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CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
In the last four decades of the 20th century, agricultural production was all about
quantity, which sparked many economic miracles in Asia. This large-scale, technological
approach to agricultural development caused farmers to give traditional varieties in favor of
high-yielding varieties, monocropping, and use of amounts of inorganic fertilizers and which are
subsidized by the government through its various agricultural programs.1
Eventually, decades of unfavorable trends on the effects of intensive agriculture on
environmental sustainability and on human health have triggered a shift from quantity-driven
to quality-driven agricultural production. The 21st century saw a growing recognition of the
"techno-fix" approach as not the only solution to agricultural problems.2
Thus, concepts like sustainable development, sustainable agriculture, food safety, and
good agricultural practices (GAPs) as well as the international agreements, protocols,
guidelines, and standards to promote positive effects on the so-called public goods to the
environment and human health have increasingly become the focus of government and
nongovernmental efforts.
1 Gicana 2001; Mendoza 19972 Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] n.d.
The World Food Summit Plan of Action has recognized the importance of appropriate
input technologies, farming techniques, and other sustainable methods such as organic farming
to reduce environmental degradation while making agriculture profitable to small holders.
The productivity of a region's farms is important for many reasons. Increasing the
productivity of farms affect the region's prospects for growth and competitiveness on the
agricultural market likewise to income distribution, savings, and labor migration. An increase in
a region's agricultural productivity implies a more efficient distribution of scarce resources. As
farmers adopt new techniques, they become more productive and benefit as compared to
farmers who are not productive enough will exit the market and give up farming.
As a region's farms become more productive, its comparative advantage in agricultural
products increases, which means that it can produce agricultural goods at a lower cost. As a
result farmers are more empowered to till the soil and produce more harvest. If a farmer gets
enough profit from the soil, he will most likely gain satisfaction in cultivating, that leads to
increase in cultivation and means higher food production.
In addition, the same can help alleviate poverty in poor and developing countries,
where agriculture often employs the greatest portion of the population. As farms become more
productive, the wages earned by those who work in agriculture increase. At the same time,
food prices decrease and food supplies become more stable. Laborers therefore have more
money to spend on food as well as other products. This also leads to agricultural growth.
People see that there is a greater opportunity to earn a living by farming and are attracted to
agriculture either as owners, laborers, or farmers themselves.
It is not only the people employed in agriculture benefit from the increase in agricultural
productivity. Those employed in other sectors also enjoy lower food prices and a more stable
food supply. Their wages may also increase. Agricultural productivity is becoming increasingly
important as the world population continues to grow.
The Philippine Agricultural Industry
Agricultural Geography
In the late 1980s, nearly 8 million hectares over 25 percent of total land were under
cultivation, 4.5 million hectares in field crops, and 3.2 million hectares in tree crops. Population
growth reduced the amount of arable land per person employed in agriculture from about one
hectare during the 1950s to around 0.5 hectare in the early 1980s. Growth in agricultural
output had to come largely from multi-cropping and increasing yields. In 1988 double-cropping
and intercropping resulted in 13.4 million hectares of harvested areas, a total that was
considerably greater than the area under cultivation. Palay (unhusked rice) and corn, the two
cereals widely grown in the Philippines, accounted for about half of total crop area. On the
other hand, 25 percent of the production areas were utilized for coconut, sugarcane, pineapple,
and banana plantation.3
Rice and the Green Revolution
Rice is the most important food crop, a staple food in most of the country. It is produced
extensively in Luzon, the Western Visayas, Southern Mindanao, and Central Mindanao. In 1989
nearly 9.5 billion tons of palay were produced. In 1990 palay accounted for 27 percent of value
added in agriculture and 3.5 percent of GNP. Per hectare yields have generally been low in
3 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/60.htm
comparison with other Asian countries. Since the mid-1960s, however, yields have increased
substantially as a result of the cultivation of high-yielding varieties developed in the mid-1960s
at the International Rice Research Institute located in the Philippines. The proportion of
"miracle" rice in total output rose from zero in 1965-66 to 81 percent in 1981-82. Average
productivity increased to 2.3 tons per hectare (2.8 tons on irrigated farms) by 1983. By the late
1970s, the country had changed from a net importer to a net exporter of rice, albeit on a small
scale.
This "green revolution" was accompanied by an expanded use of chemical inputs. Total
fertilizer consumption rose from 668 tons in 1976 to 1,222 tons in 1988, an increase of more
than 80 percent. To stimulate productivity, the government also undertook a major expansion
of the nation's irrigation system. The area under irrigation grew from under 500,000 hectares in
the mid-1960s to 1.5 million hectares in 1988, almost half of the potentially irrigable land.
In the 1980s, however, rice production encountered problems. Average annual growth
for 1980-85 declined to a mere 0.9 percent, as contrasted with 4.6 percent for the preceding
fifteen years. Growth of value added in the rice industry also fell in the 1980s. Tropical storms
and droughts, the general economic downturn of the 1980s, and the 1983-85 economic crises
all contributed to this decline. Crop loans dried up, prices of agricultural inputs increased, and
palay prices declined. Fertilizer and plant nutrient consumption dropped 15 percent. Farmers
were squeezed by rising debts and declining income. Lands devoted to rice production, leveled
during the latter half of the 1970s, fell an average of 2.4 percent per annum during the first half
of the 1980s, with the decline primarily in marginal, non-irrigated farms. As a result, in 1985,
the last full year of the Marcos regime, the country imported 538,000 tons of rice. The situation
improved somewhat in the late 1980s, and smaller amounts of rice were imported. However, in
1990 the country experienced a severe drought. Output fell by 1.5 percent, forcing the
importation of an estimated 400,000 tons of rice.4
Coconut Farming in the Philippines
The Philippines is the world's second largest producer of coconut products, after
Indonesia. In 1989 it produced 11.8 million tons. In 1989, coconut products, coconut oil, copra
(dried coconut), and desiccated coconut accounted for approximately 6.7 percent of Philippine
exports. About 25 percent of cultivated land was planted in coconut trees, and it is estimated
that between 25 percent and 33 percent of the population was at least partly dependent on
coconuts for their livelihood. Historically, the Southern Tagalog and Bicol regions of Luzon and
the Eastern Visayas were the centers of coconut production. In the 1980s, Western Mindanao
and Southern Mindanao also became important coconut-growing regions.
In the early 1990s, the average coconut farm was a medium-sized unit of less than four
hectares. Owners, often absentee, customarily employed local peasants to collect coconuts
rather than engage in tenancy relationships. The villagers were paid on a piece-rate basis.
Those employed in the coconut industry tended to be less educated and older than the average
person in the rural labor force and earned lower-than-average incomes.
Land devoted to cultivation of coconuts increased by about 6 percent per year during
the 1960s and 1970s, a response to devaluations of the peso in 1962 and 1970 and increasing
world demand. Responding to the world market, the Philippine government encouraged
processing of copra domestically and provided investment incentives to increase the
construction of coconut oil mills. The number of mills rose from twenty-eight in 1968 to sixty-
4 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/65.htm
two in 1979, creating substantial excess capacity. The situation was aggravated by declining
yields because of the aging of coconut trees in some regions.
When coconut prices began to fall in the early 1980s, pressure mounted to alter
the structure of the industry. In 1985 the Philippine government agreed to dismantle the
United Coconut Oil Mills as part of an agreement with the IMF to bail out the Philippine
economy. Later 1988 United States law requiring foods using tropical oils to be labeled
indicating the saturated fat content had a negative impact on an already ailing industry and
gave rise to protests from coconut growers that similar requirements were not levied on oils
produced in temperate climates.5
The Sugar Industry in the Philippines
From the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-1970s, sugar was the most important
agricultural export of the Philippines, not only because of the foreign exchange earned, but also
because sugar was the basis for the accumulation of wealth of a significant segment of the
Filipino elite. The principal sugarcane-growing region is the Western Visayas, particularly the
island of Negros. In 1980 the region accounted for half the area planted in cane and two-thirds
of the production of sugar. Unlike the cultivation of rice, corn, and coconuts, sugarcane is
typically grown on large farms or haciendas. In the mid-1980s, more than 60 percent of total
production and about 80 percent of Negros's output came from farms twenty-five hectares or
larger. Countrywide, tenancy arrangements existed for approximately half the sugarcane farms;
however, they were generally the smaller ones, averaging 2.5 hectares in size and accounting
for only slightly more than 20 percent of land planted in the crop. Elsewhere, laborers were
employed, generally at very low wages. A survey undertaken in 1990 by the governor of Negros
Occidental found that only one-third of the island's sugar planters were paying the then-
5 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/63.htm
mandated minimum wage of P72.50 per day. The contrast between the sumptuous lifestyles of
Negros hacenderos and the poverty of their workers, particularly migrant laborers known
as sacadas, epitomized the vast social and economic gulf separating the elite in the Philippines
from the great mass of the population.
In the 1950s and 1960s, sugar accounted for more than 20 percent of Philippine exports.
Its share declined somewhat in the 1970s and plummeted in the first half of the 1980s to
around 7 percent. The sugar industry was in a crisis. Part of the problem was a depressed
market for sugar. A dramatic increase in the world price of sugar had occurred in 1974, peaking
at US$0.67 per pound in December of that year.
Historically, the Philippines was protected to a certain degree from vicissitudes of the
world price of sugar by the country's access to a protected and subsidized United States
market. In 1913 the United States Congress established free trade with its Philippine colony,
providing Filipino sugar producers unlimited access to the American market. Later, in 1934, a
quota system on sugar was enacted and remained in force until 1974. Although Philippine sugar
exports to the United States were restricted during this period, the country continued to enjoy
a relatively privileged position.
The decline of the sugar industry was complicated by the monopolization that took
place during the martial law period, a process not dissimilar to what occurred in the coconut
industry. In 1976, as a reaction to the precipitous decline in sugar prices, Marcos established
the Philippine Sugar Commission (Philsucom), placing at the head his close associate Roberto
Benedicto. Philsucom was given sole authority to buy and sell sugar, to set prices paid to
planters and millers, and to purchase companies connected to the sugar industry. A bank was
set up in 1978, and the construction of seven new sugar mills was authorized at a cost of US$40
million per mill.
By the 1980s, considerable resistance to Philsucom and its trading subsidiary, the
National Sugar Trading Corporation (Nasutra) had been generated. As with the monopoly in the
coconut industry, the government acquiesced in its 1985 agreement with the IMF to dismantle
Nasutra. But the damage had been done. In a study undertaken by a group of University of the
Philippines economists, losses to sugar producers between 1974 and 1983 were estimated to
be between P11 billion and P14 billion. Aquino established the Sugar Regulatory Authority in
1986 to take over the institutions set up by Benedicto.6
The presented facts above shows a very striking pattern. It shows that the farmers who
till land and cultivates it suffers more especially during the decline of the agricultural industry.
As the world market suffers depression, the prices of the commodities also suffers. To mitigate
the effects, the farmers take burden of short changes. Injustice is very evident in the preceeding
paragraphs. Such injustice is a challenge for the government to address, thus the enactment of
an Agrarian Reform.
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
During the Spanish era, the relationship between landowners and tenants was governed by
the Old Civil Code, particularly by the Special Provisions for Rural Leases. When the Spaniards
came to the Philippines, they introduced the concept of encomienda also known as the Royal
Land Grants. This concept grants land to Encomienderos who defend the lands they were
granted. The native Filipino, however, pays their tribute to the Encomienderos for the security
6 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/64.htm
and their maintenance of peace and order.7 This system was abused by the landowners, and
thus, in turn, the tribute soon become land lessee to these powerful landowners, and the
natives who cultivated their land before the Spaniards came in the Philippines in freedom, were
transformed into a mere share tenants, making them sort of a slave to their own native land.
This is what we called the feudal system which was introduced to the native by the Spaniards,
where the Spaniards held their land in return for promising loyalty, and the natives that provide
their services such as working or fighting for their lord.8
During the American regime, the Rice Share Tenancy Act9 was promulgated. This law
regulated the relationship between the lessee and the lessor on rice lands. After sometime, a
law was passed to regulate the relationship between the landlords and the tenants on lands
planted to sugar cane, known as the Sugar Tenancy Act.10 Thereafter, it was commonwealth
period, and Commonwealth Act 53 was passed. The next law that was passed was
Commonwealth Act 178 and then followed by Commonwealth Act 271 amending Act No. 4113
that was passed during American regime, and then followed by Commonwealth Act 461 for the
security of the agricultural tenants which was later on, amended by Commonwealth Act 608.
Republic Act No. 34 was passed after the declaration of the independence, but was later
on amended by Republic Act No. 2263. Thereafter, Republic Act No. 1400 also known as the
Agricultural Land Reform Code which was passed on August 13, 1963. It was followed by an
amendment through the enactment of Code of Agrarian Reform or Republic Act No. 6389 which
abolished the share tenancy.
In the past 26 years in the Philippines, the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program,
which is more commonly known as Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law or Republic Act 6657, 7 The CARP History by Francis Arvy8 The Feudal System9 Act 405410 Act 4113
was passed under the administration of Corazon C. Aquino through Proclamation 131 and
Executive Order 22911 on June 22, 1987 and was enacted on June 10, 1988. This law is about the
redistribution of private and public agricultural lands or large estates to help the beneficiaries
to own their own lands, so that the farmers, holders or beneficiaries of this law will become
more productive12, instead of just being the cultivator of somebody else’s land and be a tenant
for the rest of their lives. Its purpose is to help independent farmers to achieve equality in
terms of income and opportunities.
Certain provisions of Republic Act No. 6657 were amended by Republic Act No. 788113
which became a law on July 25, 1994. It was further amended by Republic Act No. 7905 14 to
strengthen the implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program. It was, again,
amended further by Republic Act No. 853215 to strengthen further the Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Program by providing augmentation fund therefor, and amending for the purpose of
Section 63 of the Republic Act No. 6657, otherwise known as “The CARP Law of 1988”.
In the 21st century, July 27, 2009, the law, again, was amended by Republic Act No.
970016 to strengthen the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program, to extend the acquisition
and distribution of all agricultural lands, and to institute necessary reforms, and to amend the
certain provisions of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program of 1988.
The agrarian reform program is founded on the right of farmers and regular farm
workers who are landless, to own directly or collectively the lands they till or, in the case of
11 Proclamation 131 and Executive Order 22912 Atty. Jennifer Asuncion13 RA 788114 RA 790515 RA 853216 RA 9700
other farm workers, to receive just share in the fruits of their suffering.17 Its purpose is also to
promote social justice and industrialization, providing the mechanism for its implementation,
and for other purposes. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program’s vision is to have an
equitable land ownership with empowered agrarian reform beneficiaries who can effectively
manage their economic and social development to have a better quality of life.18
Today, in 2015, the effectivity of this law has ceased to exist. It has become a part of the
history of the Philippines, by helping our farmers and farm workers to at least own their own
lands, to be benefitted by prosperity it offers to our farmers, and to aid, help, and assist the
welfare of our farmers.
17 DAR AO 02-0918 Department of Agrarian Reform, Kagawaran ng Repormang Pansakahan Vision
CHAPTER II.
METHODOLOGY
Objective of the Study
The researchers aimed to present a study on the different methods to increase soil
productivity in relation to agrarian reform and protection of the soil integrity ensuring
sustainabilty in relation to environmental conservation.
Research Design and Methodology
In order to come up with the journal, the researcher made use of the Descriptive Method
and Critical Discourse Anlysis Method. Gravetter and Forzano (as cited in Grothkopf, 2009)
defined descriptive method as measuring a variable or set of variable as they exist naturally,
with the purpose of describing the variables as they exist. In this study the situation to be
described refers to the effects of farming methods that affects the environment. Survey research
involves acquiring information from peer reviewed literatures, laws, and other references
pertaining to agricultural industry.
Limitations
The findings of the study shall be true only to Philippine setting from the date of the
data gathering to wit November 15, 2015- December 5, 2015. The study primarily based on
available literatures and references.
CHAPTER III
RESULTS, DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Soil Degradation
Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality caused by its improper use, usually for
agricultural, pastural, industrial or urban purposes. Soil degradation is a serious global
environmental problem and may be exacerbated by climate change. It encompasses physical,
chemical and biological deterioration.19
About 6 million hectares of agricultural land worldwide become unproductive every
year due to the various soil degradation processes. Countries in Asia and Africa that depend
upon agriculture as the engine of economic growth are believed to suffer the greatest impact of
soil degradation. In the Philippines, soil degradation is one of the most serious ecological
problems today. Also, the National Action Plan (NAP) for 2004 to 2010 identified soil
degradation as a major threat to food security in the country. NAP reported that about 5.2
million hectares are seriously degraded resulting to 30 to 50% reduction in soil productivity.
In a review paper on the problem of soil degradation in the Philippines published in the
Annals of Tropical Research vol. 31, we (Asio et al)20 revealed that soil erosion is the most
widespread process of soil degradation and is also the most studied in the country. Other
important but less studied soil degradation processes include loss of nutrients and organic
matter, salinization, acidification, pollution, compaction, and subsidence. Studies reviewed have
shown that the widespread degraded upland soils possess chemical and physical constraints for
19 Soil degradation, NSW Environment & Heritage www.environment.nsw.gov.au/soildegradation/ september, 201520 Asio VB, Jahn R, Perez FO, Navarrete IA, and Abit SM Jr. 2009. A review of soil degradation in the Philippines. Annals of Tropical Research 31: 69-94
crop growth like acidic or calcareous pH, low organic matter and nutrient contents, shallow
solum, presence of toxic substances and compaction.
B. Providing Soil Fertility
Providing soil fertiiity is the basis for sustained crop production. Closely tied to other
services, such as food production and greenhouse gas mitigation, is soil fertility. Fertility must
be enhanced with greater quantities of external inputs, such as fertilizers, and the system is less
able to withstand extreme events, such as drought. These are extreme intervention for fully
degrade agricultural lands.
That said, soil fertility is not a panacea for reducing the environmental impacts of
agricultural systems; for example, nitrate, production was as high in our biologically based
system as it was in the less fertile conventional system (Robertson et al. 2000).
Soil fertility has many components. Physically, fertility is related to soil structure—
porosity, aggregate stability, waterholding capacity, and erosivity. Its chemical constituents
include soil organic matter, pH, base saturation, cation exchange, and nutrient pools.
Biologically, soil fertility is related to food web complexity, pest and pathogen suppression, and
the delivery of mineralizable nutrients. Most of these components are interrelated, which
frustrates attempts at a comprehensive definition of soil fertility or soil quality.
At heart, however, soil fertility is the capacity of a soil to meet plant growth needs; all
else equal, more-fertile soils support higher rates of primary production. Building soil fertility is
closely tied to building soil organic matter: A century of work at Rothamsted and other
longterm agricultural research sites (Rasmussen et al. 1998) has shown positive associations
with most—if not all—of the indicators noted above. Relative to the conventional system, soil
organic matter increased in the no-till, reduced-input, and biologically based systems (Syswerda
et al. 2011).
A major reason for soil carbon gain in these systems is slower decomposition rates as a
result of organic matter protection within soil aggregates, particularly within larger size classes.
Grandy and Robertson (2007) found greater soil carbon accumulation in KBS LTER ecosystems
with higher rates of large (2-8 millimeters) aggregate formation. The formation of large
aggregates and carbon accumulation was greatest in the successional and mature forest
systems and lowest in the conventional system; the biologically based, no-till, and perennial
systems were intermediate.
Aggregates in smaller size classes (up to 0.25 millimeters) expressed the opposite trend.
That the no-till system accumulated carbon and primarily in larger, more vulnerable aggregates
is no surprise (West and Post 2002, Six et al. 2004); however, carbon and large aggregate
accumulation in the heavily tilled reduced-input and biologically based systems was unexpected
and likely related to the inclusion of leguminous cover crops in these rotations. Legumes may
increase aggregate stability through greater polysaccharide production and different microbial
communities (Haynes and Beare 1997). That the no-tül system better withstood the 2012 US
drought than did the other systems (no-tül system, mean = 1.9 Mg per ha of soybean grain,
standard error of the mean [SEM] =0.12; conventional system, mean =1.3 Mg of soybean grain
per ha, SEM = 0.05) suggests a clear no-till benefit to soil fertility even when external inputs are
high. Greater moisture stores in the better-structured no-tül sous foüowing the last significant
rainfall before the drought (figure 6), equivalent to approximately 4 centimeters of stored
water in the root zone, underscores the value of no-till agriculture to the 2012 soybean
production. This enhanced water storage capacity may also help explain greater no-tül
productivity in more normal years; on average, yields in the no-tül system were 9%-21% higher
than they were in the conventional system (figure 1). In the reduced-input system, sou fertüity
allowed competitive yields (figure 1 ) with only a fraction of the nitrogen and other inputs.
C. Providing clean water. The quality of water draining from agricultural watersheds is a
longstanding environmental problem. Sediment, phosphorus, and nitrate are important
pollutants that leave crop land and lead to compromised groundwater, surface freshwaters,
and marine ecosystems worldwide.
D. Providing greenhouse gas mitigation. Agriculture is directly responsible for
approximately 10%-14% of total annual global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (Smith
P et al. 2007). This is largely the result of N2O emitted from soil and manure and from methane
emitted by ruminant animals and burned crop residues. Including the greenhouse gas costs of
agricultural expansion, agronomic inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, and postharvest
activities, such as food processing, transport, and refrigeration, bring agriculture's footprint to
26%-36% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (Barker et al. 2007). Mitigating some
portion of this footprint could therefore significantly contribute to climate stabilization
(Caldeira et al. 2004), as might the production of cellulosic biofuels if they were used to offset
fossil fuel use (Robertson et al. 2008). Global warming impact analyses can reveal the source of
all significant greenhouse gas costs in any given cropping system and, therefore, the full
potential for management to mitigate emissions.
In response to the green house effect of agriculture, the Philippines enacted a law
supporting organic farming. In fact, the government has mandated the Department of
Agriculture to allot at least P1 billion this year to exclusively promote the organic agriculture
programs in the country. President Benigno Aquino III believes that organic agriculture is the
way of the future not only to address hunger but also to sustain health and environment. 21
As chemical farming destroys the environment, OPTA says beneficial micronutrients in
the soil that are needed by a human body are also killed such as calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc,
21 hvcdp.da.gov.ph/vegetables
copper, selenium, manganese and many others. The absence of these essential health elements
in the planting grounds may cause malnutrition as the soil can no longer produce foods that are
adequately supplied with important nutrients.
Although the Philippines has not resorted to completely ban the use of synthetic
chemicals in animal farming, the country is set to go all natural in agriculture through Republic
Act 10068 that aims to strengthen the state’s policy to promote, propagate, develop further
and implement the practice of organic agriculture. Through the law, the farming community are
hoped to ensure and cumulatively condition and enrich the fertility of the soil, increase farm
productivity, reduce pollution and destruction of the environment, prevent depletion of natural
resources and protect the health of the farmers and of the general public. Moreover, going
organic agriculture is an opportunity for the country for the organically grown commodities in
the world market which would cost US$40 billion to US$70 billion in 2012.22
C. Farming Innovations to Increase Soil Productivity
The Philippines rely heavily on agricultre, sadly multiple methods on farming have
caused soil degradation. While agrarian reform has paved way to equal distribution of
agricultural lands, the following farming methods are reccomendations in the cultivation of the
land to increase soil productivity.
a. Organic Farming
A news report (Philippine Star 13 January 2005) estimated the share of organic farming
in Philippine agriculture at one percent, as no official data exist at present. NGOs have been
22 mypilipinas.com/philippines-agriculture
leading the promotion of organic farming in the Philippines. In Negros Occidental, central
Philippines, the NGO Broad Initiatives for Negros Development, Inc. (BIND) has been helping
farmers use vermicomposting as fertilizer and herbal plants to ward off farm pests to produce
organic rice and vegetables. They also produce organic livestock.
In the cold highlands of Benguet, organic Arabica coffee is being grown through the
partnership of a private firm, Figaro Foundation Corp., and the Benguet State University. The
country's organically produced muscovado sugar, fresh banana, banana chips, desiccated
coconut, and coconut oil, among other products, are already being exported to Europe, Japan,
the United States, and Canada (Philippine Star 13 January 2005). The OCCP has certified a
number of farms growing organic chicken, herbals, rice, vegetables, and vinegar around the
country. The organic market in the Philippines is estimated at P250 million and its demand is
growing at 20 percent annually (Philippine Star 13 January 2005).
The following are some of the practices which support organic farming:
Use of new disease-free planting materials of banana. Since 2002, smallholder banana
growers in selected provinces in Luzon have been planting tissue-cultured banana planting
materials that are disease-resistant, courtesy of a project collaboration of PCARRD,
International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), and the
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). The project has distributed 77,500
tissue-cultured planting materials and most of these plants are now bearing fruits, much bigger
than those borne by the farmers' previous plants grown from suckers. Very minimal incidence
of BBTV was observed in the test locations. However, grower acceptability of the produce,
especially the introduced disease-resistant varieties, will still be determined.
Trichoderma-based compost and organic fertilizer production. The national program on
rapid composting and the use of compost as fertilizer, which began in 1997, has been sustained
even after it officially ended. There are now 22 more centers to the original 23 nationwide,
producing the compost fungus activator and compost, and selling these to farmers.
Supporting the drive to promote organic farming is a good number of small and medium
enterprises producing organic fertilizers using the technology of the above-mentioned program
that have been recorded. Moreover, the scientist who developed the technology discovered
that the Trichoderma-processed compost not only improved the soil's physical and chemical
properties but also was an effective control agent for clubroot disease in cabbage.
b. Integrated plant nutrient management (IPNM)
Various studies on IPNM in the country showed sustainable high yields and
improvement in fertilizer use efficiency, leading to an improved benefit-cost ratio, specifically
for rice, corn, The researches included testing the effects of mixing inorganic fertilizers with
fresh rice straw, chicken manure, green manure like azolla and sesbania for rice; with a
combination of organic materials, lime, rock phosphate for corn; and with chicken manure and
household waste compost for vegetables.
An example of IPNS is the balanced fertilization strategy (BFS), developed by DA, FPA,
and the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM), which provides location-specific
recommendation for organic and inorganic fertilizers to sustain high crop yields over long
cropping seasons without depleting the natural resource base; provides guidelines for the
judicious use of pesticides; and promotes low-water use crops, among other things (Merilo
2001). BFS proved to be economically viable on rice farms that were half-hectare in size
(Concepcion et al.1999).
c. Watershed Management
Because agriculture has encroached upon the forestlands, the watersheds have been
consequently degraded. To help stop the further decline, PCARRD, in collaboration with DENR,
LGUs, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and the National Agriculture and Resources
Research System, has been working on projects to sustain the watersheds. Through
participatory and interdisciplinary collaborations, innovative conservation practices evolved for
the sustainable development of the fragile Manupali watershed in the area. Experiments were
done on multicropping, planting fast-growing timber species, intercropping trees with
vegetables, and using other cultural practices like fallowing, periodic pruning, and contour
farming to assess the sustainability of the agricultural production systems in the watershed
area.
d. Pest Control Methods
Crop Rotation
Pests are any kind of insect, plant disease, or weed that hurt the profits and health of
the vegetable. Insects, plant diseases, and weeds that are not harmful to your crops are not
considered pests. Plants will be better able to withstand pests if you grow different crops in
your field, or wait four years before growing the same crop on the same field. This kind of
farming is called crop rotation.
Crops that are healthy and well fed from the beginning have less chance of being ruined
by pests. Keep wide spaces between plants to help the leaves dry. Plant diseases are less likely
to spread this way. Once the growing season begins, the best way to prevent pests is to look
carefully and regularly at the crops. Check the fields often for insects, weeds, and plant disease.
When the crops are young, and when they are bearing fruit, are the times there is a need to be
especially careful to check them.
Natural Methods to Get Rid of Pests
There are natural methods on getting rid of pests which are advocated by the
Department of Agriculture. Surrounding the crops with plants that naturally keep the pest out.
Burning diseased crops so the pest won't spread to healthy crops. If the pest is an insect, use a
natural enemy--an insect that eats the pest but does not hurt your crop, to remove the pest.
e. Vermicast, Vermiculture and African Nightcrawler Worm Farming
This vermicast is a healthy compost produced from farming ANC or African Nightcrawler
worms. The worm castings or poop were collected to come up with a high-moisture-retaining
soil that is best for planting and farming both small container gardening, backyard gardening
and big lot farming in the Philippines. It is also being practiced now around the world.
f. Hydroponics
Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture and is a method of growing plants using mineral
nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. Terrestrial plants may be grown with their roots in the
mineral solution only, or in an inert medium, such as perlite or gravel. 23
Soilless Culture
Gericke originally defined hydroponics as crop growth in mineral nutrient solutions.
Hydroponics is a subset of soilless culture. Many types of soilless culture do not use the mineral
nutrient solutions required for hydroponics. Plants that are not traditionally grown in a climate
would be possible to grow using a controlled environment system like hydroponics. NASA has
also looked to utilize hydroponics in the space program. Ray Wheeler, a plant physiologist at
Kennedy Space Center’s Space Life Science Lab, believes that hydroponics will create advances
within space travel. He terms this as a bioregenerative life support system. 24
D. Rice Farming Innovations
Rice production in the country of Philippines is important to the food supply in the
country and economy. The Philippines is the 8th largest rice producer in the world, accounting
23 Anna Heiney, "Farming for the Future", nasa.gov, 8-27-0424 Manila Bulletin, Myka Basco January 7, 2015
for 2.8% of global rice production25. The Philippines was also the world's largest rice importer in
2010. Recent trend analyses indicate that the growth of the rice sector has become completely
dependent on yield improvements (David and Balisacan, 1995 and Gonzales, 1998). Yield
improvement can come in either of two ways: a) by shifting the yield frontier, i.e., breeding
varieties that have significantly higher yield potential than our current varieties, e.g., New Plant
Type; and b) by developing and promoting yield-enhancing technologies such as the use of high
quality seeds and efficient fertilizers. The first option is not attainable in the immediate future
considering that the yield potential of the majority of the newly-released varieties have not yet
surpassed the yield of IR8, which was bred in the late 1960’s. The second alternative is more
plausible because there are available yield-enhancing technologies. 26
A system of planting rice without synthetic chemical inputs but uses only organic
farming methods promises a better yield, said representatives of nonprofit organization SRI
(system of rice intensification) Pilipinas.27 SRI Pilipinas, which is composed of researchers and
scientists, encourages farmers to leave behind rice planting methods that use agrichemical
inputs and instead adopt the SRI system, a planting method developed by French Jesuit Fr.
Henri Laulanie in the 1990s.
a. Reduced seeds
Among the strategies adopted by SRI are the nonburning of rice straw, non use of
agrichemicals, reduced seeds and use of farm-produced seeds to help increase production and
protect the environment. Teodoro Mendoza, crop science professor at the University of the
Philippines, said SRI uses only 7 kilograms of seeds per hectare compared to 80 kg of seeds per
hectare in the conventional practice. In the SRI system, he said the rice plants are planted
25 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_production_in_the_Philippines26 http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6905e/x6905e0b.htm27 http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/423435/rice-planting-technique-promises-better-yield
singularly in a recommended distance of 25 x 25 centimeters while the traditional practice is to
plant several plants in every hill.
b. Singular planting
Roberto Verzola, national coordinator of SRI Pilipinas, said since the seeds are singularly
planted, they tend to grow better because there is no competition with other plants, so the
results are healthier plants capable of producing more grains. In 2006, because of concerted
efforts to adopt organic agriculture and the SRI method, the farmers’ yield increased to an
average of 5 tons per hectare compared to 3.6 tons per hectare without the SRI system, Verzola
said.
“The system was also found to be cost-effective, since production per hectare was
reduced and net income increased from P17,200 to P37,636,” SRI Pilipinas said in its brochure.
The group also cited increased employment in the rural areas with the adoption of SRI, as well
as enhancement of the ecosystem and protection of people’s health.
c. Training programs
Lucy Fisher, researcher from Cornell University and advocate of SRI, warned, however,
that the beneficial results of SRI could be achieved only if the ways and methods are all
executed right. SRI is being promoted by Central Bicol State University of Agriculture (CBSUA) in
Pili, Camarines Sur, in partnership with SRI Pilipinas and other civil society groups. CBSUA, in a
statement, said that amid intensive chemical farming and the use of high-yielding varieties all
over Bicol, SRI provides a better option for rice growers through the use of organic farming.
CBSUA has 16 trainers, with more than 500 farmers trained on organic rice farming through the
SRI system. CBSUA and SRI Pilipinas have established 22 demonstration and trial farms while
research is underway to come up with technologies and information to improve the system, the
statement added.
d. Production Constraints and Issues in the Rice Industry
Despite technological breakthroughs in rice research, farm yield levels are still way
below their maximum potential due to biological, technical, physical, socio-economic and policy
constraints.
1. Biological-technical-physical constraints
Technology plateau: After the introduction of IR 8 in the late 1960’s, which triggered the
green revolution in Asia, no genetic material introduction with the same magnitude of
technological innovation has taken place. It is generally agreed among rice scientists that the
technology plateau in rice took place in the late 1980’s.
Emergence of biotype: Rice production declined after the mid 1980’s due to the
emergence of new biological problems. The development of new strains and biotypes of rice
pests were compounded by the regular occurrences of natural calamities such as floods and
drought. Reduced hectarage, poor maintenance of irrigation facilities, urbanization, and post
harvest losses contributed to this decline.
Low technical efficiency: ‘PhilRice’ studies show that farmers have low technical
efficiency relative to the best farmer performance. Also, first generation varieties are still used
by nearly half of the farmers. Moreover, these varieties produce relatively low yield, poor grain
quality, low milling recovery, and poor tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Seeding rates are
still high at 120 to 200 kg/ha.
Problem soils and declining soil fertility: An estimated 1.2 million ha which is about one
half of the national rice hectarage, are classified as problem soils. Of the total hectarage of
problem soils, 600,000 ha have adverse water and nutrient conditions; 100,000 ha are saline-
prone; 10,000 ha are alkaline; 15,000 ha are peat soils; and 500,000 ha are acid sulphate soils.
2. Socio-economic constraints
Socio-Economic constraints are composed of farmers’ limited management capabilities
to make correct decisions to increase their yield levels (hence profit) and the unfavorable policy
environment which inhibits them from fully optimizing their decision making process. Limited
management skills of farmers: On average, there are more rice farmers in the Philippines who
have limited skills in making rice farming an agribusiness venture. The relatively low fertilizer
use and proper timing of application, accompanied by poor cultural management practices are
major sources of inefficiency.
Deteriorating terms of trade: Although nominal protection of domestic rice production
has been positive over the years, net effective protection has been declining due to higher
protection on tradable inputs and overvaluation of exchange rates. This declining incentive
implies bias against the rice sector in macro level resource allocation, and loss of benefits to
farmers at the micro level.
Lack of appropriate and adequate infrastructure: Because of limited access to credit for
processing and storage facilities, farmers are forced to sell their marketable surplus during
harvest months when prices are low. Farmers cannot wait for a good price because they do not
have a place to dry or store their rice. As a result, wholesalers dictate prices to retailers and
consumers.
Another problem is the lack of effective irrigation systems, which is primarily
constrained by: a) the substantial increase in costs for irrigation development; and b)
management problems for large scale irrigation projects.
3. Yield Potential of Released Varieties
There are different varieties of Rice. The yeild potential of the varieties depending on
their breeds. Among the three recommended hybrids, PSB Rc72H has the highest maximum
yield of 9.9 t/ha. These hybrids have a relatively lower maximum yield than the national record
because they are recommended only for specific areas in the country where they have out
yielded the inbred check by at least 12 percent.28
E. Fuit Farming Innovations
The subject of fruit and nut production deals with intensive culture of perennial plants,
the fruits of which have economic significance. It is one part of the broad subject of
horticulture, which also encompasses vegetable growing and production of ornamentals and
flowers. This article places further arbitrary limitations in that it does not encompass a number
of very important perennial fruit crops covered elsewhere, including vanilla, coffee, and the oil-
producing tung tree and oil palm.
a. Natural farming technique for the benefits of man and soil.
“Seeds and fruits are the chief, sometimes the only, food of many forest-inhabiting rodents,
birds, other mammals, even carnivores are said to eat fruits. A very large proportion of rain
forest trees have fruits or seeds attractive to mammals and birds.
28 http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6905e/x6905e0b.htm
1. Using birds.
Piles of ripe fruit and/or seed pods from indigenous plants placed randomly in an area
that needs revegetating may possibly be eaten (and the seeds dispersed) by wildlife, especially
if this is done on the edge of an existing forest. This could work for some Passiflora spp., figs,
guavas, Opuntia, some Solanaceae, some Cucurbitaceae, some Rosaceae, some Lauraceae,
some palms, some legumes e.g. rain trees, Inga spp., etc. It may be important to avoid getting
human smells on the fruit or seed pods, so it is advisable to rub topsoil or leaflitter on hands
prior to collecting and placing fruit.
Even more wildlife may be attracted to the fruit/seed pod piles if additional attractants
are added. In areas that are far from the sea, salt may be deficient, and a strong natural seasalt
solution poured on the piles may result in more animals being attracted to, and eating and
dispersing the seeds. Also, the smell and taste of diluted molasses should attract many animals,
and perhaps also diluted malt, and perhaps brewer’s or baker’s yeast. Different attractants
could be added to different piles to see what works best.
Providing artificial perches and homes/nesting sites will bring in birds etc., which will
deposit seeds below and near the perches (birds often defecate beneath their roosting perches,
and as they take off). See the AID article for more on this technique.
2. Using livestock
Livestock fed with seeds (seeds mixed in with supplementary fodder) will later disperse
and deposit some of the seeds in their manure. Up to 90% of the seeds fed to livestock may be
destroyed by chewing etc., so large numbers of small seeds fed to larger animals e.g. horses,
cattle, are likely to work best (e.g. probably many species of small-seeded legumes such as
Acacia spp., Sesbania spp., grasses, herbs etc.). Livestock can also disperse soil improvers
(again, mixed in with supplementary fodder), such as beneficial micro-organisms, deficient
nutrients, clay for sandy soils, etc., which are then deposited in their “improved” manure. In
most places this improved manure will be mixed into the soil by earthworms and/or dung
beetles, and in some places, termites.
Seeds can also be broadcast by hand or machine (but this is more labour and energy
intensive), and then trodden into the soil by the animals, to enhance the germination and
establishment of many plant species (this technique provides an opportunity to establish plant
species that have large seeds e.g. Erythrina, but also small poisonous seeds). Or, a combination
of the above, plus follow-up planting of potted plants and/or quickstick cuttings in bare/failed
areas. See the “Animal Improved dung plus seeds” treatment on the page “Animal Improved
Dung”
F. Advantages of using thses techniques
a. Plant Growth
Organic fertilizers provide nutrients necessary for plant growth, with the benefit of
being slower-acting and gentler than chemical fertilizers, so that you are less likely to overfeed
and chemically burn your plants. Organic fertilizers are not in a form that is immediately
absorbed by plants, but rather must be first broken down by soil bacteria and fungi into forms
that plants can absorb. This means that, unlike chemical fertilizers, organic fertilizers are not
easily washed away in a heavy rainstorm or irrigation session, and that the plants get the
benefit of nutrients for growth more evenly over a longer period of time rather than all at once.
b. Soil Improvement
Organic fertilizers help improve soil structure and nutrient content over time. While
chemical fertilizers simply add water-soluble chemicals which are either absorbed by the plant
roots or leach away, potentially polluting water resources, organic fertilizers add organic matter
that helps the soil to retain moisture and nutrients. Sandy soils in particular can benefit from
the addition of organic fertilizers, or from the use of organic matter like well-rotted compost
and manure used as a soil fertility additive or mulch. These latter organic matter fertilizers have
the added advantage of often being free from livestock farms, poultry farms or wood-
processing facilities which compost their discarded bedding and wood chips.
3. Some Additional Benefits
a. Slow Release of Nutrients
When fertilizers are mixed into the soil, the nutrients are absorbed from the soil by the
roots of the plant. In synthetic fertilizers, these nutrients are in ready to use form and when
mixed into the soil, can be immediately absorbed by the roots and hence, the plant. There is
however a real danger that the roots absorb more nutrients than necessary, causing the roots
and plant to burn up. On the other hand, organic fertilizers do not contain nutrients in an easily
usable form. When they are mixed into the soil, the microorganisms like bacteria that are in the
soil, have to work on the fertilizer, break it up and release the nutrients. This is a slow process
and so there is no danger that too many nutrients are ever available to the plant. As such there
is low chance for a ‘plant burn’ when organic fertilizers are used.
b. Long-term Benefits to the Soil
Chemical fertilizers are manufactured with the sole purpose of helping the growth of a
plant. As a result while they may contain a better balance of all the major nutrients that a plant
needs, they also contain certain harmful elements that can cause acidity in the soil. This can kill
the helpful microbes that live in the soil and studies indicate that long-term use of chemical
fertilizers can cause great damageto the soil. On the other hand, since organic fertilizers need
these microbes to work on them to release the nutrients, they end up stimulating the growth of
these microorganisms, ensuring long-term fertility of the soil.
c. Long-term Benefits to the Environment
Synthetic fertilizers also tend to release many chemicals into the soil that contain
nutrients helpful to soil but may also contain elements that are not easily biodegradable. These
may go on to contaminate our lands and our water. On the other hand, by definition, organic
fertilizers almost always have only biodegradable contents.
d. Cheap and Cost-Effective
Organic Fertilizers can be produced at home or on farms by using a mix of cow, sheep,
chicken, and horse manure along with wastes like leaves and dead plants. This is a great way of
getting rid of waste from your garden or farm and certainly a cheaper alternative to purchasing
chemical fertilizers.
e. Safe
When lawns and gardens are sprayed with chemical fertilizers, one has to be careful
that the family members, especially kids and pets who often play on lawns, do not ingest the
harmful chemicals. However, there is no preventing from local wildlife from being affected.
Organic fertilizers can be a safer alternative.As with all things, there is no one size fits all, and in
many instances the use of a synthetic fertilizer may prove to be more effective. However, if you
take the time to learn about your specific needs and truly understand the needs of your lawn,
turf, garden or management zone you will have a healthy, safe, water and energy efficient
landscape in no time.
Conclusion
The land has a social function, while the land owners has a social responsibility. Owners
of agricultural land have the obligation to cultivate directly or administer the lands they owned
and make it productive.29 The land is the very life of every farmer. The land is the backbone of
29 Sec2 par 14 RA 6657 or The comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1998
agriculture, the source of our basic human needs. Throughout history, it shows ups and down
of the food market. Attributed to different circumstances which leads to decreased food
production.
These circusmstances includes, drought, cyclones, and other calamities. The land being
an integral part of our environment and natural resources, it cannot be excempted from the
degrading effects of human activities. Farming has evolved from simple planting to different
complicated methods of cultivating the soil. some methods like use of pesticides even damages
the soil and lowers productivity. It is a fact that for once the soil turn stale and barren. Logic
will respond, when the soil gets barren, what then will happen to its social function?
Agrarian reform basically talks of land, the land as a natural resources which cradles life
must also be maintained as healthy as possible. The 1987 Constitution has provided that it is a
state policy to maintain a balanced and healthful ecology. This is one reason that the soil needs
to be protected.
The care of the soil is also a care of for humanity. The effects of soil degradation is
already evident in the present. There is no justification that we should ignore the situation
when its already apparent. Food shortage is a an immenet danger when we let this situation go
on. While agrarian reform adresses injustice to farmers, environmental conservation addresses
injustice to the soil.
The above cited farming mnethods and thecniques show that there are effective
methods of farming that increases soil productivity, sustainabillity and decreases soil
degradation. We conclude that these methods shoulkd be advocated by the government and
incorporate it in the agrarian reform program
Recommendations
This bird Technique is used in Australia wherein this can also be used in the Philippines,
especially in mountainous areas like the Mt. Province. While the livestock technique can easily
be used here in the Philippines.
There is a considerable yield gap between experiment station yields and farmer’s yields,
which can be narrowed by increasing productivity. Although we have already developed
technologies for increased productivity, some policy measures need to be initiated to maximize
the potential of these technologies. Researchers should continue generating new technologies
and fine tune existing ones to suit the needs of resource-poor and resource-rich farmers in the
different environments. Policy and decision makers should ensure the timely delivery of the
required inputs of production, e.g., quality seeds, fertilizer, irrigation and water to the farmers.
Lastly, there is a need to strengthen further the existing extension systems in the country.
Without an efficient extension system, technologies generated will not find their own way to
the farmers.
There are differnet farming methods proven effective to increase soil productivity. Most
are cost effective, most farmers are still following traditional amidst the advent of these
innovations. The number one consideration is that because not all farmers or tillers if the soil
have a degreein agriculture, the Department of Agriculture should be the one to disseminate
these innovations. Intensive information drive with use of the media like televisions and radio is
a good avenue. Sponsoring farmers in piloting the farming methods would also encourage the
application of these new innovations to increase soil productivity.