at 410 CE with the First Sack of Rome, a siege led by another Germanic officer Alaric; lack of food induced Alaric’s army induced it to leave

• Alaric died in 411, after his forces left

• Dates vary from 410 CE to as recent as 1453, when Constantinople fell to the Turks; clearly this is a matter of definition

Rome: Decline and Fall

This is a complex issue

•The Edict of Milan of 313 CE allowed Christians freedom of worship and toleration became official policy

•The state religion of the empire itself was Christianity by the end of the fourth century

•When the fall finally came, Christianity was established in Rome

•Rome was divided into the West and the East in 286 as an administrative convenience, but set the stage for the Eastern and Western churches.

Thomas Couture, Romans in the Decadence of the Empire (1847).

103

Factors Involved in the Fall of Rome

• Christianity: Rome proved unable to resist the spread of Christianity despite persecution, partly because of its widespread appeal (details in the next presentation on roots of Christianity)

• Bread and circuses (including gladiator contests at the coliseum) were used to support and entertain the returning soldiers after the conquests ended

• Moral and political decline: The emperor as office became a source of wealth, corruption, and an object of contention between armed factions

• Social conditions: most Romans lived in poverty as the urban infrastructure declined

• Division of the empire: the empire was divided into east (Greek) and west (Latin) by Diocletan in 296 CE

• Several explanations, not just one, satisfactorily explain the decline.

Conclusion

• Romans were imperialists first and republicans second

• Even the Republican era was one of conquests in the Italian peninsula—much like manifest destiny in the United States during the 19th century

• Much of the themes emphasize war

and conquest

• The arts mostly had a practical side

• Toward the end of the era, wealth mattered more than duty that had marked Rome’s earlier years

• The insecurity of the latter years also opened the populace to new ideologies: mystical cults, revivals of older beliefs from Egypt—and Christianity

106

107

108

109

110