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A First Course
in
ESSAY WRITING
Compiled by
Hala Darwish
&Mohammed Abdel Aatty
Revised by
M.M. Enani
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
FACULTY OF ARTSCAIRO UNIVERSITY
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CONTENTS
Preface...........................................................................................................................i
PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL
Clauses: The Essential Building-Blocks...............................................................٤
Exercise on Identifying Independent Clauses ..............................................١١
Writing Concise Sentences.................................................................................. ١٥
Exercise on Writing Concise Sentences ........................................................ ٢٨
Parallel Form........................................................................................................ ٣٠
Exercises on Parallel Form ............................................................................ ٣٣
Tone: A Matter of Attitude ................................................................................. ٣٧
Spelling..................................................................................................................٤١
Exercises on Spelling ...................................................................................... ٤٨
PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL
Sentence Variety...................................................................................................٥٧
Exercise on Run-on Sentences ....................................................................... ٦٦
Consistency of Tense and Pronoun Reference...................................................٧١
Exercise on Consistency in Tense and Pronouns .........................................٧٣
Avoiding Primer Language................................................................................. ٧٥
Exercises on Avoiding Primer Language...................................................... ٧٦
Sentence-Combining Skills.................................................................................. ٧٨
Exercise on Combining Sentences................................................................. ٨٨
Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas.............................................................. ٩١
Paragraph Development & Topic Sentences .....................................................٩٧
PART III: ESSAY LEVEL
Essay Writing Tips............................................................................................. ١٠٨
Parts of an Essay................................................................................................ ١١١
Introductory Paragraphs .................................................................................. ١١١
How to Write an Essay ...................................................................................... ١٢١
Kinds of Essay .................................................................................................... ١٢٥
The Five-Paragraph Essay................................................................................ ١٣٣
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PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE
The Computer as Writing Assistant................................................................. ١٤٥
Noise Pollution.................................................................................................... ١٤٨
Smoking and quitting are matters of free will .................................................١٥٢
What Happened to the News?........................................................................... ١٥٥
PART V: WRITING TOPICS...............................................................................١٦ ١
٢
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Preface
This is a most valuable introduction to the art (and science)
of writing: it takes the student from the rudimentary to the
advanced stages of writing techniques through a precise, step-by-
step method. It is intended primarily as a teach-yourself course,
which requires a great deal of attention to detail and to guidance
on problematic points. It can, however, be taught in class by the
experienced teacher who should occasionally refer to the
corresponding linguistic structures in Arabic, as well as the
evolution of Modern Standard Arabic which has been influenced
in the twentieth century by modern European languages. The
teacher may postpone this to a later stage, when the student has
fully absorbed the technical aspects of English writing, but it is
advisable, I believe, to start as early as this course in establishing
correspondences and differences.
The value of this will soon be apparent in practice: a studentlearning to write in English may discover that the malaise of
muddled thinking in Arabic can be remedied by learning the
methods of precise writing, as precision in expression can only
come from straight thinking. What is more important, a habit of
precise expression will encourage precise thinking: a student
taught to avoid beating around the bush (to avoid circumlocution
or periphrasis) will soon realize the advantages of ‘getting to the
point’ whether the language is Arabic or English. It is in this
sense that a book in essay-writing is also a book on straightthinking.
How this course can help the student of translation should
immediately be obvious. A translator, as is commonly believed
today, is a person writing a text which aspires to be, but is never
a
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fully, an exact reproduction of another text in a differentlanguage. The ultimate test of a successful translation will not be
whether the produced text (in the target language––TL) is a
facsimile of the original text (in the source language––SL) but
whether it is comprehensible and idiomatic. Certain literary texts,
it is true, may require additional criteria, but these should not
concern the learner: what should concern him or her now is how
to produce, initially, a readable text representing all the ideas in
the SL text. And this cannot be done without learning first to
write.
An example should illustrate this point. Most users of this
book are expected to be native speakers of Arabic. They will be
thinking in Arabic, in a mixture of Egyptian Arabic and Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA) which is the modern variety of classical
Arabic used in writing. Trying to write in English will alwaysinvolve a certain amount of translation, as they will often be
looking for equivalents for some of the common words which
they would like to use in their English essays (a lexical difficulty
dealt with in the translation courses) and as they will be trying tofind the correct corresponding expressions in English for the ones
they use in Arabic, which is more important. But most important
of all, they will be trying to write a coherent essay in English thatdoes not smack too much of their ‘Arabic’ thinking. A typical
student asked to write an essay on the soap operas shown on
Egyptian television will first need to know the English words
associated with subject. These he or she must gather from texts inEnglish: the title itself must be fully understood. If helped by the
teacher or by the right dictionary, the student will first learn thatopera here is the plural of ‘opus’ which means ‘work’, and that
the specific ‘formal’ meaning of the term is a ‘play set to music’,in part or in full, with arias, recitatives, choruses, duets, trios etc.
sung to orchestral accompaniment, and usually characterized by
b
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elaborate costuming, scenery and choreography. Therefore thestudent will learn that a ‘soap opera’ is a colloquial expression
referring to a radio or television serial drama of a melodramatic,
sentimental nature, so called since many of the original sponsors
were soap companies. In other words, the student will acquire
fresh knowledge of his or her subject in English even at the stage
of preparing for thinking about it. By looking up words in a
dictionary the student will gain new expressions which precisely
fit his or her ideas on the subject, some of which may still be
inchoate or even amorphous. A key word like ‘melodramatic’will help the student approach the Egyptian television soapoperas from the right angle: a melodrama, he or she will learn, is
a drama (as a play or film or radio or television serial drama)
concerned with exaggerated conflicts and emotions, stereotyped
characters etc. The concept will be found, therefore, to involveother concepts which should help the student to think with
precision about his subject. ‘Exaggeration’ is such a new concept
revealed by the exploration of the meaning of melodramatic; and
‘stereotyped’, as an adjective, will explain why we never watchany real complex characters, any ‘round’, rich characters on
Egyptian television. ‘Types’ rather than full characters are
introduced, and mostly in black and white. The teacher may help
the student at this stage by explaining that ‘mass culture’ requires
such stereotypical handling of characters, that the viewers cannot
appreciate, or indeed accept, any shades of grey.
Such an initial exploration of the subject will teach thestudent more about soap operas than he or she can hope to learn
if confined to his or her ‘Arabic’ ideas of such serial dramas. Inthe process the student will acquire relevant vocabulary: he or
she will learn that radio listeners and television viewers are people who listen to the radio and watch television; that they
seek entertainment rather than ‘high-brow’ culture; that they
c
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welcome particularly sensational drama because of its functionas an escapist form of art; that escapist art is a means of relieving
the boredom of treadmill occupations and monotonous ways of
life; and that historical soap operas are particularly successful
with the masses because they present them with an escape route
to images of the past that perpetually change in the hands of
dramatists. Such relevant vocabulary will play a twofold
function: the student will have at his or her fingertips the
essential concepts required for dealing with the subject in English
and in Arabic. Tentative or half-formed ideas in Arabic will now be developed not through a direct translation exercise but throughan exercise in writing which turns out to be an exercise in
thinking as well. Approving or disapproving of the Egyptian
television soap operas, the student will now be better equipped to
deal with his subject: the writing exercise has proved to be an
exercise in thinking and in translation at once.
Mapping out ideas is, however, only one aspect of the
writing/translation exercise; and the acquisition of the relevant
vocabulary only a contributing factor. In writing, as Part I of this book will show, the student will learn the various types of
sentences and gain a most valuable consciousness of the way a
writer expresses himself or herself. By imitating the Englishstructures, the student will learn to acquire the habit of building
up idiomatic structures whether writing or translating. If writing,
the student will learn how to begin sometimes with phrasal
structures (a prepositional, adverbial etc. phrase) or with reducedclauses (as here) or to foreground his main subject in a main or
principal clause; and, if translating, the student will try to achievefluency in style by transforming paratactic into hypotactic
structures. Without first mastering the writing techniques atsentence level, the student will find that transformation is
difficult, if not impossible; and, having started the previous
d
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sentence with a reduced ‘if’ clause, we may now give an exampleof a run-on sentence where the ‘if’ clause is compounded with
parallel clauses leading to a beautiful climax. The writer is
Thomas Hooker, a seventeenth-century American clergyman,
noted for his good prose. The style, it will be seen, is a little ‘old’
in the sense that English at the time was still redolent of the
Shakespearean extended sentence structures, and the extended
metaphor, and when English-born Hooker left for America in
١٦٣٣ he took with him the rhetorical style revived back in
England nearly half a century later by John Milton. Here is therun-on sentence:
Now if nature should intermit her course and leave
altogether, though it were but for awhile, the observation of
her own laws; if those principal and mother elements of the
world, whereof all things in this lower world are made,
should lose the qualities which now they have; if the frame of
that heavenly arch erected over our heads should loosen and
dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their wontedmotions, and by irregular volubility turn themselves any way
as it might happen; if the prince of the lights of heaven which
now as a giant doth run his unwearied course, should, as it
were through a languishing faintness, begin to stand and to
rest himself; if the moon should wander from her beaten way,
the times and seasons of the year blend themselves by
disordered and confused mixture, the winds breathe out their
last gasp, the clouds yield no rain, the earth be defeated of
heavenly influence, the fruits of the earth pine away as
children at the withered breasts of their mother no longer
able to yield them relief––what would become of man
himself, whom these things now do all serve?
from Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity
e
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The passage is cited on pages ٤٦-٤٧ at the beginning of Part II,
and it is instructive to see how the study of this text, an exercise
in writing, will help the student to translate better and express
himself or herself better. The student will count six ‘if’s in the
run-on sentence, marking the division into six parts separated by
semi-colons, which are weaker stops than the colon (:) or the full
stop/period (.), but the last part consists of six clauses ‘powered’
by the final if. Now the translator may choose to keep the order
of the conditional structure unchanged, and so produce a text
reflecting the literary features of the original (SL) text byresorting to the same classical tricks of Arabic style as used by
Enani in his rendering of Milton’s Paradise Lost and his Arabic
Shakespearean versions; thus
اها و رت جمفقوأ ول ةعيبطلا ىلإ تيأرأتفك ةهربل ولو ةريسيلك العناصر األىلو اىتل ىلإو ؛ةصاخلا اهننسل عايصنالا نع
اىتل صي و ،ملاعلا اذه مأ ىه،ايندلا هذه ء ىفايشألا لك انم تغ لك القبة السماوية ملارفوعة لكيه ىلإو ؛ات افص تدقف ولفوق رؤوسنا لو حنال وذاب؛ وىلإ أفالك السماء لو نسيت حركتها ملاألوفة فدارت كيفما افق حول أى حمور ودون نظام؛ وىلإ ملكة أنوار السماء اىتل جترى مثل العمالق ىف
ى دون كالل ،لو أصا با ما يشبه الوهن وخلاورمسارها اليوملراحة؛ وىلإ القمر لو حنارف عن مساره ل ابل ط فق تأدبف السنة وفصهلوا لو اختلطت وامتزجت ىف نامزأ ىلإو ،دوهعملا
f
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فوضى وال نظام؛ وىلإ الرياح لو لفظت آخر أنفاسها ،وىلإلع عن ملاطر ،وىلإ األرض لو حرمت محرة ق أ ول باحسلا
لرضيع الذى حرم مذاقا ا لثم ضرألا رات مثلذف ءامسلالنبل على ضرع أمه جلااف ،فما الذى يكون من أمر اإلنسان
نفسه ،وهو الذى سخر هللا له مجيع هذه األشياء؟
انه ونع باتك نم"ىسنكلا ماظنلا نيناوق نع "
The addition of the initial Arabic question word ـت ي أ ر أ seems to
have solved the problem of the long conditional structure,
especially that it can be read more as an exclamation than as aquestion. The other ‘tricks of the trade’ used in the translation
should not concern us here, such as the change of gender in the
case of the sun, or the change of subject in the last sentence; whatis more interesting, for our purposes, is the ability to produce
equal structures in both languages that read as idiomatic texts.
Such an ability is the prerogative of the born writer alone; but it
can be learnt, and every translator should first try to understand
the structure before attempting to imitate it in writing. Perhaps
the student will learn that it is better, generally, to start with the
main clause—the subject and the verb—before giving all these
piles up clauses. Perhaps a re arrangement will be called for, so
as to make it easier for the reader to grasp the main argument—
or even the very sense of the sentence. Consider the following
horror of a sentence on the famous sprinter Carl Lewis: it occurs
on page ٤٨ and should be worthy of a detailed analysis:
g
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٥
١٠
١٥
٢٠
٢٥
Knowing that millions of people around the world would be watching in person and on television and expecting
great things from him––at least one more gold medal for
America, if not another world record––during this, his
fourth and surely his last appearance in the World
Olympics, and realizing that his legs could no longer carry
him down the runway with the same blazing speed and
confidence in making a huge, eye-popping leap that they
were capable of a few years ago when he set world records
in the ١٠٠-meter dash and in the ٤٠٠-meter relay and won a
silver medal in the long jump, the renowned sprinter and
track-and-field personality Carl Lewis, who had known
pressure from fans and media before but never, even as a
professional runner, this kind of pressure, made only a few
appearances in races during the few months before the
Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, partly because he
was afraid of raising expectations even higher and he did
not want to be distracted by interviews and adoring fans
who would follow him into stores and restaurants
demanding autographs and photo-opportunities, but mostly
because he wanted to conserve his energies and
concentrate, like a martial arts expert, on the job at hand:
winning his favourite competition, the long jump, and
bringing home another Gold Medal for the United States,
the most fitting conclusion to his brilliant career in track
and field.
It is not a run-on sentence, but too long to be dealt with as asingle sentence, though indeed it is grammatically sound. The
student should never be encouraged to write like this—but in
order not to do so, he must learn why. The reason is easy to find:
the principal clause occurs only on lines ١١-١٦, while all
h
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preceding clauses and phrases simply pave the way for it, and allthe succeeding ones give reasons for the man’s actions. Can it be
arranged differently? It can, and it must!
البارزة ىف ةيصخشلا و ،ريهشلا ءادعلا ،سيول لراك رهظي مل
ألعاب ملاضمار وملايدان ،إال مرات معدودة ىف ملاباريات اىتل
لة اىتل سبقت انعقاد دورة األلعابجرت ىف الشهور ال ي ل ق
الصيفية ىف مدينة أطالنطا والية جورجيا ،إذ كان يدرك أن ملاالنيي ىف ىتش حنأاء العملا سوف يشاهدونه ،إما شخصيا أو على
التلفزيون ،ويتوقعون منه جنإازات رائعة ،أى أن يفوز تاشاشلية ذهبية أخرى ألمريكا إن مل حيقق رقما قيا ا دي مب،اديدج ايملاع ايس
اعة رل ا ةرملل هكارتشا ءانثأ)ديكأ لك ةريخألا و(ةرود ىف
األلعاب األوليمبية العملاية حلاالية ،وكان يدرك أيضا أن ساقيه مل
السرعة سفن رامضملا ه ىف قالطنالا ىلع نيرداق ا دوعالكريبة ال تابثولا قيقىلإ حت هتعفد ىتلا ةقثلا سفنو ،ةقراخلاىت
نوات عندما حقق األرقام س ةدع ذنم نيدهاشملا نويع تلهذأ
القياسية العملاية ىف مساقة العدو ملسافة مائة متر ومساقة عدو
التتاع ملسافة ٤٠٠بثولا ةقاسم ة ىفيضف ةيل ا دي ز مبافو ،رتم الرغم.الطويل ىلع ،ا لقد أمتنع كارل لويس عن الظهور كريث
للضغ لبق نم ضرع هنأ نمنمو هيعجشم نم هيل ع ةاقلملا طو لك الضغوط لص ن ملإو ،اف رت حم ء ا دع هرابتعا مالعإلا ةزهجأ
اها حلاىلا ،وكان من أسباب امتناعه خوفه من وت سم ىلإ لبق نم
i
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رفع مستوى وقعا تم له ،كما مل يكن يريد أن يشغل نفسه عناالعمل ملاقاالت الصحفية ،وملاعجب نيـ الونيهلا الذين ك ونا
التقاط ة ـ رص ف و هعيقوتل اب ل ط معاطملاو تينا وحلا ه ىفنودراطي
صوره ،ولكن أهم سبب كان سعيه للحفاظ على طاقاه
،هرظتني ىذلا لمعلا ىلع ،ةيلاتقلا نونفلا ءا ربخ لثم ،زي كرت ل ا و
،ليوطلا بثولا ةارابم ىهو ،اهلضفي ىتلا ةقاسملا زوفلا وهو الأي ل ا دي ه مبرايد ىلإ ةدوعلا وناكو ،ةدحتملا تايالولل ىرخأ ةيبهذ ة
ياضية ىف مباريات ملاضمار رل ا هايم حلاتخ بسنأ كلذ نأ ىري.وملايدان
Divided into smaller units, the sentence has been several times
interrupted and resumed. The interruption and resumption of
syntax is an old trick indeed; and one that every translator should
learn but which every writer should shun! And it is here thatwriting techniques come to serve the translator: by learning hownot to write, you learn how to write, and by learning how to
avoid those structural mistakes in writing, the translator learns
how to produce a better, readable text.
Can this long sentence be regarded as a paragraph? Indeed itcan; and it should. In fact, it can be divided into two small
paragraphs, if the focus is slightly shifted from the fact that ‘he
made few appearances’ to the reasons behind his attitude, but,
insofar as the writer concentrates on the theme of Lewis’swithdrawal from public notice, it must be regarded as a single
paragraph. Too much information in a paragraph, not to say in a
sentence, can play havoc with the structure. However, good
writers know how to arrange such information in such a way as
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to make it appear equal to the space it is expressed in. The writer of the above-quoted sentence is lazy, and the learner should
never adduce the limited space allotted in a newspaper for a
given article as a pretext for ‘cramming’ (cf. ـمجرة ت ل ا نـ ف). If you
make your reader work too hard to get your meaning you may
run the risk of losing him or her; and the more efforts you make
to establish your principal idea, in a principal clause, early
enough in the text, the more confident you will be in getting your
reader’s full attention. This is a lesson we learn in translation;
and it is the lesson that should be taught also in writing.
M. Enani & M. Abdel Aatty
Cairo, ١٩٩٩
k
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PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL
Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:
. define the grammatical terms: " Clause " and Phrase
. identify the difference between a " Clause " and phrase.
. define the terms " dependent " and" independent " clauses.
. exemplify both dependent and independent clauses.
. classify clauses into " restrictive " and " nonrestrictive ".
. identify relative clauses.
. combine independent clauses into larger units of thought.
. combine independent clauses using: coordination, subordination
and a semicolon.
. categorize independent clauses functionally into adverb clauses,
adjective clauses and noun clauses.
. exemplify each category of independent clauses.
. recognize a noun clause as a subject, object, object of a
preposition or as predicate nominative.
. exemplify the three cases of noun clauses given.
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. identify elliptical clauses.
. become more conscious of the relation between the grammar
items and / or concepts and the skill of writing.
. appreciate the value of learning the above generalizations.
. realize the significance of the concept of " correctness " in the
writing skill.
. provide answers to the ten-item multiple choice exercise on pages ٨-١٠
. understand what " redundancy " in writing means.
. go through the list of redundant phrases provided on pages ١١ -
١٣ to correct themselves.
. know how clauses can be reduced to phrases.
. know how phrases can be reduced to single words.
. appreciate the value / significance of reducing clauses and
phrases in writing.
. grasp the concept of " intensifiers " in expression.
. use " intensifiers " only when necessary in writing.
.avoid the use of expletive constructions.
. go through the list entitled " phrases you can omit " so that they
realize their negative effect on their writing (pages ١٦ - ٢١).
. define a cliché and avoid using it in writing.
٢
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. define and exemplify an euphemism.
. avoid using euphemism in writing.
. define " concision " in writing.
. appreciate the value of writing concise sentences.
. do the exercise on " writing concise sentences " on pages ٢٤ - ٢٥
. grasp the principle of parallel form in writing.
. list a set of correlative expressions.
. exemplify some correlative expressions followed by the same
grammatical form.
. do the three exercises based on parallel form on pages ٢٩ - ٣٢
. understand the concept of " tone " in writing.
. distinguish between formal and informal writing.
. realize how "contractions " make language informal.
. appreciate the value of defining the readers of our essays before
writing.
. establish a relation between " Mnemonics " and improving
spelling.
. understand the five given rules intended for improving spelling
on pages ٤٠ – ٤٣
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PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL
Clauses: The Essential Building-Blocks
DEFINITION
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a
verb A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, whichis a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb
relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the
street" or "having grown used to this harassment."
Words We Use to Talk about Clauses
Learning the various terms used to define and classify
clauses can be a vocabulary lesson in itself. This book
categorizes clauses into independent and dependent clauses.
This simply means that some clauses can stand by themselves,
as separate sentences, and some can't. Another term for
dependent clause is subordinate clause: this means that the
clause is subordinate to another element (the independent
clause) and depends on that other element for its meaning. The
subordinate clause is created by a subordinating conjunction
or dependent word.
Notice how an independent clause, "She is older than her
brother" (which could be its own sentence), is turned into adependent or subordinate clause when the same group of words
begins with a dependent word: "Because she is older than her
brother, she tells him what to do."
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Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive
clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are sometimes
used and mean the same thing as restrictive and nonrestrictive,
respectively.) A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to themeaning of the sentence; it can be removed from the sentence
without changing its basic meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses are
often set apart from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a
pair of commas (if it's in the middle of a sentence).
Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President, cantype ١٣٢ words a minute.
Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative
Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom,
whomever, whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either
restrictive or nonrestrictive. In a relative clause, the relative
pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses
contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to)
something preceding the clause.Arthur said that the tooth, which had been bothering him for
years, had to be removed.
(In this sentence, the clause in bold is a restrictive [essential]
clause [a noun clause––see below] and will not be set off by a
comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "tooth"] is
nonrestrictive [nonessential––it can be removed from the
sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is
set off by commas.)Elliptical Clauses: see below.
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INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete
sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves,
separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply
as sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to
know when a clause is capable of acting as an independent unit is
essential to correct writing. In the following sentence, for
example,
Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.
we have two independent clauses––"Bob didn't mean to do it"
and "he did it anyway"––connected by a comma and a
coordinating conjunction ("but").
Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine
independent clauses into larger units of thought. For instance, if
the word "but" is missing from the above sentence (about Bob),
the sentence would be called a comma splice: two independent
clauses have been incorrectly connected, with only a comma between them. Furthermore, a long series of clauses of similar
structure and length begins to feel monotonous, leading to what
is called primer language (after the kind of prose that we find in
first grade textbooks or "primers"). (See the section on Avoiding
Primer Language for advice and exercises on combining
sentences.).
Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination,
subordination, and using a semicolon. Coordination involves
joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating
conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. Clauses thus
connected are usually nicely balanced in length and import:
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• Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but shenever talked to her friends about it.
Subordination involves turning one of the clauses into a
subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through
the use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a
dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause begins
with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause;
it is called a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends
on something else (the independent clause) for its meaning.
There are other ways of combining ideas––by turningindependent clauses into various kinds of modifying phrases.
• Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she
never talked to her friends about it.
• Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir,
because she was afraid they would make fun of her.
• Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the
choir no matter what her friends said.
Joining these with the use of a relative clause:
Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister, told Ramonita to join the
choir....
Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or
without the help of a conjunctive adverb (transitional
expression). Semicolons should be used sparingly and only when
the two independent clauses involved are closely related andnicely balanced in terms of length and import.
• Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have
asked her to sing at their wedding.
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• Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, sheclearly enjoys using it.
DEPENDENT CLAUSES
Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make
good sense. They must be combined with an independent clause
so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by itself.
Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are,dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within a
sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or
as some kind of modifier. There are three basic kinds of
dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in thesentence. Remember that a dependent clause always contains a
subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.
• Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in
the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why. "When
the movie is over , we'll go downtown." or "John wanted towrite a book because he had so much to say about the subject ."
• Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. "My brother, who is an engineer , figured it out for me." or "The
bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to
replace."
• Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. "What he
knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or "Do you know what he knows [object]?" or "What can you tell me about what he
has done this year [object of the preposition "about"]?"
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١
Noun Clause as
Subject
What they did with the treasure remains a
mystery.
Whatever you want for dessert is fine with
me.
That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us.
٢
Noun Clause asObject
Juan finally revealed what he had done with
the money. Her husband spent whatever she had saved
over the years.
I don't know what I should do next.
٣
Noun Clause as
Object of
Preposition
In fact, he wrote a book about what he had
done over the years. We are interested in what he does for a
living.
٤
Noun Clause as
Predicate
Nominative
The trouble was that they had never beenthere before. The biggest disappointment of last season
was that the women's team didn't make it to
the final four.
٥
Adjective
Clause
My brother, who now teaches math in a
small college, never liked math in highschool.
The dealership that sold more cars ended
up actually losing money.
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nearly two centuries ago, folded during the
state's economic crisis.
٦
Adverb Clause
The team had fallen behind by ten points
before they were able to figure out the
opponent's defence. Since he started working nights, he doesn't
see much of his kids.
While Josie sat inside watching television,
Gladys shovelled the driveway.
COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
Review the section on Sentence Variety for help in
understanding the variety of sentence patterns. It is difficult to
know if you're using different patterns unless you keep in mind
the way that clauses are combined in larger sentence-units of thought. Pay special attention to the variety of sentence types:
simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences.These are defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that
make them up. There is also a quiz at the end of that section thatwill test your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses
that make up a sentence.
ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES
Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete in the sensethat they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent
word) that normally introduces such a clause or something from
the predicate in the second part of a comparison. The missing
parts of the elliptical clause can be guessed from the context and
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most readers are not aware that anything is missing. In fact,elliptical clauses are regarded as both useful and correct, even in
formal prose, because they are often elegant, efficient means of
expression. (The omitted words are noted in brackets below).
• Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that]she had coached in recent years.
• Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her
recruits proved to be hard workers.
• Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better
than they [could play].
Exercise on Identifying Independent Clauses
Choose the correct answer.
١. The doctor told Charlie to lose weight and exercise vigorously
for forty-five minutes a day.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
This sentence has no independent clauses.
This sentence has one independent clause.
٢. The doctor was worried that Charlie was putting on too
much weight.
The section in bold is an independent clause.
The independent clause is "The doctor was worried."
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This sentence has no independent clause.
٣. Charlie has a hard time sticking to a diet; he really loves rich,
sweet desserts.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
This sentence has one independent clause.
This sentence has no independent clauses.
٤. In fact, the last time he tried to lose weight, he ended up
actually gaining weight.
"he ended up actually gaining weight" is the only
independent clause.
The section in bold is the independent clause.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
٥. Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer because he is worried about his heart.
The section in bold is an independent clause.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
"Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer" is the
independent clause.
٦. His new personal trainer, whose name is Adriana Bongiorno,thinks Charlie may be a lost cause.
The part in bold is not an independent clause.
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The part in blue is an independent clause.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
٧. That she can make him do the exercises but not stick to the
diet.
The part in bold is the independent clause.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
This sentence has no independent clause.
٨. He is very good as long as Miss Bongiorno is around, but he
goes to the freezer for ice-cream when she leaves.
This sentence has three independent clauses.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
This sentence has one independent clause.
٩. Charlie must learn that eating all those sweets may give him a
temporary pleasure but that it's not good for his heart and that
he would feel better about himself if he stopped eating all
those rich and sweet foods that are not good for him.
The independent clause has three words.
The independent clause begins with the first "that."
This sentence has several independent clauses.
١٠. Miss Bongiorno is starting to make a difference, though, and
Charlie is starting to make some progress.
This sentence has one independent clause.
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The clause following "though" is a dependent clause.
This sentence has two independent clauses.
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Writing Concise Sentences
Pruning the Redundant
Avoid saying the same thing twice.
Many uneducated citizens who have never attended
school continue to vote for better schools.
Redundant phrases are bad habits just waiting to take control of your writing. Beware of the following.
Redundancy The Lean Version
١٢ midnight midnight
١٢ noon noon
٣ am in the morning ٣ am
absolutely spectacular/phenomenal spectacular/phenomenala person who is honest an honest person
a total of ١٤ birds ١٤ birds
biography of her life biography
circle around circle
close proximity proximity
completely unanimous unanimous
consensus of opinion consensus
cooperate together cooperateeach and every each
enclosed herewith enclosed
end result result
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exactly the same the same
final completion completion
frank and honest exchange frank exchange or honestexchange
free gift gift
he/she is a person who... he/she
important/basic essentials essentials
in spite of the fact that although
in the field of economics/lawenforcement
in economics/lawenforcement
in the event that if
job functions job or functions
new innovations innovations
one and the same the same
particular interest interest
period of four days four days
personally, I think/feel I think/feel personal opinion opinion
puzzling in nature puzzling
refer back refer
repeat again repeat
return again return
revert back revert
shorter/longer in length shorter/longer
small/large in size small/largesquare/round/rectangular in shape square/round/rectangular
summarize briefly summarize
surrounded on all sides surrounded
surrounding circumstances circumstances
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the future to come the future
there is no doubt but that no doubt
usual/habitual custom custom
we are in receipt of we have received
Abbreviated Redundancies
A special breed of redundancy is proliferating in our modern
world as we increasingly rely on abbreviations and acronyms in
our increasingly technological world. It is redundant to say
"ATM machine" because ATM means Automated Teller
Machine. It is redundant to say "HIV virus" because HIV means
Human Immunodeficiency Virus, "AIDS syndrome" becauseAIDS means Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome, "CPU
unit" because CPU means Central Processing Unit. It sounds
particularly senseless when we come up with a plural such as"CPU units"––Central Processing Unit units. When we use anabbreviation or acronym in speech (and especially in formal
writing), it's important to know what its letters mean so we don't
create a new redundancy.
Reducing Clauses to Phrases, Phrases to Single Words
Be alert for clauses or phrases that can be pared to simpler,shorter constructions. The "which clause" can often be shortened
to a simple adjective. (Be careful, however, not to lose some
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needed emphasis by over-pruning; the word "which," which is
sometimes necessary [as it is in this sentence].
• Smith College, which was founded in ١٨٧١, is the premier all-
women's college in the United States.
• Founded in ١٨٧١, Smith College is the premier all-women's
college in the United States.
• Citizens who knew what was going on voted him out of
office.
• Knowledgeable citizens voted him out of office.
• Recommending that a student copy from another student's
paper is not something he would recommend.
• He wouldn't recommend that a student copy from another
student's paper.
• (Or "He would never tell a student to copy....")
Phrases, too, can sometimes be trimmed, sometimes to a single
word.
• Unencumbered by a sense of responsibility, Jasion left his
wife with forty-nine kids and a can of beans.
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• Jasion irresponsibly left his wife with forty-nine kids and acan of beans.
• (Or leave out the word altogether and let the act speak for
itself): Jasion left his wife with forty-nine kids and a can of
beans.
Intensifiers That Don't Intensify
Avoid using words such as really, very, quite, extremely, severely
when they are not necessary. It is probably enough to say that the
salary increase is inadequate. Does saying that it is severely
inadequate introduce anything more than a tone of hysteria?
These words shouldn't be banished from your vocabulary, but
they will be used to best effect when used sparingly.
Avoid Expletive Constructions
This sounds like something a politician has to learn to avoid, but,
no, an expletive construction is a common device that often robs
a sentence of energy before it gets a chance to do its work.
Expletive constructions begin with there is/are or it is.
• There are twenty-five students who have already expressed a
desire to attend the program next summer. It is they and their
parents who stand to gain the most by the government grant.
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• Twenty-five students have already expressed a desire toattend the program next summer. They and their parents stand
to gain the most by the government grant.
Phrases You Can Omit
Be on the lookout for important sounding phrases that add
nothing to the meaning of a sentence. Such phrases quickly put a
reader on guard that the writer is trading in publicity; worse, they put a reader to sleep.
all things considered All things considered, Africa's woodlands
are in better shape now than ever before.
All things considered, Africa's woodlands
are in better shape now than ever before.
As a matter of fact As a matter of fact, there are more
woodlands in Africa now than there werein ١٨٩٨.
as a matter of fact, There are more
woodlands in Africa now than there were
in ١٨٩٨.
As far as I'm
concerned
As far as I'm concerned, there is no need
for further protection of woodlands.
As far as I'm concerned, there There is noneed for further protection of woodlands.
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at the present time This is because there are fewer farmers at
the present time.
This is because there are fewer farmers
now.
Because of the fact
that
Woodlands have grown in area because of
the fact that farmers have abandoned their
fields.
Woodlands have grown in area because
farmers have abandoned their fields.
By means of Major forest areas are coming back by
means of natural processes.
Major forest areas are coming back
through natural processes. (or naturally)
By virtue of the fact
that
Our woodlands are coming back by virtue
of the fact that our economy has shifted itsemphasis.
Our woodlands are coming back by virtue
of the fact that because our economy has
shifted its emphasis.
Due to the fact that Due to the fact that their habitats are being
restored, forest creatures are also re-
establishing their population bases.
Due to the fact that Because their habitats
are being restored, forest creatures are also
re-establishing their population bases.
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Exists The fear that exists among many people
that we are losing our woodlands is
uncalled for.
The fear that exists among many people
that we are losing our woodlands is
uncalled for.
For all intents and
purposes
The era in which we must aggressively
defend our woodlands has, for all intentsand purposes, passed.
The era in which we must aggressively
defend our woodlands has, for all intents
and purposes, passed.
For the most part For the most part, people's suspicions are
based on a misunderstanding of the facts.
For the most part, pPeople's suspicions are
based on a misunderstanding of the facts.
For the purpose of Many woodlands, in fact, have been
purchased for the purpose of creating
public parks.
Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchased for the purpose of creating as
public parks.
Have a tendency to This policy has a tendency to isolate some
communities.
This policy has a tendency tends to isolate
some communities.
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In a manner of
speaking
The policy has, in a manner of speaking,
begun to civilize the more rural parts of
our state.
The policy has, in a manner of speaking,
begun to civilize the more rural parts of
our state.
In a very real sense In a very real sense, this policy works to
the detriment of those it is supposed tohelp.
In a very real sense, this This policy works
to the detriment of those it is supposed to
help.
In my opinion In my opinion, this wasteful policy ought
to be revoked.
In my opinion, thisThis wasteful policy
ought to be revoked.
In the case of In the case of this particular policy,
citizens of Upper Egypt became very
upset.
Citizens of Upper Egypt became veryupset about his policy.
In the final analysis In the final analysis, the state would have
been better off without such a policy.
In the final analysis, the The state would
have been better off without such a policy.
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In the event that In the event that enough people protest, it
will probably be revoked.
If enough people protest, it will probably
be revoked.
In the nature of Something in the nature of a repeal may
soon take place.
Something in the nature of like a repeal
may soon take place.
In the process of Legislators are already in the process of
reviewing the statutes.
Legislators are already in the process of
reviewing the statutes.
it seems that It seems that they can't wait to get rid of this one.
It seems that they They can't wait to get rid
of this one.
Manner They have monitored the activities of
conservationists in a cautious manner.
They have cautiously monitored the
activities of conservationists.
The point I amtrying to make
The point I am trying to make is thatsometimes public policy doesn't
accomplish what it set out to achieve.
The oint I am tr in to make is that
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sometimesSometimes public policy doesn'taccomplish what it set out to achieve.
type of Legislators need to be more careful of the
type of policy they propose.
Legislators need to be more careful of the
type of policy they propose.
what I mean to say
is
What I mean to say is that well intentioned
lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves.
What I mean to say is that well Well
intentioned lawmakers sometimes make
fools of themselves.
Eliminating Clichés and Euphemisms
A cliché is an expression that was probably, once upon a time, an
original and brilliant way of saying something. Imagine being the
first person to say something as clever as "She fell head over
heels in love" or "She's cool as a cucumber." Sadly, though, such
expressions eventually lose their luster and become too common
and even annoying. Writers who indulge in tired language are not
being respectful to their readers, and writers return the
compliment by losing attention and going on to something else.
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Here is a list of trite expressions to look for in your writingand speaking.
acid test
at loose ends
babe in the woods
better late than never
brought back to realityblack as pitch
blind as a bat
bolt from the blue
busy as a bee/beaver
cat's meow
cool as a cucumber
cool, calm, and collected
crack of dawncrushing blow
cry over spilt milk
dead as a doornail
dog-eat-dog world
don't count your chickens
dyed in the wool
easier said than done
easy as pie
feathered friends
face the music
flash in the pan
Meaningful dialogue
Moving experience
Needle in a haystack
Open-and-shut case
Pain in the neck Point with pride
pretty as a picture
put it in a nutshell
quick as a flash/wink
rat race
ripe old age
ruled the roost
sad but truesadder but wiser
set the world on fire
sick as a dog
sigh of relief
slow as molasses
smart as a whip
sneaking suspicion
spread like wildfire
straight as an arrow
straw that broke
the camel's back
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Exercise on Writing Concise Sentences
Rewrite the following sentences to achieve a more concise
statement.
١. At this point in time we can't ascertain the reason as to why the
screen door was left open.
٢. My sister, who is employed as a nutritionist at the University
of Michigan, recommends the daily intake of megadoses of Vitamin C.
٣. Basically, in light of the fact that Congressman Fuenches was
totally exhausted by his last campaign, there was an
expectation on the part of the voters that he would not
reduplicate his effort to achieve office in government again.
٤. It is to be hoped that we discover a means to create an
absolutely proper and fitting tribute to Professor Espinoza.
٥. There is a desire on the part of many of us to maintain a spring
recess for the purpose of getting away from the demands of
our studies.
٦. Joe was an honest and hard working man. Basically, he never
gave much consideration to sitting idly about, doing nothing
constructive. (Rewrite as one sentence.)
٧. What is your basic understanding of predestination?
٨. At what point in time will a downturn in the stock market have
a really serious effect on the social life of people as a whole?
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Parallel Form
Basic Principle: Express coordinate ideas in similar form.
The principle of parallel construction requires that
expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly
similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize
more readily the likeness of content and function.
Unskilful writers often violate this principle, from a mistaken belief that they should constantly vary the form of their
expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to
emphasize it writers may have need to vary its form. But apart
from this, writers should follow carefully the principle of parallel
construction.
Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version
Formerly, science was taught
by the textbook method, while
now the laboratory method is
employed.
Formerly, science was taught by the
textbook method; now it is taught by
the laboratory method.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is
undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form
of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows thatthe writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all
the members of a series must either be used only before the first
term or else be repeated before each term.
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Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version
The French, the Italians,
Spanish, and Portuguese
The French, the Italians, the
Spanish, and the Portuguese
In spring, summer, or in winter In spring, summer, or winter (In
spring, in summer, or in winter)
Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also;either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by
the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule
can be corrected by rearranging the sentence.
Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version
It was both a long ceremony and
very tedious.
The ceremony was both long and
tedious.
A time not for words, but action A time not for words, but for
action
Either you must grant his request
or incur his ill will.
You must either grant his request
or incur his ill will.
My objections are, first, the
injustice of the measure; second,
that it is unconstitutional.
My objections are, first, that the
measure is unjust; second, that it
is unconstitutional.
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When making comparisons, the things you compare should becouched in parallel structures whenever that is possible and
appropriate.
Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version
My income is smaller than my
wife.
My income is smaller than my
wife's.
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Exercises on Parallel Form
First Exercise
Abraham Lincoln's famous Gettysburg speech abounds with
examples of parallel structures. Examine the following part of the
speech and match the parallel structures:
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers
brought forth on this continent a new nation,conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition
that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing
whether that nation or any nation so conceived and
so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great
battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a
portion of that field, as a final resting place for those
who here gave their lives that that nation might live.It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do
this.
Delivered at Gettysburg on November ١٩ , ١٨٦٣
Second Exercise
Select the sentence that illustrates the use of proper parallel
construction.
١.
• Donald Smith has wit, charm, and she has an extremely
pleasant personality.
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Donald Smith has wit, charm, and a pleasing personality.•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
٢.
In English class, Tashonda learned to read poems critically
and to appreciate good prose.
In English class, Tashonda learned to read poems critically
and she appreciated good prose.
٣.
Raoul's QPA is higher than Ralph.
Raoul's QPA is higher than Ralph's.
٤.
He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to
make good friends, and to learn about life.
He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to
make good friends, and learning about life.
٥.
Coach Espinoza was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor,
and a wise friend.
Coach Espinoza was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor,
and friend.
٦.
We found the film repulsive, offensive, and we thought it was
embarrassing.
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We found the film repulsive, offensive, and embarrassing.•
•
•
•
•
•
•
٧.
Mr. Nguyen kept his store clean, neat, and he made it
conveniently arranged.
Mr. Nguyen kept his store clean, neat, and conveniently
arranged.
٨.
Professor Ali rewarded his students for working hard on the
final project and going beyond the call of duty.
Professor Ali rewarded his students for their hard work on the
final project and going beyond the call of duty.
٩.
There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream,setting up camp, and spending a couple of days fishing.
There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream,
setting up camp, and to spend a couple of days fishing.
Third Exercise
Improve the following sentences with the use of proper parallel
constructions.
١. Espinoza's style was remarkable for its dexterity, grace, and
she could play any position.
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Tone: A Matter of Attitude
Your behaviour while attending school is different from your
behaviour while hanging out in the back yard with friends, or at
least we hope it is. And part of that difference is the difference in
language, a difference not just in the words we use but in what
we call tone. We also recall being told, when we were very
young, not to "use that tone of voice with me, Mister (or Missy,
as the case may be)!" Just as the pitch and volume of one's voice
carry a difference in tone from street to school, the choice of
words and the way we put our sentences together convey a sense
of tone in our writing. The tone, in turn, conveys our attitude
towards our audience and our subject matter. Are we being
frivolous or serious, casual or formal, sweet or stuffy? The
choice of a single word can change the tone of a paragraph, evenan entire essay. In the first sentence of this paragraph, for
example, the phrasal verb "hanging out" is considerably more
casual than others we might have chosen: gathering,
congregating, assembling.
Audience
One difficulty in writing for a course is that it's hard to think
of the reader of our essays as an audience. Our instructor might,
in fact, be our sole reader, somebody who will pack a pile of
papers into a briefcase or backpack and take them home to read.
In fact, that person has to read those essays, whether they're goodor bad.
This is a very limited audience, indeed, and if we aim our
essay at that one individual, we have severely limited its appeal.
We would be much better off if we could conceive of our essays
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as being aimed towards a community of readers, the readership,say, of a small-town or neighbourhood newspaper. These readers
are interested in what we have to say––curious, in fact––but
they're easily distracted; they expect something that is fresh,
honest, imaginative, energetic, without being too nonsensical or
unconventional. We don't know exactly who is going to pick up
this newspaper, so we need to be on our best behaviour; our tone
must aim toward being friendly and helpful without being overly
casual (and never slangy); if we can maintain this tone of slight
formality without being stuffy, we've hit it just right.
informal formal
light, humorous, comic serious, grave, decorous
personal, subjective objective, impersonal
casual, offhanded impassioned
"loose," disorderly reasoned, reasonable
nonsensical, experimental controlled, reserved
plainspoken, simple ornate, elaborate
Contractions
One measure of the formality of our language is our use of contractions. The paragraph just before this one has five verb
contractions: it's (twice), they're, don't , and we've. We use
contractions all the time in casual conversation, of course, and
using contractions in our text will convey an informal quality. To
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elevate the style, eliminate the contractions and write out theverbs: "if we can maintain this tone of slight formality without
being stuffy, we have hit it just right." It is a very easy matter to
do a search for apostrophes in our text, and it is a very useful
exercise, also. First, we can check for any possessives we may
have formed incorrectly, but then we can also check for
contractions.
A pleasant informality may be void of elevated language, but
it is not an excuse for imprecision or unnecessary wordiness.
Read the section on writing Concise Sentences and review the
various means of pruning unnecessary words and clichés.
Here is a paragraph from an article which calls upon us to
stop using antibiotics haphazardly. Which parts of the paragraph
would you consider as formal or informal, and why?
Media reports have likely made you aware of this
problem, but they have neglected the implications.
Your brother catches a cold that turns into a sinus
infection. His doctor treats him with antibiotics, but
the bacteria are resistant to all of them. The infection
enters his bloodstream––a condition known as
septicemia––and a few days later, your brother dies.
(Septicemia is what killed Muppets creator Jim
Henson a few years ago.) Or instead of a cold, he
has an infected cut that won't heal, or any other
common bacterial disease, such as an ear or prostate
infection.
Michael Castleman, “Cold Comfort.”
And here is a paragraph from an article declaring that the cultural
assumptions of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment are current
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at the end of this century. Although you have only four sentencesto go on, can you say how this paragraph differs from the
paragraph above? Does this difference say something about the
audiences of the two articles, respectively? Do you prefer one
style to another? Which one feels more like your style?
Governments everywhere are at a loss regarding the
best policy for regulating the dwindling forest
reserves of the world. Few ethical guidelines have
been established from which agreement might be
reached, and those are based on an insufficient
knowledge of ecology. Even if adequate scientific
knowledge were available, we would have little
basis for the long-term valuation of forests. The
economics of sustainable yield is still a primitive art,
and the psychological benefits of natural ecosystemsare almost wholly unexplored.
Edward O. Wilson, “Back from Chaos.”
If we tried counting contractions for the entire articles from
which these paragraphs are taken, we would discover that there is
only one contraction––a shouldn't ––in Wilson's article and there
are twenty contractions in Castleman's, even though Wilson's
article is considerably longer. How do these contractions, or the
lack of them, affect your sense of the seriousness of the essays?
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Spelling
Working on Your Spelling
Improving your spelling skills is largely a matter of personal
commitment: looking up a word you're not sure of, keeping the
dictionary at hand, keeping a list of words you know you have
trouble with.
Using Mnemonics
Mnemonics (Now there's a toughie to spell! It's pronounced as if
that initial m isn't there.) are little memory devices you can use to
remember how to spell words. Good geography students will
remember that George Eliot's Old Grandfather Rode A Pig HomeYesterday. Some mnemonics seem more difficult to remember
than the spelling they're supposed to serve. Some would
remember the three e's in cemetery as three tombstones in a row.
When you think of stationery, think of the e in envelope. Does ithelp to think of the r in separate as separating two like letters?
Coming up with mnemonics to help you remember things is a
device you probably use in other studies all the time. Extend thehabit into your personal mission to improve spelling. Be as
inventive as you wish and have fun with the idea. It will pay off
in the long run.
Homonyms and Plurals
Homonyms are words that sound alike or nearly alike but
have different meanings and different spellings: affect-effect,
they're-their-there, the list goes on and on.
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Creating plurals in English is usually quite simple: just add s to the end of the word. Sometimes, however, it isn't that easy and
the rules can be a bit perplexing.
Sounding It Out
Writers who try to rely too completely on the sound of
English words for hints on how to spell often have trouble with
some of the peculiar sound-spell combinations in the language.One apocryphal (apokrifil?) story tells about a girl who, when
asked to spell "fish," wrote GHOT on the chalkboard. It makes
perfect sense, of course, if it's the same "gh" we see in cough, the
same "o" we hear in women, and the same "t" we hear in nation.
A thorough acquaintance with prefixes and endings and roots
(see elsewhere in this section) will help some, and studying the
way words are broken down into sound units will help also.
It also helps to pronounce words correctly in the first place.
It's hard to spell strictly unless we hear that "t" in the word; andthe words February and library must retain their first "r." If we
try to change the noun accident into an adverb, we'll end up withaccidently, which is a really bad accident but is how many people
say the word. Try, instead, to change the adjective accidental into
an adverb: accidentally. (The same goes for incidentally and
coincidentally.)
The ability to sound things out correctly doesn't help us much
with Wednesday, though, especially with the inexplicable
American pronunciation which puts an "nz" sound before the "d."
And words like often and handsome, in which the "t" and "d"
sounds have disappeared (at least in the U.S.), continue to defy
phonetic spellers (fonetik spelurz). American author Mark Twain
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was keenly interested in the simplification of English spellingand his little essay called "A Plan for the Simplification of
English Spelling" is included here.
British Spellings
Writers who grow up in England, Canada, the Barbados, or
any place where spelling habits conform to British preferences
will be perplexed when the word colour comes back from anAmerican instructor with a slash mark through the u. When
Daniel Webster started putting his dictionary together, he thought
it would be a good idea to simplify some English spelling and
that -our was one ending he thought Americans could do without.
Standard American spelling, ever since then, has been sometimes
different from British, and it extends to other words as well. A
good dictionary should account for these differences. Instructors
should also be equipped to account for them, if not to allow for
them.
American Spelling British Spelling
canceled cancelled
center centre
check cheque
color colour
criticize criticise
gray grey
humor humour
judgment judgement
labor labour
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license licence
realize realise
theater theatre
tire tyre
valor valour
Rule #١: “ I before E except after C ”
This rule, designed to help us remember how to spell words such
as receive and chief , seems so promising in its simplicity at first.
• achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend,
grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce, priest
• ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit,
conceit
But then things get complicated: it doesn't work with words pronounced "ay" as in neighbour, freight, beige, sleigh, weight,
vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to the rule: either,
neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.
Still, the rule is relatively simple and worthwhile remembering.
Rule #٢: “Dropping Final E ”
When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop
the final e if the ending begins with a vowel:
• advancing
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surprising
However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:
• advancement
likeness
(However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e
when adding any ending: argument, argued, truly.)
Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final eis kept in words such as mileage and words where the final e is
preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous, manageable,
management, noticeable. (The word management, for example,
without that e after the g , would be pronounced with a hard g
sound.)
Rule #٣: “Dropping Final Y ”
When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y
to i when it is preceded by a consonant.
• supply becomes supplies
worry becomes worried
merry becomes merrier
This does not apply to the ending -ing , however.
• crying
studying
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Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel.
• obeyed
saying
Rule #٤: “Doubling Final Consonants”
When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we
double that consonant in many situations. First, we have to
determine the number of syllables in the word.
Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins
with a vowel when the last syllable of the word is accented and
that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a singleconsonant.
• submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant
is preceded by a vowel, so we double the t before adding, for
instance, an -ing or -ed : submitting, submitted.
• flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always
accented. Again, the last consonant is preceded by a vowel, so
we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed :
flapping, flapped.
• open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded
by a single vowel, but the accent falls on the first syllable, not
the last syllable, so we don't double the n before adding anending: opening, opened.
• refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last
syllable and a single vowel precedes the final consonant, so wewill double the r before adding an ending, as in referring,
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referral . The same would apply to begin, as in beginner,beginning .
• relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is
preceded by another consonant, not a vowel, so we do not
double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting.
• deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a
consonant preceded not by a single vowel, but by two vowels,
so we do not double the final l as in dealer dealing.. The same
would apply, then, to despair, despairing, despaired.
Rule #٥: “Adding Prefixes”
Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change its spelling.
For some reason, the word misspelling is one of the most often
misspelled words in English.
• unnecessary, dissatisfied, disinterested, misinform
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٨. My brother ____________ in bed all day yesterday .
laid
lay
lied
٩. How did they manage to ____________ that game ؟
lose
loose
١٠. The library has been incredibly ____________ today .
quitequit
quiet
Practice Exercise ٢ Indicate if the word is spelled correctly or not.
١. accidently
٢. independance
٣. foreign
٤. paralel
٥. privilege
٦. maintnance
٧. ommited
٨. grammar
٩. heighth
١٠. cemetery
١١. irresistable
١٢. arguing
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١٣. catagory
١٤. embarrass
١٥. enviroment
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SUMMARY
PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL
Remember:
. A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.
. A clause could be independent or dependent.
. Independent clauses could stand by themselves as discrete
sentences.
. To combine independent clauses, we can use coordination,
subordination and a semicolon.
. Dependent clauses cannot stand by themselves. They must be
combined with independent clauses so that they become parts of
sentences. Dependent clauses could function as nouns, adjectivesor adverbs.
. Clauses are combined into larger sentence-units: Compound,
complex and compound complex sentences (refer to the section
on " Sentence variety " p. ٤٦).
. Elliptical clauses are elegant efficient means of expression.
. Redundancy is the degree to which a written bit of discourse
contains more information than is needed for it to be understood.Redundant phrases in writing are bad habits which should be
avoid٠ed. Writing short and clear sentences (i.e. concise
sentences) is a major feature of good writing.
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. Language units which are similar in content and function should be expressed in similar form.
Example: Shall we go home or go to movie?
(The two ideas or clauses are coordinate, i.e. equal in importance
or rank)
. Correlative conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions used in
pairs in a parallel construction (e.g. both.. and, either... or,
neither... nor, not only.... but also, etc....,)
They should be followed by the same grammatical construction.
Example: Either say you're sorry or get out.
(Two possibilities separated by ' or')
. The tone of a piece of writing is its general quality or nature.
The choice of words and the way sentences are put together,
therefore, convey the tone of a given piece of writing. Tonereflects the writers' attitude towards both . audience and subject
matter.
. One measure of the formality of writing is the use of
contractions. Using contractions makes a text informal, whereas
eliminating contractions elevates the style and maintains a tone
of formality.
Spelling rules:
" I before E except after C "
This rule helps us remember the spelling of words like achieve,
believe, grief, thief, grieve, etc........
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. "Dropping Final E "
Drop the Final 'e' if the ending of word begins with a vowel
(e.g. advancing). But, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep
the final e as in advancement
. " Dropping Final Y "
When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the
'y' to i when it is preceded by a consonant.. Accordingly "
supply becomes supplies.
. Doubling final consonants:
Double the consonants which mark the ending of words.
e.g. submit: submitting - submitted.
Adding prefixes to words does not change their spelling (e.g.
unnecessary, disinterested, dissatisfied etc...).
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. define an 'absolute phrase '
. use absolute phrases to connect ideas.
. do the exercise based on ' Combining sentences ' on pages ٧٦ -
٧٨
. identify the four mechanical considerations in providing
"transition" between ideas.
. appreciate the value of coherence in a piece of writing.
. recognise the given set of 'transitional tags '
. match the given set of transitional devices on pages ٨٠ - ٨١
with the functions provided.
. understand how repetition lends itself to coherence.
. appreciate the value of pronoun reference in a piece of writing.
. read critically the paragraph on page "٨٣".
. provide reasons for describing this paragraph as " unified ".
. identify the difference between the paragraph on page ٨٣ and its
revised version on the next page.
. define a "topic sentence".
. understand the concept of paragraph development by using
relevant details.
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PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL
Sentence Variety
A Note on Sentence Variety
Many writers, unsure of themselves, are leery of long
sentences because they fear the run-on, forgetting that it is often
better to risk imperfection than boredom.
What we need, then, is practice in handling long sentences.It's easy to feel confident in writing shorter sentences, but if our
prose is made up entirely of shorter structures, it would drive a
reader crazy after a while.
Run-ons and Length
Remember that a really long sentence and a run-on sentence
are not the same thing. Note the following monster of a sentence
from Thomas Hooker:
Now if nature should intermit her course and leave
altogether, though it were but for awhile, the
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observation of her own laws; if those principal andmother elements of the world, whereof all things in
this lower world are made, should lose the qualities
which now they have; if the frame of that heavenly
arch erected over our heads should loosen and
dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their
wonted motions, and by irregular volubility turn
themselves any way as it might happen; if the prince
of the lights of heaven which now as a giant doth
run his unwearied course, should, as it were througha languishing faintness, begin to stand and to resthimself; if the moon should wander from her beaten
way, the times and seasons of the year blend
themselves by disordered and confused mixture, the
winds breathe out their last gasp, the clouds yield norain, the earth be defeated of heavenly influence, the
fruits of the earth pine away as children at the
withered breasts of their mother no longer able to
yield them relief––what would become of manhimself, whom these things now do all serve?
from Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity
The modern reader might rebel at the complexity of those clauses
piled one upon the other, and it does seem rather ponderous atfirst. In fact, if you were to write such a sentence in academic
prose, your instructor would probably call you in for a
conference. But if, as reader, you let yourself go a bit, there's a
well earned delight in finding yourself at the end of such asentence, having successfully navigated its shoals. And, as writer
(avoiding such extremes), there's much to be learned by devising
such monsters and then cutting them back to reasonable size.
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Here are some hints about using long sentences to your advantage.
Coordination
Allow the complexity of a longer sentence to develop after the
verb, not before it. Make the connection between subject and
verb quick and then allow the sentence to do some extra work. In
the completer (predicate), however, be careful to develop thecomplex structures in parallel form. Here is a ٢٣٩-word sentence
(not a run-on, though) that succeeds grammatically but fails
stylistically because it gives way to too much work before the
subject-verb connection is made:
Knowing that millions of people around the world
would be watching in person and on television and
expecting great things from him––at least one more gold
medal for America, if not another world record––during
this, his fourth and surely his last appearance in theWorld Olympics, and realizing that his legs could no
longer carry him down the runway with the same
blazing speed and confidence in making a huge, eye-
popping leap that they were capable of a few years ago
when he set world records in the ١٠٠-meter dash and in
the ٤٠٠-meter relay and won a silver medal in the long
jump, the renowned sprinter and track-and-field
personality Carl Lewis, who had known pressure from
fans and media before but never, even as a professionalrunner, this kind of pressure, made only a few
appearances in races during the few months before the
Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, partly because
he was afraid of raising expectations even higher and he
did not want to be distracted by interviews and adoring
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fans who would follow him into stores and restaurantsdemanding autographs and photo-opportunities, but
mostly because he wanted to conserve his energies and
concentrate, like a martial arts expert, on the job at hand:
winning his favourite competition, the long jump, and
bringing home another Gold Medal for the United
States, the most fitting conclusion to his brilliant career
in track and field.
Repeated Terms
One of the scariest techniques for handling long sentences is the
repetition of a key term. When properly handled, repetition of
key words and phrases within a sentence and then within a
paragraph not only holds things together but creates a rhythm
that provides energy and drives the meaning home. Here’s an
example:
The Swiss watchmakers' failure to capitalize on theinvention of the digital timepiece was bothastonishing and alarming––astonishing in that the
Swiss had, since the beginnings of the industrial
revolution in Europe, been among the first to
capitalize on technical innovations, alarming in that
a tremendous industrial potential had been lost to
their chief competitors, the watchmakers of Japan.
In the following sentence, from a speech by John F. Kennedy
(dedicating the Robert Frost Library at Amherst College),observe how the repeated, parallel phrases pile up the meaning in
waves:
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In America, our heroes have customarily run tomen of large accomplishments. But today this
college and country honours a man whose
contribution was not to our size but to our spirit, not
to our political beliefs but to our insight, not to our
self-esteem, but to our self-comprehension....
I look forward to a great future for America, a
future in which our country will match its military
strength with our moral restraint, its wealth with our
wisdom, its power with our purpose. I look forward
to an America which will not be afraid of grace and
beauty, which will protect the beauty of our natural
environment, which will preserve the great old
American houses and squares and parks of our
national past, and which will build handsome and balanced cities for our future.
The same principle can apply in repeated whole sentences in a
paragraph. Watch how President Kennedy drove him his point inthe famous "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech:
There are many people in the world who really don't
understand, or say they don't, what is the great issue
between the free world and the Communist world.
Let them come to Berlin. There are some who say
that communism is the wave of the future. Let them
come to Berlin. And there are some who say in
Europe and elsewhere we can work with the
Communists. Let them come to Berlin. And thereare even a few who say that it is true thatcommunism is an evil system, but it permits us to
make economic progress. Lass' sie nach Berlin
kommen. Let them come to Berlin.
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Remarks in the Rudolph Wilde Platz West Berlin: June ٢٦ , ١٩٦٣
Additional Hints on Variety
♦Try an occasional question, exclamation, or command. A
question can be especially useful at the beginning of a
paragraph where you want to summarize quickly what
preceded and launch into what will now follow. "And whatwere the results of this Proclamation of ١٧٦٣?" This reminds
your readers––Ah, that's what we're talking about––and
prepares them for what comes next.
♦A command or directive provides direction and energy.
Readers react to being grabbed by the collar and told what to
do. It's hard to ignore, if not to resist. Tone is very important
here. "Learning the principle of parallel structure can be the
most important thing you learn in writing class. Learn itnow!"
♦Try beginning an occasional sentence with something other
than the normal subject-followed-by-verb order of things.
Begin with a modifying clause or participial phrase instead.
"Having led his people in a successful resistance, Pontiac was
astonished to discover how Indian tribal differences and
individualism began, instantly, to erode their base of unified
power."
♦Try beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, nor, for, yet, or, so). Many writers assert that if
you begin a sentence with and or but you should have
connected that sentence to the prior sentence. Well, perhaps
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you should have, but give it a try. A sentence beginning witha conjunction will almost always call attention to itself, and if
that's what you want, do it. But not so often that it gets out of
control.
♦Try using a variety of basic sentence structures. We cancategorize sentences into four main types, depending on the
number and type of clauses they contain:
١. Simple (one independent clause): We drove from Cairo
to Libya in one day.
٢. Compound (more than one independent clause): We
were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's
birthday party.
٣. Complex (one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause): Although he is now ٧٩ years old, he
still claims to be ٦٥.
٤. Compound-complex (more than one independent
clause and at least one dependent clause): After it was
all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning
something, but we think he was really surprised.
♦ In terms of style, you will also find that sentences are
classified as periodic or cumulative sentences. Periodic
sentences begin with modifying phrases and clauses,
sometimes piling them on, and then end with an independent
clause, period.
If, instead of listening to the war-mongers of the
military-industrial establishment, the politicians had
only listened to what people had been writing in
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sentence in the same way that a speaker can emphasize part of a sentence using voice stress. We could say "Coach
CALHOUN came up with the program of recruiting players
from foreign countries." and by stressing the word "Calhoun"
we let the listener know that we're distinguishing this coach
from all others (in this particular context). To create the same
kind of stress in writing, we can "cleave" (split) the sentence
into two parts:
•
It was Coach Calhoun who came up with the program of recruiting players from foreign
countries.
Or we could stress the idea of the PROGRAM in
this way:
• It was the program of recruiting players from
foreign countries that Coach Calhoun came up
with.
The cleft sentence usually uses it as the main subjectwith a to be verb; the real information in the
sentence, oddly enough, follows in the predicate and
then in a dependent clause beginning with a
dependent word (usually who, which, or that ).
Another form of the cleft sentence can be created
with what (instead of it).
• What you did in your youth is your own
business.
The what form of the cleft sentence will frequently
take the main verb (and business) of the sentence
and put it into an initial noun clause:
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Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter,however, on warm summer nights she often goes to the college
observatory.
Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter.
However, on warm summer nights she often goes to the
college observatory.
Marie is never interested in stargazing, during the winter
however, on warm summer nights she often goes to the college
observatory.
٦. The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the
night sky it is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of
stars.
The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the
night sky, it is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of
stars.The cloud-like Milky Way stretching across the night sky is
actually a huge galaxy containing millions of stars.
Although the Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretchingacross the night sky. It is actually a huge galaxy containing
millions of stars.
٧. Watch the sky closely for several minutes you are likely to see
an artificial satellite pass over.
Watch the sky closely for several minutes; you are likely to see
an artificial satellite pass over.
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Watch the sky closely for several minutes, you are likely to seean artificial satellite pass over.
If you watch the sky closely for several minutes. You are
likely to see an artificial satellite pass over.
٨. Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby she
secretly wished she had stayed at home.
Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby, she
secretly wished she had stayed at home.
Pretending to be interested in her brother's hobby, Louisa
secretly wished she had stayed at home.
Louisa pretended to be interested, in her brother's hobby, she
secretly wished she had stayed at home.
٩. Some club members were late for the meeting for example,Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.
Some club members were late for the meeting, for example
Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.
Some club members were late for the meeting, for example,
Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.
Some club members were late for the meeting; for example,Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.
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Pronoun Reference
Remember that if you're referring to you, or we, or I , or
one, try to remain consistently within the same case.
One You should observe this carefully whenever you
write.
Confusion In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, we find thenarrator to be one of the few successful
characters in terms of moral development.However, even the narrator, you soon realize,
is seriously flawed. [We've shifted from the
third-person, plural "we" (quite common when
writing about literature) to the second-person,
singular "you."]
Repair
Work
In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, we find the
narrator to be one of the few successful
characters in terms of moral development.However, even the narrator, we soon realize, is
seriously flawed.
Confusion People enjoy themselves immensely at UConn
women's basketball games. You don't have to
be an expert in basketball to get caught up in
the crowd's enthusiasm. [In these sentences,we've gone from a third-person, plural
reference, "People," to second-person "you."]
Repair
Work
[We could write, instead:] People enjoy
themselves immensely at Uconn women's
basketball games. One doesn't have to be an
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expert in basketball to get caught up in thecrowd's enthusiasm. [However, the "one," after
a while, is going to feel overly formal, stuffy.]
Repair
Work
[Most writers would probably prefer this:]
People enjoy themselves immensely at UConnwomen's basketball games. It isn't necessary to
be an expert in basketball to get caught up in
the crowd's enthusiasm.
Exercise on Consistency in Tense and Pronouns
Select one answer from the choices provided after each
sentence. The word you choose should fit the blank in the
sentence.
١. When one has been going to college for as long as he has, __________ to think the college owes _______ a degree .
a) you start; you b) one starts; one c) he starts; him
٢. Spring begins early in Tennessee. First, the forsythia bursts
into blossom; then the dogwood trees _______ to bloom, and
the redbud is soon in its glory .
a) begin b) began
٣. The poetry of Robert Frost (١٨٧٤-١٩٦٣) often seems to suggest
some kind of fate controls our lives. His essays, too,
____________ a similar malignant presence.
a) indicate b) indicated
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Avoiding Primer Language
Primer style is characterized by too many short sentences. It
is important to note that there is nothing inherently wrong with
short sentences. Too many of them in a small space, however,
can remind readers of material they read in kindergarten or first
grade: See Dick. See Dick chase Jane. See Jane run.
Used within a mix of sentences cut to various lengths, short
sentences can be extremely effective as they are capable of
focusing the reader's attention on a particular point. Look at this
one. See? A quick review of your text, however, could reveal an
overabundance of short sentences and the need to combine some
of those sentences into longer structures. Variety and rhythm are
the keys here: long sentences, average sentences, short sentences.
Another symptom of primer style is a proliferation of verbs
that don't do anything. There's nothing wrong with the sentence,
"I am a student," but nothing is really happening in that sentence.A large section of text in which there are only intransitive or
linking verbs that express being but no action is just asking
readers to turn off the dial of their attention and go read
something else. Sentences weighed down with a preponderance
of linking verbs can often be eliminated or embedded into larger,
more complex and interesting structures.
For example, the two sentences:
• My sister is an engineer.
• My sister works for the state.
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can be combined to read:
• My sister works as an engineer for the state.
OR
• My sister, an engineer, works for the state.
Exercises on Avoiding Primer Language
Try to combine the following sentences into one effective
sentence with only one independent clause. (Any exceptions to
this requirement are noted as a hint.)
١. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is a novel written by Ken
Kesey.Its protagonist is Randall Patrick McMurphy.
He pretends to be insane to escape a work farm.
He discovers he is now trapped in an asylum.He shows other characters the truth of their situation.
٢. Tiger Woods is the name of a young American golfer.
He set a record in the ١٩٩٧ Master's Tournament.
He surprised all the veterans.
He was ٢٢ at the time.
٣. Ramonita Espinoza used to coach at Notre Dame University.She now works at UConn.
She is the new tennis coach.
٤. Ronald E. Pepin is a well known translator of medieval texts.
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He has two honorary degrees from Fordham University.He recently published his fourth book on ancient medical
practices.
He was only forty-four years old at the time.
٥. John F. Kennedy was inaugurated into office in January of
١٩٦١.
He was assassinated in November of ١٩٦٣.
He spent only ١٠٠٠ days in office.
٦. Some students become nervous around computers.
They are nervous around anything high-tech.
Other students seem to enjoy new challenges.
They regard learning how to use computers as a kind of game.
HINT: Use a semicolon in this re-write.
٧. ER is my favourite television program.
ER is now in its third year.
It has won numerous Emmy Awards.
٨. Lowell Weicker was once Governor of Connecticut.
He was leader of that state's American Party.
Weicker has long been known as a maverick among
politicians.
He now teaches at the University of Virginia.
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Sentence-Combining Skills
The need to combine sentences
Sentences have to be combined to avoid the monotony that
would surely result if all sentences were brief and of equal
length. Part of the writer's task is to employ whatever music is
available to him or her in language, and part of language's music
lies within the rhythms of varied sentence length and structure.
Even poets who write within the formal limits and sameness of
an iambic pentameter beat will sometimes strike a chord against
that beat and vary the structure of their clauses and sentence
length, thus keeping the text alive and the reader awake. This
section will explore some of the techniques we ordinary writers
use to combine sentences.
Compounding sentences
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses. That means that there are at least two units of thought
within the sentence, either one of which can stand by itself as its
own sentence. The clauses of a compound sentence are either
separated by a semicolon (relatively rare) or connected by a
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coordinating conjunction (which is, more often than not,
preceded by a comma). And the two most common coordinating
conjunctions are and and but . (The others are or, for, yet , and so.)
This is the simplest technique we have for combining ideas:
• Jack Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the
territory of the Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few
people know of his contributions to natural science.• Lewis had been well trained by scientists in
Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he was a
curious man by nature.
Notice that the and does little more than link one idea to another;
the but also links, but it does more work in terms of establishing
an interesting relationship between ideas. The and is part of the
immediate language arsenal of children and of dreams: one thing
simply comes after another and the logical relationship between
the ideas is not always evident or important. The word but (and
the other coordinators) is at a slightly higher level of argument.
Compounding sentence elements
Within a sentence, ideas can be connected by compounding
various sentence elements: subjects, verbs, objects or whole
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Using appositives to connect ideas
The appositive is probably the most efficient technique we
have for combining ideas. An appositive or appositive phrase is
a re-naming, a re-identification, of something earlier in the text.
You can think of an appositive as a modifying clause from whichthe clausal machinery (usually a relative pronoun and a linking
verb) has been removed. An appositive is often, but not always, a
parenthetical element which requires a pair of commas to set it
off from the rest of the sentence.
• Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of
Charbonneau, who was a French fur-trader, accompanied theexpedition as a translator.
• A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one
of the wives of the French fur-trader Charbonneau,
accompanied the expedition as a translator.
Notice that in the second sentence, above, Sacagawea's name is a
parenthetical element (structurally, the sentence adequately
identifies her as "a pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman"),and thus her name is set off by commas; Charbonneau's name,
however, is essential to the meaning of the sentence (otherwise,
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Clark's leadership and never once rebelled against their authority.
Using absolute phrases to connect ideas
Perhaps the most elegant––and most misunderstood––method
of combining ideas is the absolute phrase. This phrase, which is
often found at the beginning of sentence, is made up of a noun
(the phrase's "subject") followed, more often than not, by a
participle. Other modifiers might also be part of the phrase.
There is no true verb in an absolute phrase, however, and it is
always treated as a parenthetical element, an introductory
modifier, which is set off by a comma.
The absolute phrase might be confused with a participial
phrase, and the difference between them is structurally slight but
significant. The participial phrase does not contain the subject-
participle relationship of the absolute phrase; it modifies the
subject of the independent clause that follows. The absolute
phrase, on the other hand, is said to modify the entire clause that
follows. In the first combined sentence below, for instance, the
absolute phrase modifies the subject Lewis, but it also modifies
the verb, telling us "under what conditions" or "in what way" or
"how" he disappointed the world. The absolute phrase thus
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modifies the entire subsequent clause and should not be confused
with a dangling participle, which must modify the subject
which immediately follows.
• Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his
exploits .
• Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to
publish his journals .
• His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to
publish his journals.
• Lewis's long journey was finally completed .
•
His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.
• Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington,
D.C., completely alone .
• His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of
Discovery dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way
back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
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Exercise on Combining Sentences
Combine each group of sentences into one effective sentence,
containing only one independent clause.
١. Hartford is the capital of Connecticut.
It is the second largest city in the state.
٢. Hartford was once known as an industrial centre.
It was the home of several manufacturers.
They made firearms, typewriters, bicycles, and even cars.
٣. Today, though, several insurance companies make Hartford
their home.
Aetna, the Travellers, the Hartford, and Cigna are in
Hartford.
Their home offices are within miles of one another.
٤. Manufacturers once took advantage of Hartford's access to
the Connecticut River.
They also enjoyed Hartford's well educated workforce.
٥. Eventually, cheap labour in the south lured manufacturing
away from Hartford.
Large empty factories were all that was left of Hartford's
industrial past.
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١٢. Mark Twain loved industrial inventions.
He lost a fortune investing in them.
One of these inventions was the elaborate Paige typesetter.
Unfortunately for Twain, this machine was developed at the
same time as the Linotype.
The Linotype machine was much simpler and less expensive.
١٣. Mark Twain's beloved daughter, Susy, died in the Hartford
home.She died of spinal meningitis.
Twain never felt the same about the house again.
He soon left the house and Hartford.
He returned only once.He came back for the funeral of his friend, Charles
DudleyWarner.
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Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas
The most convincing ideas in the world, expressed in the
most beautiful sentences, will move no one unless those ideas are
properly connected. Unless readers can move easily from one
thought to another, they will surely turn to something else or turn
on the television.
Providing transitions between ideas is largely a matter of
attitude. You must never assume that your readers know what
you know. In fact, it's a good idea to assume not only that your
readers need all the information that you have and need to know
exactly how you arrived at the point you're at, but to assume also
that they are not quite as quick as you are. You might be able to
leap from one side of the stream to the other; believe that your
readers need some stepping stones and be sure to place them in
readily accessible spots.
There are four basic mechanical considerations in providingtransitions between ideas: using transitional expressions,repeating key words and phrases, using pronoun reference,
and using parallel form.
USING TRANSITIONAL TAGS
Transitional tags run the gamut from the most simple—the
six little conjunctions: and, but, nor, for, yet, or, so —to more
complex signals that ideas are somehow connected—the
conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions such ashowever, moreover, nevertheless, on the other hand .
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Paragraph Development & Topic Sentences
A typical expository paragraph starts with a controlling idea or
claim, which it then explains, develops, or supports with
evidence. Paragraph sprawl occurs when digressions are
introduced into an otherwise focused and unified discussion.
Digressions and deviations often come in the form of irrelevant
details or shifts in focus.
Irrelevant Details
When I was growing up, one of the places I enjoyed
most was the cherry tree in the back yard. Behind
the yard was an alley and then more houses. Every
summer when the cherries began to ripen, I used to
spend hours high in the tree, picking and eating the
sweet, sun-warmed cherries. My mother alwaysworried about my falling out of the tree, but I never
did. But I had some competition for the cherries —
flocks of birds that enjoyed them as much as I did
and would perch all over the tree, devouring the fruit
whenever I wasn't there. I used to wonder why the
grown-ups never ate any of the cherries; but actually
when the birds and I had finished, there weren't
many left.
No sentence is completely irrelevant to the general topic of this
paragraph (the cherry tree), but the sentences Behind the yard
was an alley and then more houses and My mother always
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worried about my falling out of the tree, but I never did do notdevelop the specific idea in the first sentence: enjoyment of the
cherry tree.
Shift in Focus
(١) It is a fact that capital punishment is not a
deterrent to crime. (٢) Statistics show that in stateswith capital punishment, murder rates are the same
or almost the same as in states without capital
punishment. (٣) It is also true that it is more
expensive to put a person on death row than in life
imprisonment because of the costs of maximum
security. (٤) Unfortunately, capital punishment has
been used unjustly. (٥) Statistics show that every
execution is of a man and that nine out of ten are black. (٦) So prejudice shows right through.
Once again, no sentence in this paragraph (to the left) is
completely irrelevant to the general topic (capital punishment),
but the specific focus of this paragraph shifts abruptly twice. The
paragraph starts out with a clear claim in sentence ١: It is a fact
that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. Sentence ٢ provides evidence in support of the initial claim: Statistics show
that in states with capital punishment, murder rates are the same
or almost the same as in states without capital punishment.
Sentence ٣, however, shifts the focus from capital punishment as
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a deterrent to crime to the cost of incarceration: It is also truethat it is more expensive to put a person on death row than in life
imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security.
Sentence ٤ once again shifts the focus, this time to issues of
justice: Unfortunately, capital punishment has been used
unjustly. Sentences ٥ and ٦, Statistics show that every execution
is of a man and that nine out of ten are black and So prejudice
shows right through, follow from ٤ if one believes that executing
men and blacks is in fact evidence of injustice and prejudice.More importantly, however, we are now a long way off from the
original claim, that capital punishment does not deter crime. The
focus has shifted from deterrence to expense to fairness.
The following paragraph on the same topic is much more
effectively focused and unified:
(١)The punishment of criminals has always been a
problem for society. (٢) Citizens have had to decide
whether offenders such as first-degree murderers
should be killed in a gas chamber, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in
society. (٣) Many citizens argue that serious
criminals should be executed. (٤) They believe that
killing criminals will set an example for others and
also rid society of a cumbersome burden. (٥) Other
citizens say that no one has the right to take a life
and that capital punishment is not a deterrent to
crime. (٦) They believe that society as well as the
criminal is responsible for the crimes and that killing
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with saliva, stonefly nymphs clinging to rocks in theswirling currents, and the wormlike larvae of
blackflies edging the stones under riffles or where
the stream spills over steeply slanting rocks. But
now the stream insects were dead, killed by DDT,
and there was nothing for a young salmon to eat.
Rachel Carson, Silent Spring
The first part of Carson's topic sentence ––Soon after the spraying had ended–– is a transitional clause that looks back to the
previous topic: DDT spraying. Topic sentences often begin with
such transitional clauses referring to the previous paragraph. The
second part of the topic sentence ––there were unmistakable signsthat all was not well–– shapes and controls what follows. This
kind of bridging helps the reader follow Carson's argument.
Notice, too, how Carson further helps the reader follow her
argument by providing a more focused version of the topic
sentence later in the paragraph ––All the life of the stream was stilled. This sentence tells us exactly what Carson meant by all
was not well.
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PART III : ESSAY LEVEL
Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:
. identify the main parts of an essay.
. read critically the "Essay Writing Tips ".
. know what an introduction to an essay should contain.
. define the body of an essay.
. identify the content of the body of an essay.
. identify the approaches which can be used in organizing the
body of essay.
. define a "paragraph".
. specify the features of the body of an essay.
. recognise what a conclusion in an essay usually contains.
. read critically " Things not to do in an introductory paragraph "
on p. ٩٤
. identify the tasks an introductory paragraph should achieve.
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. identify the different kinds of essay.
. specify what each kind of essay aims at.
. describe how each kind of essay is organized.
. go through the examples illustrating the different kinds of essay
on pages ١١١- ١١٨.
. look / read critically how each of the three parts of each essay
example (pp.١١١- ١١٨) is realized functionally
. read critically the part entitled " The Five - paragraph Essay ".
. match the model essay provided with the generalizations given
on pages ١١٩ - ١٢١.
. read analytically the commentary on pages ١٢٣ - ١٢٤
. appreciate how "organization" of an essay makes it unique.
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PART III: ESSAY LEVEL
Essay Writing Tips
An essay does not merely list facts. The facts must be organized
into themes to support a central argument or thesis. The thesis is
introduced at the beginning and developed one step at a time.
The stronger the thesis, the easier it will be to develop a strongargument. Using an outline can help organize your thoughts and
guide in writing the essay. Organizationally, the essay has three
main parts:
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion
١. Introduction. In the introduction, state the thesis, outline themain points to be made, and describe the conclusions to be
drawn. Essays don't have surprise endings. They are not
mysteries; the reader should know from the beginning what
conclusions will be drawn. The reader should be drawn intothe essay by the introduction. (Hint: Many times, it is easier to
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write the introduction last, after you clearly know thearguments developed in the essay.)
٢. Body. The bulk of an essay is in the body. In the body,
present the facts and develop thoughts and arguments. The
body may be organized in many ways, but the approach must
be clear, whether it is chronological, thematical, geographical,
or otherwise. Keep in mind these guidelines:
• Use paragraphs. Remember the definition of a paragraph as a unit of thought limited to one major
idea. Every paragraph relates to and supports the
thesis or central argument. Make sure of facts and
that they support the argument. Use specific
examples to support general statements.
• Use good grammar.
Write in complete sentences.
Use past tense instead of present tense when
appropriate. Use active verbs rather than passive ones.
Vary vocabulary.
Avoid sexist language (such as generic "he" or
"the history of man" when you mean humans or
people.)
• Analyze, don't describe. Don't just tell what
happened. Try to explain why it happened and why
it is significant. Facts are important, but meaningless
without interpretation.• Support your point of view. Essays don't have
"correct" answers. The point is to use facts to
develop an argument supporting a point of view.
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Although definitions are extremely useful and it might
serve your purpose to devise your own definition(s) later
in the essay, you want to avoid using this typical
beginning to an essay.
Students are told from the first time they receive instruction in
English composition that their introductory paragraphs should
accomplish two tasks:
١. They should get the reader's interest so that he
or she will want to read more.
٢. They should let the reader know what the
writing is going to be about.
The second task can be accomplished by a carefully crafted
"thesis statement." Writing thesis statements can be learned
rather quickly. The first task––securing the reader's interest––is
more difficult. It is this task that this discussion addresses.
First, admit that it is impossible to say or do or write anything
that will interest everybody. With that out of the way, the
question then becomes: "What can a writer do that will secure the
interest of a fair sized audience?"
Professional writers who write for magazines and receive pay
for their work use five basic patterns to grab a reader's interest:
١. historical review
٢. anecdotal
٣. surprising statement
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[This article begins with a surprising, evenshocking, statistic, ٨٠٠٠ children die each year from
accidents. The article then lists seven easy actions a
person can take to help guard a child against
accidents. These range from turning down the water
heater to ١٢٠ degrees Fahrenheit to putting firearms
under lock and key.]
٤ Famous person: People like to know what celebrities say anddo. Dropping the name of a famous person at the beginning of a
paper usually gets the reader's attention. It may be something that
person said or something he or she did that can be presented as
an interest grabber. You may just mention the famous person's
name to get the reader's interest. The famous person may be dead
or alive. The famous person may be a good person like the Pope,
or he or she may be a bad person like John Wilkes Booth. Of
course, bringing up this person's name must be relevant to the
topic. Even though the statement or action may not be readilyrelevant, a clever writer can convince the reader that it is
relevant.
from "Dear Taxpayer" by Will Manley
in Booklist , May ١, ١٩٩٣.
The most widely read writer in America today is not
Stephen King, Michael Chrichton or John Grisham.It's Margaret Milner Richardson, the Commissioner
of the Internal Revenue Service, whose name
appears on the "١٠٤٠ Forms and Instructions"
booklet. I doubt that Margaret wrote the entire ١٠٤٠
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pamphlet, but the annual introductory letter, "A Note from the Commissioner," bears her signature.
[This is the first paragraph of an article about the
lady named above. The author used the names of
three famous, modern American writers to get a
reader's interest. Notice that the first name on his list
is a name that is probably more widely known than
the other two. Stephen King has been around for
some time now, and everyone, from teenagers to
grandparents, know his name whether they have
read his books or not.]
٥ Declarative: This technique is quite commonly used, but it
must be carefully used or the writer defeats his whole purpose of using one of these patterns, to get the reader's interest. In this
pattern, the writer simply states straight out what the topic of his
paper is going to be about. It is the technique that most studentwriters use with only modest success most of the time, but good
professional writers use it too.
from "The Tuition Tap" by Tim
Lindemuth in K-Stater , February, ١٩٩٤.
In the College of Veterinary Medicine and
Engineering, for example, nearly one-third of theteaching faculty may retire by the year ٢٠٠٤. In the
College of Education, more than a third of the
professors are ٥٥ years old and older. The largest
turnover for a single department is projected to be in
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geology. More than half of its faculty this year are inthe age group that will retire at the millennium, says
Ron Downey of K-State's Office of Institutional
Research and Analysis. The graying of K-State's
faculty is not unique. A Regents' report shows
approximately ٢٧ percent of the faculty at the six
state universities will retire by the end of this
decade, creating a shortage of senior faculty.
[This is a straight forward introduction that gets
right down to the topic of the aging of the faculty of
Kansas State University. There are no historical
reviews, no surprising statements, no anecdotes, no
quotations from or about famous people. This is a
discussion that leads to further discussion about the
topic. The biggest difficulty about this type of
introduction is that it can get boring. It is not likely
to get the interest of anyone except those who are
already interested in this subject. Use this pattern
with caution.]
These patterns can give a "lift" to your writing. Practice them.
Try using two or three different patterns for your introductory
paragraph and see which introductory paragraph is best; it's often
a delicate matter of tone and of knowing who your audience is.
Do not forget, though, that your introductory paragraph must also
include a thesis statement to let your reader know what your
topic is and what you are going to say about that topic.
Supporting Paragraphs
What are supporting paragraphs?
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Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay.
What do they do?
They develop the main idea of your essay.
How do I write them?
١. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay.
٢. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph.
٣. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and
examples.
To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use special
transition words. Transition words link your paragraphs together
and make your essay easier to read. Use them at the beginning
and end of your paragraphs.
Examples of transition words that can help you to link your
paragraphs together:
For listing different points For counter examples
FirstSecond
Third
However Even though
On the other hand
Nevertheless
For additional ideas To show cause and effect
Another
In addition to
Therefore
Thus
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٤. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I
want to say about this topic? Why should people be interested
in this topic? Why is this topic important?
٥. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the
most important point you are going to present. If you cannot
decide which point is the most important, just choose one point
and stick to it throughout your paragraph or essay.
٦. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops yourmain idea. Once you have chosen the most important point of
your paragraph or essay, you must find the best way to tell
your reader about it. Look at the facts you have written. Look
at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas
will best support the main idea of your essay. Once you have
chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which
order to put them in the essay. Write down your own note set
that you can use to guide yourself as you write your essay.
Writing Essays
What is the writing stage?
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.
Five Writing Steps:
١. For the introduction, write the thesis statement and give some
background information.
٢. Develop each supporting paragraph and make sure to follow
the correct paragraph format.
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Style and Organization
١. Make sure your essay has an introduction, supporting
paragraphs, and a summary paragraph.
٢. Check that you have a thesis statement that identifies the main
idea of the essay.
٣. Check that all your paragraphs follow the proper paragraphformat.
٤. See if your essay is interesting.
Publishing Essays
What is the publishing stage?
The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your
essay to hand in.
Publishing Steps:
١. Make a paper copy of your essay.
٢. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents.
٣. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.
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Kinds of Essay
١. Definition Essay
When you are writing a definition essay, you take a term or an
idea and write about what it is. Often, definitions are combined
with classification or other forms of organization in the essay.
You need to give a careful definition of the key term before
going on to discuss different types or examples.
Example question:
Write an essay defining energy
resources and discuss the different
types.
Introduction: Define the key term energy resources.
١. Define one type of energy resources:
renewable resources.
Supporting paragraphs:
٢. Define another type of energy
resources: non-renewable resources.
Summary paragraph: Summarize energy resources.
٢. Classification Essay
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Example question: Write an essay describing the polar bear.Introduction: Introduce what a polar bear is.
١. Describe where the polar bear lives.
٢. Describe the body of the polar bear.
Supporting paragraphs:
٣. Describe what the polar eats.
Summary paragraph: Summarize what a polar bear is.
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٤. Compare and Contrast Essay
In a compare and contrast essay, you write about the similarities
and differences between two or more people, places, or things.
You can organize the essay by writing about one subject first and
then comparing it with the second subject. A more effective wayis to organize the essay by comparing each subject by category.
Example: Write an essay comparing the weather in
Cairo with the weather in Aswan.
Introduction: Introduce weather in the cities of Cairo
and Aswan.
١. Compare weather in spring and
summer for both cities. State how they
are similar or different.
Supporting paragraphs:
٢. Compare weather in autumn and
winter for both cities. State how they
are similar or different.
Summary paragraph: Summarize the similarities anddifferences.
٥.Sequence Essay
In a sequence essay, you are writing to describe a series of eventsor a process in some sort of order. Usually, this order is based on
time. You organize the essay by writing about each step of the
process in the order it occurred.
Example question:Write an essay outlining the stages o
privatization in Egypt.
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Introduction: Define what privatization is.
١. Describe what the public sector was
like in the past.
٢. Describe what the public sector is like
now.
Supporting paragraphs:
٣. Describe the future of the public
sector in Egypt.
Summary paragraph:Summarize the main stages of privatiza-
tion in Egypt.
٦. Choice Essay
In a choice essay, you need to choose which object, idea, or
action that you prefer. You organize the essay by describing each
option and then giving your opinion.
Example question: Write an essay choosing between
spending time with one or two close
friends and spending time with a large
number of friends.
Introduction: Introduce the concept of friendship.
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٢. Explain second reason: better living
conditions in the newly-built cities.
Summary
paragraph:Summarize main reasons.
٨. Evaluation Essay
In an evaluation essay, you make judgments about people, ideas,
and possible actions. You make your evaluation based on certain
criteria that you develop. Organize the essay by discussing the
criteria you used to make your judgment.
Example
question:
Write an essay evaluating the importance of the
Parliament.
Introduction: Give your judgment on whether the Parliament
is important.
Supporting
paragraphs:١. Explain first criteria: meeting place for
government
٢. Explain second criteria: represent Egyptians
٣. Explain third criteria: make laws for Egypt
Summary
paragraph:
Conclude with an overall judgment about the
Parliament
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Body — Second paragraph:
The second paragraph of the body should contain the second
strongest argument, second most significant example, second
cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up the first paragraph
in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include
the reverse hook which ties in with the transitional hook at the
end of the first paragraph of the body. The topic for this
paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic
should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory
paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a
transitional hook to tie into the third paragraph of the body.
Body — Third paragraph:
The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest
argument, weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious
follow up to the second paragraph in the body. The first sentence
of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties inwith the transitional hook at the end of the second paragraph. The
topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence.
This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory
paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a
transitional concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the
final major point being made in this paper. This hook also leads
into the last, or concluding, paragraph.
Conclusion:
Concluding paragraph:
This paragraph should include the following:
١. an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph,
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uses the following image to describe a static scene: "His roomwas as black as pitch with the thick darkness..." Poe used the
words "black," "pitch," and "thick darkness" not only to show the
reader the condition of the old man's room, but also to make the
reader feel the darkness." (٣) "Thick" is a word that is not usually
associated with colour (darkness), yet in using it, Poe stimulates
the reader's sense of feeling as well as his sense of sight.
(١) Further on in the story, Poe uses a couple of words that
cross not only the sense of sight but also the sense of feeling todescribe a dynamic scene. (٢) The youth in the story has been
standing in the open doorway of the old man's room for a long
time, waiting for just the right moment to reveal himself to the
old man in order to frighten him. (٣) Poe writes: "So I opened it
[the lantern opening]—you cannot imagine how stealthily,
stealthily—until, at length, a single dim ray, like the thread of the
spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture
eye." (٤) By using the metaphor of the thread of the spider
(which we all know is a creepy creature) and the word "shot,"
Poe almost makes the reader gasp, as surely did the old man
whose one blind eye the young man describes as "the vulture
eye."
(١) The reader does not know much about what the old man
in this story looks like except that he has one blind eye. (٢) In the
second paragraph of "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe establishes the
young man's obsession with that blind eye when he writes: "Hehad the eye of the vulture—a pale blue eye, with a film over it."
(٣) This "vulture eye" is evoked over and over again in the story
until the reader becomes as obsessed with it as does the young
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man. (٤) His use of the vivid, concrete word "vulture" establishes
a specific image in the mind of the reader that is inescapable.
(١) "Thick darkness," "thread of the spider," and "vulture
eye" are three images that Poe used in "The Tell-Tale Heart" to
stimulate a reader's senses. (٢) Poe wanted the reader to see and
feel real life. (٣) He used concrete imagery rather than vague
abstract words to describe settings and people. (٤) If Edgar Allan
Poe was one of Stephen King's teachers, then readers of Kingowe a debt of gratitude to that nineteenth-century creator of
horror stories.
Commentary:
The introductory paragraph includes a paraphrase of something said by a famous person in order to get the reader's
attention. The second sentence leads up to the thesis statementwhich is the third sentence. The thesis statement (sentence ٣)
presents topic of the paper to the reader and provides a mini-
outline. The topic is Poe's use of visual imagery. The mini-
outline tells the reader that this paper will present Poe's use of
imagery in three places in his writing: (١) description of static
setting; (٢) description of dynamic setting; and (٣) description of
a person. The last sentence of the paragraph uses the words
"manipulation" and "senses" as transitional hooks.
In the first sentence of the second paragraph (first
paragraph of the body) the words "sense" and "manipulation"are used to hook into the end of the introductory paragraph. The
first part of the second sentence provides the topic for this
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paragraph—imagery in a static scene. Then a quotation from"The Tell-Tale Heart" is presented and briefly discussed. The last
sentence of this paragraph uses the expressions "sense of feeling"
and "sense of sight" as hooks for leading into the third paragraph.
The first sentence of the third paragraph (second paragraph
of the body) uses the words "sense of sight" and "sense of
feeling" to hook back into the previous paragraph. Note that in
the second paragraph "feeling" came first, and in this paragraph
"sight" comes first. The first sentence also includes the topic for
this paragraph—imagery in a dynamic scene. Again, a quotation
is taken from the story, and it is briefly discussed. The last
sentence uses the words "one blind eye" which was in the
quotation. This expression provides the transitional hook for the
last paragraph in the body of the paper.
In the first sentence of the fourth paragraph (third
paragraph in the body), "one blind eye" is used that hooks into
the previous paragraph. This first sentence also lets the reader
know that this paragraph will deal with descriptions of people:"... what the old man looks like...." Once again Poe is quoted and
discussed. The last sentence uses the word "image" which hooks
into the last paragraph. (It is less important that this paragraph
has a hook since the last paragraph is going to include a summary
of the body othe paper.)
The first sentence of the concluding paragraph uses the
principal words from the quotations from each paragraph of the
body of the paper. This summarizes those three paragraph. The
second and third sentences provide observations which can also be considered a summary, not only of the content of the paper,
but also offers personal opinion which was logically drawn as the
result of this study. The last sentence returns to the Edgar Allan
Poe-Stephen King relationship which began this paper. This
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sentence also provides a "wrap-up" and gives the paper a sense of finality.
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- surprising statement
- famous person
- declarative
. Supporting paragraphs (i.e. the body) in an essay develop its
main idea. They should have topic sentences, supporting
sentences, and a summary sentence,
. Transition words link the units (i.e paragraphs) of an essay andmakes it easier to read.
. Writing an essay goes through different stages:
- pre - writing
- writing
- editing
- publishing
. kinds of essay can be classified as follows:
- definition essay
- classification essay
- description essay
- compare and contrast essay.
- sequence essay
-choice essay
- explanation essay
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- evaluation essay
. the five- paragraph essay is a classic format for compositions.
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PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE
Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:
. extract the main point in each paragraph of the essay entitled "
The Computer as writing assistant...... "
. provide the main topic of the essay.
. show evidence whether the writer of the essay has provided all
details about using a computer, a word-processor, or otherwise.
. pick up some of the transitional to go used in the essay.
. identify the functions of the tags.
.choose one of the composition topics provided and write an
essay on it.
. analyse the model essay on pages ١٤٠-١٤٢ in terms of
organization.
. provide a statement about the topic of the essay entitled " Noise
Pollution ".
. provide a summary of the story at the beginning of the essay.
. show whether the story given is relevant to the topic of the
essay or otherwise
. define "Noise Pollution" from the writer's perspective.
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. show whether the facts / examples provided in the essay supportthe main argument or otherwise.
. identify the conclusion reached at the end of the essay.
. choose one of the composition topics provided and write an
essay on it.
. provide a statement about the main topic of the essay " smoking
and quitting are matters of free will ".
. identify the writer's attitude towards smoking.
. provide some details from the essay which support the main
argument
. pick up some of the transitional tags used in the essay.
. identify the conclusion reached at the end of the essay.
. write an essay or one of the composition topics provided.
. provide answers to the discussion items based on the essay
entitled "what happened to the News? ".
. write an essay on one of the composition topics provided.
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PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE
The Computer as Writing Assistant
More Than a Fancy Typewriter
That computer sitting before you is more than a fancytypewriter. With modern word-processing programs and the
ability of the computer to attend to more than one task at a time,
the computer can become an invaluable assistant in the writing
process. If you are still typing with two fingers, however, you
must learn how to take advantage of all the computer has to offer.
It might be a good idea to call a brief time-out in your academic
courses and learn some keyboarding skills. Until voice-
recognition software becomes a more affordable reality, the
ability to use the keyboard with speed and efficiency is going to
be one of the keys to academic success. You don't want to spend
hours pecking away at the keyboard when a mini-course in
keyboarding will give you the skills necessary to keyboard like a
speed-demon. And paying someone else to keyboard your paper
is not only expensive; it also means that you're not taking
advantage of everything that this technology has to offer. If you
don't have time during the regular semester, promise yourself that
before another winter's intersession or summer session passes by,you will take a course in keyboarding. You will never regret it.
There are also software packages that promise to turn you into anexecutive secretary in a week, and they can be effective. Having
the discipline of a course and the encouragement of an instructor and classmates can be helpful, though.
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One of the first things you'll learn in a keyboard class is howto SAVE the material you're typing. Once you've learned the first
basic step, it's easy to save your document as you go along. Some
software, in fact, has an automatic SAVE feature that saves your
work every few minutes. When you're done with your work,
make sure that final copies of your documents are safely "put
away" in two places––on a floppy disc and on the hard drive or
on two separate floppies. Floppies "go bad," and someday you
will be very glad that you got in the habit of saving things twice.
Your instructor is not interested in what is already an old excuse:"My floppy is corrupted." The only caution here is that you must
be careful to work with the latest saved version. Carefully label
your discs and keep your backup copy as fresh as your main
floppy. Also, carry floppy discs in a hard plastic case.
If your document is really important or private, learn to keep
copies in a safe place, away from nasty weather and
electromagnetic fields (like some scissors or paperclips and those
magnetic closers on cabinet doors). Also, get in the habit of
checking the disc drive before you leave the computer station.Carefully saving your documents on a floppy doesn't do much
good if you leave it in the disc drive and the next person who
uses the lab accidentally blows away your precious text or helpshimself to a free floppy disc.
As you enter the Editing and Rewriting phases of writing
your paper and you begin to move blocks of text around and
delete material or insert new paragraphs here and there, it might
be a good idea to begin to save subsequent drafts of your paper.Label the draft files systematically and simply: ozone_ ١.doc,
ozone_ ٢.doc, etc. The reason for this is that we sometimes "blow
away" something that is quite good and when we want to retrieve
it, it's gone if we constantly over-ride a single saved document.
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(A distinct disadvantage of digital writing!) A high-densityfloppy disc should be able to hold many versions of several text
documents.
Discussion:
١. Sum up the main points in each paragraph.
٢. What is the main topic of this essay?
٣. Do you think that the writer has provided all the details about
using the computer as a word-processor?
٤. Mention some of the transitional tags used by the writer in the
essay.
Composition:
- Write an essay explaining why you have decided to buy a
personal computer.
- Write an essay choosing between buying a computer and
buying a typewriter.
- What possible disadvantages can computers have? Explain
with reasons.
- Compare and contrast two modern inventions.
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Noise Pollution
Ever felt like murdering your neighbour for blasting music
too loud? That's exactly what ٧٨-year-old retired farmer
Lambrinos Lykouresis did two years ago in Lithakia, on the
Greek island of Zakynthos. Lykouresis, who claims he had
complained to his neighbour for months and only wanted to
listen to the evening news in peace, suddenly snapped. On May
٣١, ١٩٩٦ he got up from his armchair, took his hunting rifle from
the shelf, hobbled over to the neighbouring apartment and rang
the bell. When ٤٠-year-old housewife Imberia Boziki answered
the door, he fired three times at point-blank range, killing her
instantly and wounding her ٢٤-year-old son.
Lykouresis now listens to the evening news in Greece's
Ioannina maximum security prison. Convicted of manslaughter
in ١٩٩٦, he is serving two life sentences. The Lykouresis case is
an extreme example of the lengths to which some people will go
for a little peace and quiet. And it's sad testimony to the
devastating effects of one of the world's most pervasive yet least
publicized environmental problems: noise pollution, the presence
of intrusive and unwanted sounds that can seriously affect
physical and psychological health.
And the Greeks are not alone. According to Europe's
Environment, a report published in ١٩٩٥ by the European
Environment Agency (E.E.A.), about ٤٥٠ million people–– ٦٥٪ of
the European population––are regularly exposed to noise
intensities above ٥٥ dB, a level high enough to cause annoyance,
aggressive behaviour and sleep disturbance. Although noise-data
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collection is limited and methods may vary, the E.E.A. alsoconcluded that some ١١٣ million Europeans are routinely
subjected to more than ٦٥ dB, the level at which hypertension can
result, and ١٠ million endure noise above ٧٥ dB, which can lead
to high stress levels, increased heart rates and potential hearing
loss.
Unfortunately, the primary sources of noise pollution are also
mainstays of modern life. Apart from people––who create a
racket through stereos and televisions and at outdoor
entertainment and sporting events––the usual culprits are planes,
trains and automobiles. In Germany, for example, the Federal
Environmental Agency estimates that ٧٠٪ of the country's
inhabitants feel continuously disturbed by road traffic. In the
Netherlands, more than a million people are subjected to
excessive noise levels as a result of their proximity to Schiphol
Airport, according to a report by the Dutch National Institute for
Public Health and the Environment (R.I.V.M.). In an increasingly
overcrowded and congested Europe, noise pollution is a problem
that resonates everywhere, not just in urban centres. And
members of the silent majority who suffer from these acoustic
intrusions are starting to speak out.
In Britain, individuals saddled with loud and uncontrollableneighbours can complain to the local council. But taking noise-
makers to court can be a long and exhausting process. And
councils often lack the resources––and the will––to prosecute.
"There's a lot of prejudice against people who complain," saysGibson. "Most people move house rather than confront the
source of the problem."
Unfortunately, those unable or unwilling to move away havelittle choice but to insulate themselves as best they can from the
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noise. Double-glazing helps, but the effectiveness of sound barriers is limited. In general, the higher the barrier and the closer
to the noise source, the better it works. But with extremely wide
highways barriers can't do much to block traffic noise coming
from the farthest lanes.
The noisy nature of modern life is unlikely to be muted any
time soon. But that doesn't mean that noise pollution is destined
to drive us all mad or deaf. Sensible urban planning, innovative
new technology and creative acoustic architecture––plus some
old-fashioned good neighbourliness––can go a long way toward
restoring peace and quiet. And that may well be the best way to
stop the sound of silence from becoming an endangered species.
Discussion:
١. State the topic of this essay.
٢. Summarize the story with which the writer begins his essay.
٣. Why, in your opinion, does the writer begin his essay with this
story? Is it relevant to the essay topic?
٤. How is ‘noise pollution’ defined by the writer?
٥. Does the writer include facts/examples in his essay to support
his argument?
٦. What conclusion does the writer reach at the end of his essay?
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Composition:
- Imagine that you are Lykouresis, writing to explain why and
how you killed your neighbour, Imberia Boziki. Write the
essay in the descriptive style.
- Write an explanation essay on the sources of noise pollution
in Egypt.
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Smoking and quitting are matters of free will
The increasing attempt to hold tobacco companies responsible
for the consequences of smoking behaviour poses a greater threat
to liberty in a free society than nicotine ever could. When the
government acts like a parent, attempting to protect people from
themselves, it makes children out of adult citizens.
Most of us know people who smoked for years and then quit
abruptly. Their bodies had adapted to nicotine and since they
chose to quit, they did. Question: What do we attribute that
behaviour to? Answer: Free will.
And what of people who do not want to quit? Why explain
their behaviour using terms such as weak will and physiological
addiction? Those people simply choose to continue smoking,
even if a doctor or loved one has suggested they quit. They aren't
suffering from a weak will. They have an iron will: They choose
to continue smoking against medical advice. And ironically, theyare often the ones who transform their iron will into an iron fist,
demanding they be financially compensated for the consequences
of their own behaviour.
There's nothing particularly unusual about non-compliance
with medical advice or blaming others for one's own behaviour.
Many people continue to engage in certain behaviours against
medical advice. How many people continue to eat a high-fat diet
when their doctor recommends against it? If they develop
cardiovascular disease, will they blame McDonald's or Burger King for hooking them on hamburgers and French fries? Why
not?
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Smoking and quitting, like eating and dieting or exercisingand being a couch potato, are matters of free will and personal
choice. Yes, habits may cause disease—but habits aren't disease
in and of themselves. Cancer is a disease. Smoking is a habitual
behaviour. Moreover, likening a behaviour to a disease seems
especially cruel to people with real diseases. A person cannot
choose to quit or moderate diabetes.
The price of freedom in a free society is responsibility for the
consequences of one's actions. Liberty and responsibility are
positively correlated. That's a fact. People who claim addiction
causes people to smoke say the two are negatively correlated.
That's fiction. We cannot increase freedom by decreasing
personal responsibility. That's the road to serfdom.
Discussion:
١. State the main topic of this essay.
٢. What is the writer’s attitude towards smoking?
٣. Mention some of the supporting details used by the writer to
support his argument.
٤. Give examples of transitional tags used in the essay.
٥. What conclusion does the writer reach at the end of his essay?
Composition:
- Compare and contrast two articles you have read on smoking.
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What Happened to the News?
When television news started out, back in the ١٩٥٠s, it
occupied less than a thirty-minute slot. Ten or fifteen minutes
would be granted to local stations for their news, and then the
networks would say all there was to say about national and world
news in the remaining fifteen to twenty minutes. There were very
few advertisements during the news; it wasn't regarded as
appropriate to sponsor news about floods and fires and politicaldisasters. Life must have been simpler then.
Nowadays many television stations set apart ninety minutes
for local news alone, and that's just for the early evening news
show. On March ١٧, ١٩٩٨, we watched a local news show in
Hartford for one hour, from ٥ to ٦ p.m., and kept track of what
seemed to be really news and what was––well, not news.
First of all, during this one hour of news, there were ٣٥
advertisements. Among other things advertised, there were adsfor cars, fast-food chains, mutual funds, feminine hygiene
products, cheese, utility companies, phone service, shampoos,
and deodorants. Most of the ads were fast paced, colourful, andsometimes funny. They seemed to do a lot in their thirty seconds.
Graphically, they were the most interesting part of the hour. In
addition, there were ten advertisements apparently produced bythe television station itself that advertised programs and services
of the station––sometimes featuring what was coming up later
that evening, sometimes touting the virtues of the station's newsteam and weather forecasters.
Perhaps the most annoying moments in the news hour are the
little moments of conviviality and chit-chat between members of
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the news team, the little asides of mutual congratulation andgratitude and commiseration (with the various victims in the
day's news) that are supposed to make us see how wonderfully
human the newscasters are. What must the fifteen-minute, get-it-
done-and-get-out newscasters of the ٥٠s think of all this?
Whatever happened to the news? What we need to do now is
to take a stopwatch to the news hour and determine how much of
the time is spent actually reporting "hard news," the kind of thing
that was put into that fifteen-minute segment during the earlydays of television news. We're willing to wager that over a one-
hour news show there is considerably less than fifteen minutes
occupied with the news. We can't say that our lives were simpler
back then, but apparently we had less time to spend watching
nonsense.
Discussion:
• Does the writer convince you of anything?
• Do you think the writer goes overboard with his illustrations?
If so, can you say what you would leave out?
• The writer insists on a difference between "hard news" and
the kind of thing he sees on the news program. Is it clear what
the writer means by "hard news"? Would it be more fair if the
writer provided us with a good definition of what "news"really is?
• Should the writer do a more scientific or statistical survey of
news programs––using a stopwatch, perhaps, watching other
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channels and sampling the news on several different eveningsover a period of weeks or even months?
• Which of the following statements would you consider as a
the writer’s conclusion?
- News programs are getting longer and longer and
offering less and less actual news.
- News programs are full of advertisements.
Composition:
- Write an essay evaluating TV programs
- Write an essay comparing two TV channels. Statewhich channel you would prefer to watch. Give specific
reasons for your choice.
- Both newspapers and television news programs can begood sources of information about current events. Whatdo you think are the advantages and disadvantages of
each of these sources?
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SUMMARY
PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE
Remember:
١. The Computer as writing assistant more than a fancy
typewriter.
. A Computer can be an invaluable assistant in the writing
process.
. A Course in keyboarding can provide you with the necessary
skills.
. Software packages can make you an executive secretary in a
week.
. Keyboard classes help you save the material.
٢. Noise Pollution.
. Lykouresis desperately killed his neighbour's wife and wounded
her ٢٤. year - old son for blasting music too loud.
. Noise pollution can seriously affect physical and psychological
health. A high percentage of Europeans are exposed to noise
intensities above ٥٥ dB. At the level of ٦٥ dB, hypertension,
increased heart rates and hearing loss can result.
. Planes, trains end automobiles are primary sources of noise
pollution
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. Urban planning and new technology can help us restore peaceand quiet.
٣. Smoking and quitting are matters of free will.
. Smokers who quit after years of smoking have free will.
. People who choose to continue smoking against medical advice
demand financial compensation for the results of their behaviour.
. Many people continue to eat a high fat diet against their doctors'advice. However, they can never McDonald's for providing them
with hamburgers and French fries.
. Smoking and quitting are matters of personal choice. In a free
society, one is responsible for one's actions. We cannot increase
freedom by decreasing personal responsibility.
٤. What happened to the new?
. Television news occupied less than ٣٠ minutes in the ١٩٥o's.
But nowadays many television stations devote ٩٠ minutes to
local news alone.
. A local news show in Hartford in ١٩٩٨ continued for an hour
during which there were ٣٥ advertisements for cars,, fast food,
shampoos... etc.
. We need to determine how much of the time devoted to thenews is spent actually reporting 'hard news'.
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PART V: WRITING TOPICS
Objectives:
By the end of this part, students should be able to:
. go through the list of writing topics given.
. classify the topics according to the kinds of essay previously
learnt.
. read critically a number of the topics and provide an outline for
each.
. write some topic sentences stating the main points in some of
the topics provided.
. write some essay on a number of the topics based on students'
personal choice.
. exchange their writings with their classmates.
. discuss how the writings are organized.
. identify some transitional tags used in the writings.
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PART V: WRITING TOPICS
♦Some people enjoy change, and they look forward to new
experiences. Others like their lives to stay the same, and they
do not change their usual habits. Compare these two
approaches to life. Which approach do you prefer? Explain
why.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Playing a game is fun only when you win.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.
♦Some people prefer to spend time with one or two close
friends. Others choose to spend time with a large number of
friends. Compare the advantages of each choice. Which of these two ways of spending time do you prefer? Give reasons
to support your answer.
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♦Think of the most important class you have ever taken. Whydid you enjoy this class so much? Use specific reasons and
details to explain your answer.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Universities should give the same amount of money to
their students’ sports activities as they give to their
university libraries.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.
♦Some people think that children should begin their formal
education at a very early age and should spend most of their
time on school studies. Others believe that young childrenshould spend most of their time playing. Compare these two
views. Which view do you agree with? Why?
♦Some people prefer to spend most of their time alone. Others
like to be with friends most of the time. Do you prefer tospend your time alone or with friends? Give reasons to
support your answer.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
People should read only those books that are about real
events, real people, and established facts.
Use specific reasons and details to support your
opinion.
♦When choosing a place to live, what do you consider mostimportant: location, size, style, number of rooms, types of
rooms, or other features? Use reasons and specific examples
to support your answer.
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Which opinion do you agree with? Give reasons to supportyour answer.
♦Some high schools require all students to wear school
uniforms. Other high schools permit students to decide what
to wear to school. Which of these two school policies do youthink is better? Use specific reasons and examples to support
your opinion.
♦ If you could make one important change in a school that you
attended, what change would you make? Use reasons andspecific examples to support your answer.
♦Your school has received a gift of money. What do you think
is the best way for your school to spend this money? Usespecific reasons and details to support your choice.
♦ It has been said, “Not everything that is learned is contained
in books.” Compare and contrast knowledge gained from
experience with knowledge gained from books. In your
opinion, which source is more important? Why?
♦Some people believe that the best way of learning about life
is by listening to the advice of family and friends. Other people believe that the best way of learning about life is
through personal experience. Compare the advantages of
these two different ways of learning about life. Which do you
think is preferable? Use specific examples to support your
preference.
♦You need to travel from your home to a place ٤٠ miles (٦٤
kilometres) away. Compare the different kinds of
transportation you could use. Tell which method of travel you
would choose. Give specific reasons for your choice.
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♦Some people prefer to spend their free time outdoors. Other people prefer to spend their leisure time indoors. Would you
prefer to be outside or would you prefer to be inside for your
leisure activities? Use specific reasons and examples to
support your choice.
♦Some people believe that students should be given one long
vacation each year. Others believe that students should haveseveral short vacations throughout the year. Which viewpoint
do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples tosupport your choice.
♦Students at universities often have a choice of places to live.
They may choose to live in university dormitories, or they
may choose to live in apartments in the community. Compare
the advantages of living in university housing with the
advantages of living in an apartment in the community.
Which would you prefer? Give reasons for your preference.
♦What do you consider to be the most important room in ahouse? Why is this room more important to you than anyother room? Use specific reasons and examples to support
your opinion.
♦Would you prefer to live in a traditional house or in a modern
apartment building? Use specific reasons and details to
support your choice.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
A person’s childhood years (the time from birth to ١٢
years of age) are the most important years of a person’s
life.
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Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.
♦Your country is going to build a new national university.
What academic area should be the main focus of this
university? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Parents are the best teachers.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your
answer.
♦ In the twentieth century, food has become easier to prepare.
Has this change improved the way people live? Use specific
reasons and examples to support your answer.
♦Your community has enough money to hire one new
employee. Which one of the following should your community hire?
a community health worker •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a counsellor
an emergency medical technician
a fire-fighter
a judge
a landscaper
a police officer
a recreation centre director a teacher
Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
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♦What is the most important animal in your country? Why isthis animal important? Use reasons and specific details to
explain your answer.
♦Some items (such as clothes or furniture) can be made by
hand or by machine. Which do you prefer — items made by
hand or items made by machine? Use reasons and specific
examples to explain your choice.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
A zoo has no useful purpose.
Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.
♦Some people prefer to live in a small town. Others prefer to
live in a big city. Which place would you prefer to live in?
Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.
♦People learn in different ways. Some people learn by doing
things; other people learn by reading about things; otherslearn by listening to people talk about things. Which of these
methods of learning is best for you? Use specific examples to
support your choice.
♦Some people trust their first impressions about a person’s
character because they believe these judgements are generally
correct. Other people do not judge a person’s character
quickly because they believe first impressions are often
wrong. Compare these two attitudes. Which attitude do you
agree with? Support your choice with specific examples.
♦A university plans to develop a new research centre in your
country. Some people want a centre for business research.Other people want a centre for research in agriculture
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(farming). Which of these two kinds of research centres doyou recommend for your country? Give reasons for your
recommendation.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
There is nothing that young people can teach older
people.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your
position.
♦How do movies or television influence people’s behaviour?
Use reasons and specific examples to explain your answer.
♦Music tells us something about a culture. What does the
music of your country reveal about the culture of your
country? Use reasons and specific examples to support your
answer.
♦
It has recently been announced that a new movie theatre may be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this
plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your
answer.
♦A company has announced that it wishes to build a large
factory near your community. Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of this new influence on your community. Do
you support or oppose the factory?
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Television has destroyed communication among friendsand family.
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Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.
♦ In some countries people are no longer allowed to smoke in
many public places and office buildings. Do you think this is
a good law or a bad law? Use specific reasons and examplesto support your position.
♦ Imagine that you have received some land to use as you wish.
How would you use this land? Use specific details to explain
your answer.
♦Many parts of the world are losing important natural
resources, such as forests, animals, or clean water. Chooseone resource that is disappearing and explain why it needs to
be saved. Use specific reasons and examples to support your
opinion.
♦When people move to another country, some of them decide
to follow the customs of the new country. Others prefer to
keep their own customs. Compare these two choices. Which
one do you prefer? Support your answer with specific details.
♦Decisions can be made quickly, or they can be made after careful thought. Read and think about the following
statement: The decisions that people make quickly are always
wrong. Do you agree or disagree with the statement? Use
reasons and examples to support your opinion.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
It is more important for students to study history and
literature than it is for them to study science and
mathematics.
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Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
All students should be required to study art and music
in high school.
Give specific reasons to support you opinion.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
It is better to make the wrong decision than to
make no decision at all.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your
position.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Reading fiction (such as novels and short stories) is
more enjoyable than watching movies.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your position.
♦Some people think we should spend as much money as
possible exploring outer space (for example, travelling to the
moon and to other planets). Other people disagree and think
we should spend this money for our basic needs on Earth.
Which of these two opinions do you agree with? Use specific
reasons and details to support your answer.
♦What is one of the most important decisions you have made?
Why was this decision important? Use specific reasons and
details to explain your answer.
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♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
When people succeed, it is because of hard work; luck
has nothing to do with success.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your
answer.
♦Some people think that governments should spend as much
money as possible on developing or buying computer
technology. Other people disagree and think that this moneyshould be spent on more basic needs. Which one of these
opinions do you agree with? Use specific reasons and details
to support your answer.
♦ It is better for children to grow up in the countryside than in a big city. Do you agree or disagree? Use specific reasons and
examples to develop your essay.
♦ In general, people are living longer now. Discuss the causes
of this phenomenon. Use specific reasons and details todevelop your essay.
♦ In general, people are living longer now. How will this
change affect society? Use specific details and examples todevelop your essay.
♦We all work or will work in our jobs with many different
kinds of people. In your opinion, what are some important
characteristics of a co-worker (someone you work closely
with)? Use reasons and specific examples to explain whythese characteristics are important.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Sometimes it is better not to tell the truth.
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Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.
♦ In some countries, teenagers have jobs while they are still
students. Do you think this is a good idea? Support your
opinion by using specific reasons and details.
♦A person you know is planning to move to your town or city.
What do you think this person would like and dislike about
living in your town or city? Why? Use specific reasons and
details to develop your essay.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Private companies should spend more money to clean
up pollution in the environment.
Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay.
♦ In the future, students may have the choice of studying at
home by using technology such as computers or television or of studying at traditional schools. Which would you prefer?
Use reasons and specific details to explain your choice.
♦When famous people such as actors, athletes and rock stars
give their opinions, many people listen. Do you think we
should pay attention to these opinions? Give specific reasons
and examples to support your answer.
♦When people need to complain about a product or poor
service, some prefer to complain in writing and others prefer to complain in person. Which way do you prefer? Use specific
reasons and examples to support your answer.
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♦You have been asked to suggest improvements to a park thatyou have visited. This might be a city park, a regional park, or
a national park. What improvements would you make? Why?
Use specific reasons and examples to support your
recommendations.
♦ If you were asked to send one thing representing your
country to an international exhibition, what would youchoose? Why? Use specific reasons and details to explain
your choice.♦There are many different kinds of advertising (on the radio,
on television, in newspapers, in magazines, and on
billboards). In your opinion, which one of these kinds of
advertising is the most effective? Why? Use specific reasons
and examples to support your answer.
♦Many people have a close relationship with their pets. These
people treat their birds, cats, or other animals as members of
their family. In your opinion, are such relationships good?Why or why not? Use specific reasons and examples tosupport your answer.
♦Advertising helps to sell products. Describe the qualities of
an effective advertisement. Use specific details and examples
to support your answer.
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♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
A sense of humour can sometimes be helpful in
difficult situations.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your
answer.
♦Some people think that they can learn better by themselves
than with a teacher. Others think that it is always better to
have a teacher. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons todevelop your essay.
♦What are some important qualities of a good supervisor
(boss)? Use specific details and examples to explain why
these qualities are important.
♦Should governments spend more money on improving roads
and highways, or should governments spend more money on
improving public transportation (buses, trains, subways)?
Why? Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay.
♦Choose one of the following careers and explain why it is
important to society.
accountant
aeroplane pilot
architect
dentist
lawyer
actor
computer
programmer
farmer
tour guide
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♦Use specific reasons and details to explain your answer.
♦ It has recently been announced that a shopping centre may be
built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this
plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your
answer.
♦ It is generally agreed that society benefits from the work of
its members. Compare the contributions of artists to societywith the contributions of scientists. Which type of
contribution do you think is valued more by your society?
Give specific reasons to support your answer.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
High schools should allow students to study the courses
that students want to study.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
It is better to be a member of a group than to be the
leader of a group.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your
answer.
♦Some people prefer to plan activities for their free time verycarefully. Others choose not to make any plans at all for their
free time. Compare the benefits of planning free timeactivities with the benefits of not making plans. Which do you
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prefer—planning or not planning for your leisure time? Usespecific reasons and examples to support your choice.
♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
People are never satisfied with what they have. They
always want something more or something different.
Use specific reasons to support your answer.
♦Some people say that advertising encourages us to buy things
we really do not need. Others say that advertisements tell us
about new products that may improve our lives. Which
viewpoint do you agree with? Use specific reasons and
examples to support your answer.
♦You have enough money to purchase either a house or a
business. Which would you choose to buy? Give specific
reasons to explain your choice.
♦
Some students prefer to study alone. Others prefer to studywith a group of students. Which do you prefer? Use specific
reasons and examples to support your answer.
♦Some people like doing work by hand. Others prefer using
machines. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons and
examples to support your answer.
♦ It has recently been announced that a new restaurant may be
built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this
plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.
♦ It has recently been announced that a new high school may
be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this
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plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.
♦You have been told that dormitory rooms at your university
must be shared by two students. Would you rather have the
university assign a student to share a room with you, or wouldyou rather choose your own roommate? Use specific reasons
and details to explain your answer.
♦Some people say that the best preparation for life is
learning to work with others and be co-operative.Others take the opposite view and say that learning to
be competitive is the best preparation. Discuss these
positions, using concrete examples of both. Tell which
one you agree with and explain why.
♦Supporters of technology say that it solves problems
and makes life better. Opponents argue that technology
creates new problems that may threaten or damage the
quality of life. Using one or two examples, discussthese two positions. Which view of technology do you
support? Why?
♦Some people believe that automobiles are useful and
necessary. Others believe that automobiles cause
problems that affect our health and well-being. Which
position do you support? Give specific reasons for your
answer.
♦ Inventions such as eyeglasses and the sewing machinehave had an important effect on our lives. Choose
another invention that you think is important. Give
specific reasons for your choice.
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♦Do you agree or disagree with the followingstatement?
Teachers should make learning enjoyable and fun
for their students.
Use reasons and specific examples to support your
opinion.
♦ Imagine that you have been asked to form a five person team
to tackle a business problem. Describe the personal attributes,values, and attitudes of ideal team members.
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