A First Course in Essay Writing

8/3/2019 A First Course in Essay Writing

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A First Course

in

ESSAY WRITING

Compiled by

Hala Darwish

&Mohammed Abdel Aatty

Revised by

M.M. Enani

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF ARTSCAIRO UNIVERSITY



CONTENTS

Preface...........................................................................................................................i

PART I: SENTENCE LEVEL

Clauses: The Essential Building-Blocks...............................................................٤

Exercise on Identifying Independent Clauses ..............................................١١

Writing Concise Sentences.................................................................................. ١٥

Exercise on Writing Concise Sentences ........................................................ ٢٨

Parallel Form........................................................................................................ ٣٠

Exercises on Parallel Form ............................................................................ ٣٣

Tone: A Matter of Attitude ................................................................................. ٣٧

Spelling..................................................................................................................٤١

Exercises on Spelling ...................................................................................... ٤٨

PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL

Sentence Variety...................................................................................................٥٧

Exercise on Run-on Sentences ....................................................................... ٦٦

Consistency of Tense and Pronoun Reference...................................................٧١

Exercise on Consistency in Tense and Pronouns .........................................٧٣

Avoiding Primer Language................................................................................. ٧٥

Exercises on Avoiding Primer Language...................................................... ٧٦

Sentence-Combining Skills.................................................................................. ٧٨

Exercise on Combining Sentences................................................................. ٨٨

Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas.............................................................. ٩١

Paragraph Development & Topic Sentences .....................................................٩٧

PART III: ESSAY LEVEL

Essay Writing Tips............................................................................................. ١٠٨

Parts of an Essay................................................................................................ ١١١

Introductory Paragraphs .................................................................................. ١١١

How to Write an Essay ...................................................................................... ١٢١

Kinds of Essay .................................................................................................... ١٢٥

The Five-Paragraph Essay................................................................................ ١٣٣



PART IV: SELECTED ESSAYS FOR PRACTICE

The Computer as Writing Assistant................................................................. ١٤٥

Noise Pollution.................................................................................................... ١٤٨

Smoking and quitting are matters of free will .................................................١٥٢

What Happened to the News?........................................................................... ١٥٥

PART V: WRITING TOPICS...............................................................................١٦ ١

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Preface

This is a most valuable introduction to the art (and science)

of writing: it takes the student from the rudimentary to the

advanced stages of writing techniques through a precise, step-by-

step method. It is intended primarily as a teach-yourself course,

which requires a great deal of attention to detail and to guidance

on problematic points. It can, however, be taught in class by the

experienced teacher who should occasionally refer to the

corresponding linguistic structures in Arabic, as well as the

evolution of Modern Standard Arabic which has been influenced

in the twentieth century by modern European languages. The

teacher may postpone this to a later stage, when the student has

fully absorbed the technical aspects of English writing, but it is

advisable, I believe, to start as early as this course in establishing

correspondences and differences.

The value of this will soon be apparent in practice: a studentlearning to write in English may discover that the malaise of

muddled thinking in Arabic can be remedied by learning the

methods of precise writing, as precision in expression can only

come from straight thinking. What is more important, a habit of

precise expression will encourage precise thinking: a student

taught to avoid beating around the bush (to avoid circumlocution

or periphrasis) will soon realize the advantages of ‘getting to the

point’ whether the language is Arabic or English. It is in this

sense that a book in essay-writing is also a book on straightthinking.

How this course can help the student of translation should

immediately be obvious. A translator, as is commonly believed

today, is a person writing a text which aspires to be, but is never

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fully, an exact reproduction of another text in a differentlanguage. The ultimate test of a successful translation will not be

whether the produced text (in the target language––TL) is a

facsimile of the original text (in the source language––SL) but

whether it is comprehensible and idiomatic. Certain literary texts,

it is true, may require additional criteria, but these should not

concern the learner: what should concern him or her now is how

to produce, initially, a readable text representing all the ideas in

the SL text. And this cannot be done without learning first to

write.

An example should illustrate this point. Most users of this

book are expected to be native speakers of Arabic. They will be

thinking in Arabic, in a mixture of Egyptian Arabic and Modern

Standard Arabic (MSA) which is the modern variety of classical

Arabic used in writing. Trying to write in English will alwaysinvolve a certain amount of translation, as they will often be

looking for equivalents for some of the common words which

they would like to use in their English essays (a lexical difficulty

dealt with in the translation courses) and as they will be trying tofind the correct corresponding expressions in English for the ones

they use in Arabic, which is more important. But most important

of all, they will be trying to write a coherent essay in English thatdoes not smack too much of their ‘Arabic’ thinking. A typical

student asked to write an essay on the soap operas shown on

Egyptian television will first need to know the English words

associated with subject. These he or she must gather from texts inEnglish: the title itself must be fully understood. If helped by the

teacher or by the right dictionary, the student will first learn thatopera here is the plural of ‘opus’ which means ‘work’, and that

the specific ‘formal’ meaning of the term is a ‘play set to music’,in part or in full, with arias, recitatives, choruses, duets, trios etc.

sung to orchestral accompaniment, and usually characterized by

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elaborate costuming, scenery and choreography. Therefore thestudent will learn that a ‘soap opera’ is a colloquial expression

referring to a radio or television serial drama of a melodramatic,

sentimental nature, so called since many of the original sponsors

were soap companies. In other words, the student will acquire

fresh knowledge of his or her subject in English even at the stage

of preparing for thinking about it. By looking up words in a

dictionary the student will gain new expressions which precisely

fit his or her ideas on the subject, some of which may still be

inchoate or even amorphous. A key word like ‘melodramatic’will help the student approach the Egyptian television soapoperas from the right angle: a melodrama, he or she will learn, is

a drama (as a play or film or radio or television serial drama)

concerned with exaggerated conflicts and emotions, stereotyped

characters etc. The concept will be found, therefore, to involveother concepts which should help the student to think with

precision about his subject. ‘Exaggeration’ is such a new concept

revealed by the exploration of the meaning of melodramatic; and

‘stereotyped’, as an adjective, will explain why we never watchany real complex characters, any ‘round’, rich characters on

Egyptian television. ‘Types’ rather than full characters are

introduced, and mostly in black and white. The teacher may help

the student at this stage by explaining that ‘mass culture’ requires

such stereotypical handling of characters, that the viewers cannot

appreciate, or indeed accept, any shades of grey.

Such an initial exploration of the subject will teach thestudent more about soap operas than he or she can hope to learn

if confined to his or her ‘Arabic’ ideas of such serial dramas. Inthe process the student will acquire relevant vocabulary: he or

she will learn that radio listeners and television viewers are people who listen to the radio and watch television; that they

seek entertainment rather than ‘high-brow’ culture; that they

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welcome particularly sensational drama because of its functionas an escapist form of art; that escapist art is a means of relieving

the boredom of treadmill occupations and monotonous ways of

life; and that historical soap operas are particularly successful

with the masses because they present them with an escape route

to images of the past that perpetually change in the hands of

dramatists. Such relevant vocabulary will play a twofold

function: the student will have at his or her fingertips the

essential concepts required for dealing with the subject in English

and in Arabic. Tentative or half-formed ideas in Arabic will now be developed not through a direct translation exercise but throughan exercise in writing which turns out to be an exercise in

thinking as well. Approving or disapproving of the Egyptian

television soap operas, the student will now be better equipped to

deal with his subject: the writing exercise has proved to be an

exercise in thinking and in translation at once.

Mapping out ideas is, however, only one aspect of the

writing/translation exercise; and the acquisition of the relevant

vocabulary only a contributing factor. In writing, as Part I of this book will show, the student will learn the various types of

sentences and gain a most valuable consciousness of the way a

writer expresses himself or herself. By imitating the Englishstructures, the student will learn to acquire the habit of building

up idiomatic structures whether writing or translating. If writing,

the student will learn how to begin sometimes with phrasal

structures (a prepositional, adverbial etc. phrase) or with reducedclauses (as here) or to foreground his main subject in a main or

principal clause; and, if translating, the student will try to achievefluency in style by transforming paratactic into hypotactic

structures. Without first mastering the writing techniques atsentence level, the student will find that transformation is

difficult, if not impossible; and, having started the previous

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sentence with a reduced ‘if’ clause, we may now give an exampleof a run-on sentence where the ‘if’ clause is compounded with

parallel clauses leading to a beautiful climax. The writer is

Thomas Hooker, a seventeenth-century American clergyman,

noted for his good prose. The style, it will be seen, is a little ‘old’

in the sense that English at the time was still redolent of the

Shakespearean extended sentence structures, and the extended

metaphor, and when English-born Hooker left for America in

١٦٣٣ he took with him the rhetorical style revived back in

England nearly half a century later by John Milton. Here is therun-on sentence:

Now if nature should intermit her course and leave

altogether, though it were but for awhile, the observation of

her own laws; if those principal and mother elements of the

world, whereof all things in this lower world are made,

should lose the qualities which now they have; if the frame of

that heavenly arch erected over our heads should loosen and

dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their wontedmotions, and by irregular volubility turn themselves any way

as it might happen; if the prince of the lights of heaven which

now as a giant doth run his unwearied course, should, as it

were through a languishing faintness, begin to stand and to

rest himself; if the moon should wander from her beaten way,

the times and seasons of the year blend themselves by

disordered and confused mixture, the winds breathe out their

last gasp, the clouds yield no rain, the earth be defeated of

heavenly influence, the fruits of the earth pine away as

children at the withered breasts of their mother no longer

able to yield them relief––what would become of man

himself, whom these things now do all serve?

from Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity

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The passage is cited on pages ٤٦-٤٧ at the beginning of Part II,

and it is instructive to see how the study of this text, an exercise

in writing, will help the student to translate better and express

himself or herself better. The student will count six ‘if’s in the

run-on sentence, marking the division into six parts separated by

semi-colons, which are weaker stops than the colon (:) or the full

stop/period (.), but the last part consists of six clauses ‘powered’

by the final if. Now the translator may choose to keep the order

of the conditional structure unchanged, and so produce a text

reflecting the literary features of the original (SL) text byresorting to the same classical tricks of Arabic style as used by

Enani in his rendering of Milton’s Paradise Lost and his Arabic

Shakespearean versions; thus

اها و رت جمفقوأ ول ةعيبطلا ىلإ تيأرأتفك ةهربل ولو ةريسيلك العناصر األىلو اىتل ىلإو ؛ةصاخلا اهننسل عايصنالا نع

اىتل صي و ،ملاعلا اذه مأ ىه،ايندلا هذه ء ىفايشألا لك انم تغ لك القبة السماوية ملارفوعة لكيه ىلإو ؛ات افص تدقف ولفوق رؤوسنا لو حنال وذاب؛ وىلإ أفالك السماء لو نسيت حركتها ملاألوفة فدارت كيفما افق حول أى حمور ودون نظام؛ وىلإ ملكة أنوار السماء اىتل جترى مثل العمالق ىف

ى دون كالل ،لو أصا با ما يشبه الوهن وخلاورمسارها اليوملراحة؛ وىلإ القمر لو حنارف عن مساره ل ابل ط فق تأدبف السنة وفصهلوا لو اختلطت وامتزجت ىف نامزأ ىلإو ،دوهعملا

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فوضى وال نظام؛ وىلإ الرياح لو لفظت آخر أنفاسها ،وىلإلع عن ملاطر ،وىلإ األرض لو حرمت محرة ق أ ول باحسلا

لرضيع الذى حرم مذاقا ا لثم ضرألا رات مثلذف ءامسلالنبل على ضرع أمه جلااف ،فما الذى يكون من أمر اإلنسان

نفسه ،وهو الذى سخر هللا له مجيع هذه األشياء؟

انه ونع باتك نم"ىسنكلا ماظنلا نيناوق نع "

The addition of the initial Arabic question word ـت ي أ ر أ seems to

have solved the problem of the long conditional structure,

especially that it can be read more as an exclamation than as aquestion. The other ‘tricks of the trade’ used in the translation

should not concern us here, such as the change of gender in the

case of the sun, or the change of subject in the last sentence; whatis more interesting, for our purposes, is the ability to produce

equal structures in both languages that read as idiomatic texts.

Such an ability is the prerogative of the born writer alone; but it

can be learnt, and every translator should first try to understand

the structure before attempting to imitate it in writing. Perhaps

the student will learn that it is better, generally, to start with the

main clause—the subject and the verb—before giving all these

piles up clauses. Perhaps a re arrangement will be called for, so

as to make it easier for the reader to grasp the main argument—

or even the very sense of the sentence. Consider the following

horror of a sentence on the famous sprinter Carl Lewis: it occurs

on page ٤٨ and should be worthy of a detailed analysis:

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١٠

١٥

٢٠

٢٥

Knowing that millions of people around the world would be watching in person and on television and expecting

great things from him––at least one more gold medal for

America, if not another world record––during this, his

fourth and surely his last appearance in the World

Olympics, and realizing that his legs could no longer carry

him down the runway with the same blazing speed and

confidence in making a huge, eye-popping leap that they

were capable of a few years ago when he set world records

in the ١٠٠-meter dash and in the ٤٠٠-meter relay and won a

silver medal in the long jump, the renowned sprinter and

track-and-field personality Carl Lewis, who had known

pressure from fans and media before but never, even as a

professional runner, this kind of pressure, made only a few

appearances in races during the few months before the

Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, partly because he

was afraid of raising expectations even higher and he did

not want to be distracted by interviews and adoring fans

who would follow him into stores and restaurants

demanding autographs and photo-opportunities, but mostly

because he wanted to conserve his energies and

concentrate, like a martial arts expert, on the job at hand:

winning his favourite competition, the long jump, and

bringing home another Gold Medal for the United States,

the most fitting conclusion to his brilliant career in track

and field.

It is not a run-on sentence, but too long to be dealt with as asingle sentence, though indeed it is grammatically sound. The

student should never be encouraged to write like this—but in

order not to do so, he must learn why. The reason is easy to find:

the principal clause occurs only on lines ١١-١٦, while all

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preceding clauses and phrases simply pave the way for it, and allthe succeeding ones give reasons for the man’s actions. Can it be

arranged differently? It can, and it must!

البارزة ىف ةيصخشلا و ،ريهشلا ءادعلا ،سيول لراك رهظي مل

ألعاب ملاضمار وملايدان ،إال مرات معدودة ىف ملاباريات اىتل

لة اىتل سبقت انعقاد دورة األلعابجرت ىف الشهور ال ي ل ق

الصيفية ىف مدينة أطالنطا والية جورجيا ،إذ كان يدرك أن ملاالنيي ىف ىتش حنأاء العملا سوف يشاهدونه ،إما شخصيا أو على

التلفزيون ،ويتوقعون منه جنإازات رائعة ،أى أن يفوز تاشاشلية ذهبية أخرى ألمريكا إن مل حيقق رقما قيا ا دي مب،اديدج ايملاع ايس

اعة رل ا ةرملل هكارتشا ءانثأ)ديكأ لك ةريخألا و(ةرود ىف

األلعاب األوليمبية العملاية حلاالية ،وكان يدرك أيضا أن ساقيه مل

السرعة سفن رامضملا ه ىف قالطنالا ىلع نيرداق ا دوعالكريبة ال تابثولا قيقىلإ حت هتعفد ىتلا ةقثلا سفنو ،ةقراخلاىت

نوات عندما حقق األرقام س ةدع ذنم نيدهاشملا نويع تلهذأ

القياسية العملاية ىف مساقة العدو ملسافة مائة متر ومساقة عدو

التتاع ملسافة ٤٠٠بثولا ةقاسم ة ىفيضف ةيل ا دي ز مبافو ،رتم الرغم.الطويل ىلع ،ا لقد أمتنع كارل لويس عن الظهور كريث

للضغ لبق نم ضرع هنأ نمنمو هيعجشم نم هيل ع ةاقلملا طو لك الضغوط لص ن ملإو ،اف رت حم ء ا دع هرابتعا مالعإلا ةزهجأ

اها حلاىلا ،وكان من أسباب امتناعه خوفه من وت سم ىلإ لبق نم

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رفع مستوى وقعا تم له ،كما مل يكن يريد أن يشغل نفسه عناالعمل ملاقاالت الصحفية ،وملاعجب نيـ الونيهلا الذين ك ونا

التقاط ة ـ رص ف و هعيقوتل اب ل ط معاطملاو تينا وحلا ه ىفنودراطي

صوره ،ولكن أهم سبب كان سعيه للحفاظ على طاقاه

،هرظتني ىذلا لمعلا ىلع ،ةيلاتقلا نونفلا ءا ربخ لثم ،زي كرت ل ا و

،ليوطلا بثولا ةارابم ىهو ،اهلضفي ىتلا ةقاسملا زوفلا وهو الأي ل ا دي ه مبرايد ىلإ ةدوعلا وناكو ،ةدحتملا تايالولل ىرخأ ةيبهذ ة

ياضية ىف مباريات ملاضمار رل ا هايم حلاتخ بسنأ كلذ نأ ىري.وملايدان

Divided into smaller units, the sentence has been several times

interrupted and resumed. The interruption and resumption of

syntax is an old trick indeed; and one that every translator should

learn but which every writer should shun! And it is here thatwriting techniques come to serve the translator: by learning hownot to write, you learn how to write, and by learning how to

avoid those structural mistakes in writing, the translator learns

how to produce a better, readable text.

Can this long sentence be regarded as a paragraph? Indeed itcan; and it should. In fact, it can be divided into two small

paragraphs, if the focus is slightly shifted from the fact that ‘he

made few appearances’ to the reasons behind his attitude, but,

insofar as the writer concentrates on the theme of Lewis’swithdrawal from public notice, it must be regarded as a single

paragraph. Too much information in a paragraph, not to say in a

sentence, can play havoc with the structure. However, good

writers know how to arrange such information in such a way as

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to make it appear equal to the space it is expressed in. The writer of the above-quoted sentence is lazy, and the learner should

never adduce the limited space allotted in a newspaper for a

given article as a pretext for ‘cramming’ (cf. ـمجرة ت ل ا نـ ف). If you

make your reader work too hard to get your meaning you may

run the risk of losing him or her; and the more efforts you make

to establish your principal idea, in a principal clause, early

enough in the text, the more confident you will be in getting your

reader’s full attention. This is a lesson we learn in translation;

and it is the lesson that should be taught also in writing.

M. Enani & M. Abdel Aatty

Cairo, ١٩٩٩

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Objectives:

By the end of this part, students should be able to:

. define the grammatical terms: " Clause " and Phrase

. identify the difference between a " Clause " and phrase.

. define the terms " dependent " and" independent " clauses.

. exemplify both dependent and independent clauses.

. classify clauses into " restrictive " and " nonrestrictive ".

. identify relative clauses.

. combine independent clauses into larger units of thought.

. combine independent clauses using: coordination, subordination

and a semicolon.

. categorize independent clauses functionally into adverb clauses,

adjective clauses and noun clauses.

. exemplify each category of independent clauses.

. recognize a noun clause as a subject, object, object of a

preposition or as predicate nominative.

. exemplify the three cases of noun clauses given.

١



. identify elliptical clauses.

. become more conscious of the relation between the grammar

items and / or concepts and the skill of writing.

. appreciate the value of learning the above generalizations.

. realize the significance of the concept of " correctness " in the

writing skill.

. provide answers to the ten-item multiple choice exercise on pages ٨-١٠

. understand what " redundancy " in writing means.

. go through the list of redundant phrases provided on pages ١١ -

١٣ to correct themselves.

. know how clauses can be reduced to phrases.

. know how phrases can be reduced to single words.

. appreciate the value / significance of reducing clauses and

phrases in writing.

. grasp the concept of " intensifiers " in expression.

. use " intensifiers " only when necessary in writing.

.avoid the use of expletive constructions.

. go through the list entitled " phrases you can omit " so that they

realize their negative effect on their writing (pages ١٦ - ٢١).

. define a cliché and avoid using it in writing.

٢



. define and exemplify an euphemism.

. avoid using euphemism in writing.

. define " concision " in writing.

. appreciate the value of writing concise sentences.

. do the exercise on " writing concise sentences " on pages ٢٤ - ٢٥

. grasp the principle of parallel form in writing.

. list a set of correlative expressions.

. exemplify some correlative expressions followed by the same

grammatical form.

. do the three exercises based on parallel form on pages ٢٩ - ٣٢

. understand the concept of " tone " in writing.

. distinguish between formal and informal writing.

. realize how "contractions " make language informal.

. appreciate the value of defining the readers of our essays before

writing.

. establish a relation between " Mnemonics " and improving

spelling.

. understand the five given rules intended for improving spelling

on pages ٤٠ – ٤٣

٣




Clauses: The Essential Building-Blocks

DEFINITION

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a

verb A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, whichis a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb

relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the

street" or "having grown used to this harassment."

Words We Use to Talk about Clauses

Learning the various terms used to define and classify

clauses can be a vocabulary lesson in itself. This book

categorizes clauses into independent and dependent clauses.

This simply means that some clauses can stand by themselves,

as separate sentences, and some can't. Another term for

dependent clause is subordinate clause: this means that the

clause is subordinate to another element (the independent

clause) and depends on that other element for its meaning. The

subordinate clause is created by a subordinating conjunction

or dependent word.

Notice how an independent clause, "She is older than her

brother" (which could be its own sentence), is turned into adependent or subordinate clause when the same group of words

begins with a dependent word: "Because she is older than her

brother, she tells him what to do."

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Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive

clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are sometimes

used and mean the same thing as restrictive and nonrestrictive,

respectively.) A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to themeaning of the sentence; it can be removed from the sentence

without changing its basic meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses are

often set apart from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a

pair of commas (if it's in the middle of a sentence).

Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President, cantype ١٣٢ words a minute.

Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative

Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom,

whomever, whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either

restrictive or nonrestrictive. In a relative clause, the relative

pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses

contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to)

something preceding the clause.Arthur said that the tooth, which had been bothering him for

years, had to be removed.

(In this sentence, the clause in bold is a restrictive [essential]

clause [a noun clause––see below] and will not be set off by a

comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "tooth"] is

nonrestrictive [nonessential––it can be removed from the

sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is

set off by commas.)Elliptical Clauses: see below.

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INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete

sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves,

separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply

as sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to

know when a clause is capable of acting as an independent unit is

essential to correct writing. In the following sentence, for

example,

Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.

we have two independent clauses––"Bob didn't mean to do it"

and "he did it anyway"––connected by a comma and a

coordinating conjunction ("but").

Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine

independent clauses into larger units of thought. For instance, if

the word "but" is missing from the above sentence (about Bob),

the sentence would be called a comma splice: two independent

clauses have been incorrectly connected, with only a comma between them. Furthermore, a long series of clauses of similar

structure and length begins to feel monotonous, leading to what

is called primer language (after the kind of prose that we find in

first grade textbooks or "primers"). (See the section on Avoiding

Primer Language for advice and exercises on combining

sentences.).

Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination,

subordination, and using a semicolon. Coordination involves

joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating

conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. Clauses thus

connected are usually nicely balanced in length and import:

٦

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• Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but shenever talked to her friends about it.

Subordination involves turning one of the clauses into a

subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through

the use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a

dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause begins

with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause;

it is called a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends

on something else (the independent clause) for its meaning.

There are other ways of combining ideas––by turningindependent clauses into various kinds of modifying phrases.

• Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she

never talked to her friends about it.

• Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir,

because she was afraid they would make fun of her.

• Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the

choir no matter what her friends said.

Joining these with the use of a relative clause:

Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister, told Ramonita to join the

choir....

Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or

without the help of a conjunctive adverb (transitional

expression). Semicolons should be used sparingly and only when

the two independent clauses involved are closely related andnicely balanced in terms of length and import.

• Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have

asked her to sing at their wedding.

٧



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• Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, sheclearly enjoys using it.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make

good sense. They must be combined with an independent clause

so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by itself.

Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are,dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within a

sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or

as some kind of modifier. There are three basic kinds of

dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in thesentence. Remember that a dependent clause always contains a

subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.

• Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in

the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why. "When

the movie is over , we'll go downtown." or "John wanted towrite a book because he had so much to say about the subject ."

• Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. "My brother, who is an engineer , figured it out for me." or "The

bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to

replace."

• Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. "What he

knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or "Do you know what he knows [object]?" or "What can you tell me about what he

has done this year [object of the preposition "about"]?"

٨



١

Noun Clause as

Subject

What they did with the treasure remains a

mystery.

Whatever you want for dessert is fine with

me.

That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us.

٢

Noun Clause asObject

Juan finally revealed what he had done with

the money. Her husband spent whatever she had saved

over the years.

I don't know what I should do next.

٣

Noun Clause as

Object of

Preposition

In fact, he wrote a book about what he had

done over the years. We are interested in what he does for a

living.

٤

Noun Clause as

Predicate

Nominative

The trouble was that they had never beenthere before. The biggest disappointment of last season

was that the women's team didn't make it to

the final four.

٥

Adjective

Clause

My brother, who now teaches math in a

small college, never liked math in highschool.

The dealership that sold more cars ended

up actually losing money.

٩



nearly two centuries ago, folded during the

state's economic crisis.

٦

Adverb Clause

The team had fallen behind by ten points

before they were able to figure out the

opponent's defence. Since he started working nights, he doesn't

see much of his kids.

While Josie sat inside watching television,

Gladys shovelled the driveway.

COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES

Review the section on Sentence Variety for help in

understanding the variety of sentence patterns. It is difficult to

know if you're using different patterns unless you keep in mind

the way that clauses are combined in larger sentence-units of thought. Pay special attention to the variety of sentence types:

simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences.These are defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that

make them up. There is also a quiz at the end of that section thatwill test your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses

that make up a sentence.

ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES

Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete in the sensethat they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent

word) that normally introduces such a clause or something from

the predicate in the second part of a comparison. The missing

parts of the elliptical clause can be guessed from the context and

١٠

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most readers are not aware that anything is missing. In fact,elliptical clauses are regarded as both useful and correct, even in

formal prose, because they are often elegant, efficient means of

expression. (The omitted words are noted in brackets below).

• Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that]she had coached in recent years.

• Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her

recruits proved to be hard workers.

• Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better

than they [could play].

Exercise on Identifying Independent Clauses

Choose the correct answer.

١. The doctor told Charlie to lose weight and exercise vigorously

for forty-five minutes a day.

This sentence has two independent clauses.

This sentence has no independent clauses.

This sentence has one independent clause.

٢. The doctor was worried that Charlie was putting on too

much weight.

The section in bold is an independent clause.

The independent clause is "The doctor was worried."

١١



This sentence has no independent clause.

٣. Charlie has a hard time sticking to a diet; he really loves rich,

sweet desserts.



This sentence has no independent clauses.

٤. In fact, the last time he tried to lose weight, he ended up

actually gaining weight.

"he ended up actually gaining weight" is the only

independent clause.

The section in bold is the independent clause.


٥. Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer because he is worried about his heart.

The section in bold is an independent clause.


"Charlie has decided to hire a personal trainer" is the

independent clause.

٦. His new personal trainer, whose name is Adriana Bongiorno,thinks Charlie may be a lost cause.

The part in bold is not an independent clause.

١٢



The part in blue is an independent clause.


٧. That she can make him do the exercises but not stick to the

diet.

The part in bold is the independent clause.


This sentence has no independent clause.

٨. He is very good as long as Miss Bongiorno is around, but he

goes to the freezer for ice-cream when she leaves.

This sentence has three independent clauses.



٩. Charlie must learn that eating all those sweets may give him a

temporary pleasure but that it's not good for his heart and that

he would feel better about himself if he stopped eating all

those rich and sweet foods that are not good for him.

The independent clause has three words.

The independent clause begins with the first "that."

This sentence has several independent clauses.

١٠. Miss Bongiorno is starting to make a difference, though, and

Charlie is starting to make some progress.


١٣



The clause following "though" is a dependent clause.


١٤



Writing Concise Sentences

Pruning the Redundant

Avoid saying the same thing twice.

Many uneducated citizens who have never attended

school continue to vote for better schools.

Redundant phrases are bad habits just waiting to take control of your writing. Beware of the following.

Redundancy The Lean Version

١٢ midnight midnight

١٢ noon noon

٣ am in the morning ٣ am

absolutely spectacular/phenomenal spectacular/phenomenala person who is honest an honest person

a total of ١٤ birds ١٤ birds

biography of her life biography

circle around circle

close proximity proximity

completely unanimous unanimous

consensus of opinion consensus

cooperate together cooperateeach and every each

enclosed herewith enclosed

end result result

١٥



exactly the same the same

final completion completion

frank and honest exchange frank exchange or honestexchange

free gift gift

he/she is a person who... he/she

important/basic essentials essentials

in spite of the fact that although

in the field of economics/lawenforcement

in economics/lawenforcement

in the event that if

job functions job or functions

new innovations innovations

one and the same the same

particular interest interest

period of four days four days

personally, I think/feel I think/feel personal opinion opinion

puzzling in nature puzzling

refer back refer

repeat again repeat

return again return

revert back revert

shorter/longer in length shorter/longer

small/large in size small/largesquare/round/rectangular in shape square/round/rectangular

summarize briefly summarize

surrounded on all sides surrounded

surrounding circumstances circumstances

١٦



the future to come the future

there is no doubt but that no doubt

usual/habitual custom custom

we are in receipt of we have received

Abbreviated Redundancies

A special breed of redundancy is proliferating in our modern

world as we increasingly rely on abbreviations and acronyms in

our increasingly technological world. It is redundant to say

"ATM machine" because ATM means Automated Teller

Machine. It is redundant to say "HIV virus" because HIV means

Human Immunodeficiency Virus, "AIDS syndrome" becauseAIDS means Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome, "CPU

unit" because CPU means Central Processing Unit. It sounds

particularly senseless when we come up with a plural such as"CPU units"––Central Processing Unit units. When we use anabbreviation or acronym in speech (and especially in formal

writing), it's important to know what its letters mean so we don't

create a new redundancy.

Reducing Clauses to Phrases, Phrases to Single Words

Be alert for clauses or phrases that can be pared to simpler,shorter constructions. The "which clause" can often be shortened

to a simple adjective. (Be careful, however, not to lose some

١٧



needed emphasis by over-pruning; the word "which," which is

sometimes necessary [as it is in this sentence].

• Smith College, which was founded in ١٨٧١, is the premier all-

women's college in the United States.

• Founded in ١٨٧١, Smith College is the premier all-women's

college in the United States.

• Citizens who knew what was going on voted him out of

office.

• Knowledgeable citizens voted him out of office.

• Recommending that a student copy from another student's

paper is not something he would recommend.

• He wouldn't recommend that a student copy from another

student's paper.

• (Or "He would never tell a student to copy....")

Phrases, too, can sometimes be trimmed, sometimes to a single

word.

• Unencumbered by a sense of responsibility, Jasion left his

wife with forty-nine kids and a can of beans.

١٨



• Jasion irresponsibly left his wife with forty-nine kids and acan of beans.

• (Or leave out the word altogether and let the act speak for

itself): Jasion left his wife with forty-nine kids and a can of

beans.

Intensifiers That Don't Intensify

Avoid using words such as really, very, quite, extremely, severely

when they are not necessary. It is probably enough to say that the

salary increase is inadequate. Does saying that it is severely

inadequate introduce anything more than a tone of hysteria?

These words shouldn't be banished from your vocabulary, but

they will be used to best effect when used sparingly.

Avoid Expletive Constructions

This sounds like something a politician has to learn to avoid, but,

no, an expletive construction is a common device that often robs

a sentence of energy before it gets a chance to do its work.

Expletive constructions begin with there is/are or it is.

• There are twenty-five students who have already expressed a

desire to attend the program next summer. It is they and their

parents who stand to gain the most by the government grant.

١٩



• Twenty-five students have already expressed a desire toattend the program next summer. They and their parents stand

to gain the most by the government grant.

Phrases You Can Omit

Be on the lookout for important sounding phrases that add

nothing to the meaning of a sentence. Such phrases quickly put a

reader on guard that the writer is trading in publicity; worse, they put a reader to sleep.

all things considered All things considered, Africa's woodlands

are in better shape now than ever before.

All things considered, Africa's woodlands

are in better shape now than ever before.

As a matter of fact As a matter of fact, there are more

woodlands in Africa now than there werein ١٨٩٨.

as a matter of fact, There are more

woodlands in Africa now than there were

in ١٨٩٨.

As far as I'm

concerned

As far as I'm concerned, there is no need

for further protection of woodlands.

As far as I'm concerned, there There is noneed for further protection of woodlands.

٢٠



at the present time This is because there are fewer farmers at

the present time.

This is because there are fewer farmers

now.

Because of the fact

that

Woodlands have grown in area because of

the fact that farmers have abandoned their

fields.

Woodlands have grown in area because

farmers have abandoned their fields.

By means of Major forest areas are coming back by

means of natural processes.

Major forest areas are coming back

through natural processes. (or naturally)

By virtue of the fact

that

Our woodlands are coming back by virtue

of the fact that our economy has shifted itsemphasis.

Our woodlands are coming back by virtue

of the fact that because our economy has

shifted its emphasis.

Due to the fact that Due to the fact that their habitats are being

restored, forest creatures are also re-

establishing their population bases.

Due to the fact that Because their habitats

are being restored, forest creatures are also

re-establishing their population bases.

٢١



Exists The fear that exists among many people

that we are losing our woodlands is

uncalled for.

The fear that exists among many people

that we are losing our woodlands is

uncalled for.

For all intents and

purposes

The era in which we must aggressively

defend our woodlands has, for all intentsand purposes, passed.

The era in which we must aggressively

defend our woodlands has, for all intents

and purposes, passed.

For the most part For the most part, people's suspicions are

based on a misunderstanding of the facts.

For the most part, pPeople's suspicions are

based on a misunderstanding of the facts.

For the purpose of Many woodlands, in fact, have been

purchased for the purpose of creating

public parks.

Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchased for the purpose of creating as

public parks.

Have a tendency to This policy has a tendency to isolate some

communities.

This policy has a tendency tends to isolate

some communities.

٢٢



In a manner of

speaking

The policy has, in a manner of speaking,

begun to civilize the more rural parts of

our state.

The policy has, in a manner of speaking,

begun to civilize the more rural parts of

our state.

In a very real sense In a very real sense, this policy works to

the detriment of those it is supposed tohelp.

In a very real sense, this This policy works

to the detriment of those it is supposed to

help.

In my opinion In my opinion, this wasteful policy ought

to be revoked.

In my opinion, thisThis wasteful policy

ought to be revoked.

In the case of In the case of this particular policy,

citizens of Upper Egypt became very

upset.

Citizens of Upper Egypt became veryupset about his policy.

In the final analysis In the final analysis, the state would have

been better off without such a policy.

In the final analysis, the The state would

have been better off without such a policy.

٢٣



In the event that In the event that enough people protest, it

will probably be revoked.

If enough people protest, it will probably

be revoked.

In the nature of Something in the nature of a repeal may

soon take place.

Something in the nature of like a repeal

may soon take place.

In the process of Legislators are already in the process of

reviewing the statutes.

Legislators are already in the process of

reviewing the statutes.

it seems that It seems that they can't wait to get rid of this one.

It seems that they They can't wait to get rid

of this one.

Manner They have monitored the activities of

conservationists in a cautious manner.

They have cautiously monitored the

activities of conservationists.

The point I amtrying to make

The point I am trying to make is thatsometimes public policy doesn't

accomplish what it set out to achieve.

The oint I am tr in to make is that

٢٤



sometimesSometimes public policy doesn'taccomplish what it set out to achieve.

type of Legislators need to be more careful of the

type of policy they propose.

Legislators need to be more careful of the

type of policy they propose.

what I mean to say

is

What I mean to say is that well intentioned

lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves.

What I mean to say is that well Well

intentioned lawmakers sometimes make

fools of themselves.

Eliminating Clichés and Euphemisms

A cliché is an expression that was probably, once upon a time, an

original and brilliant way of saying something. Imagine being the

first person to say something as clever as "She fell head over

heels in love" or "She's cool as a cucumber." Sadly, though, such

expressions eventually lose their luster and become too common

and even annoying. Writers who indulge in tired language are not

being respectful to their readers, and writers return the

compliment by losing attention and going on to something else.

٢٥



Here is a list of trite expressions to look for in your writingand speaking.

acid test

at loose ends

babe in the woods

better late than never

brought back to realityblack as pitch

blind as a bat

bolt from the blue

busy as a bee/beaver

cat's meow

cool as a cucumber

cool, calm, and collected

crack of dawncrushing blow

cry over spilt milk

dead as a doornail

dog-eat-dog world

don't count your chickens

dyed in the wool

easier said than done

easy as pie

feathered friends

face the music

flash in the pan

Meaningful dialogue

Moving experience

Needle in a haystack

Open-and-shut case

Pain in the neck Point with pride

pretty as a picture

put it in a nutshell

quick as a flash/wink

rat race

ripe old age

ruled the roost

sad but truesadder but wiser

set the world on fire

sick as a dog

sigh of relief

slow as molasses

smart as a whip

sneaking suspicion

spread like wildfire

straight as an arrow

straw that broke

the camel's back

٢٦



Exercise on Writing Concise Sentences

Rewrite the following sentences to achieve a more concise

statement.

١. At this point in time we can't ascertain the reason as to why the

screen door was left open.

٢. My sister, who is employed as a nutritionist at the University

of Michigan, recommends the daily intake of megadoses of Vitamin C.

٣. Basically, in light of the fact that Congressman Fuenches was

totally exhausted by his last campaign, there was an

expectation on the part of the voters that he would not

reduplicate his effort to achieve office in government again.

٤. It is to be hoped that we discover a means to create an

absolutely proper and fitting tribute to Professor Espinoza.

٥. There is a desire on the part of many of us to maintain a spring

recess for the purpose of getting away from the demands of

our studies.

٦. Joe was an honest and hard working man. Basically, he never

gave much consideration to sitting idly about, doing nothing

constructive. (Rewrite as one sentence.)

٧. What is your basic understanding of predestination?

٨. At what point in time will a downturn in the stock market have

a really serious effect on the social life of people as a whole?

٢٨



Parallel Form

Basic Principle: Express coordinate ideas in similar form.

The principle of parallel construction requires that

expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly

similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize

more readily the likeness of content and function.

Unskilful writers often violate this principle, from a mistaken belief that they should constantly vary the form of their

expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to

emphasize it writers may have need to vary its form. But apart

from this, writers should follow carefully the principle of parallel

construction.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

Formerly, science was taught

by the textbook method, while

now the laboratory method is

employed.

Formerly, science was taught by the

textbook method; now it is taught by

the laboratory method.

The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is

undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form

of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows thatthe writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.

By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all

the members of a series must either be used only before the first

term or else be repeated before each term.

٣٠




The French, the Italians,

Spanish, and Portuguese

The French, the Italians, the

Spanish, and the Portuguese

In spring, summer, or in winter In spring, summer, or winter (In

spring, in summer, or in winter)

Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also;either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by

the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule

can be corrected by rearranging the sentence.


It was both a long ceremony and

very tedious.

The ceremony was both long and

tedious.

A time not for words, but action A time not for words, but for

action

Either you must grant his request

or incur his ill will.

You must either grant his request

or incur his ill will.

My objections are, first, the

injustice of the measure; second,

that it is unconstitutional.

My objections are, first, that the

measure is unjust; second, that it

is unconstitutional.

٣١



When making comparisons, the things you compare should becouched in parallel structures whenever that is possible and

appropriate.


My income is smaller than my

wife.

My income is smaller than my

wife's.

٣٢



Exercises on Parallel Form

First Exercise

Abraham Lincoln's famous Gettysburg speech abounds with

examples of parallel structures. Examine the following part of the

speech and match the parallel structures:

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers

brought forth on this continent a new nation,conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition

that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing

whether that nation or any nation so conceived and

so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great

battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a

portion of that field, as a final resting place for those

who here gave their lives that that nation might live.It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do

this.

Delivered at Gettysburg on November ١٩ , ١٨٦٣

Second Exercise

Select the sentence that illustrates the use of proper parallel

construction.

١.

• Donald Smith has wit, charm, and she has an extremely

pleasant personality.

٣٣



Donald Smith has wit, charm, and a pleasing personality.•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

٢.

In English class, Tashonda learned to read poems critically

and to appreciate good prose.

In English class, Tashonda learned to read poems critically

and she appreciated good prose.

٣.

Raoul's QPA is higher than Ralph.

Raoul's QPA is higher than Ralph's.

٤.

He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to

make good friends, and to learn about life.

He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to

make good friends, and learning about life.

٥.

Coach Espinoza was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor,

and a wise friend.

Coach Espinoza was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor,

and friend.

٦.

We found the film repulsive, offensive, and we thought it was

embarrassing.

٣٤



We found the film repulsive, offensive, and embarrassing.•

•

•

•

•

•

•

٧.

Mr. Nguyen kept his store clean, neat, and he made it

conveniently arranged.

Mr. Nguyen kept his store clean, neat, and conveniently

arranged.

٨.

Professor Ali rewarded his students for working hard on the

final project and going beyond the call of duty.

Professor Ali rewarded his students for their hard work on the

final project and going beyond the call of duty.

٩.

There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream,setting up camp, and spending a couple of days fishing.

There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream,

setting up camp, and to spend a couple of days fishing.

Third Exercise

Improve the following sentences with the use of proper parallel

constructions.

١. Espinoza's style was remarkable for its dexterity, grace, and

she could play any position.

٣٥



Tone: A Matter of Attitude

Your behaviour while attending school is different from your

behaviour while hanging out in the back yard with friends, or at

least we hope it is. And part of that difference is the difference in

language, a difference not just in the words we use but in what

we call tone. We also recall being told, when we were very

young, not to "use that tone of voice with me, Mister (or Missy,

as the case may be)!" Just as the pitch and volume of one's voice

carry a difference in tone from street to school, the choice of

words and the way we put our sentences together convey a sense

of tone in our writing. The tone, in turn, conveys our attitude

towards our audience and our subject matter. Are we being

frivolous or serious, casual or formal, sweet or stuffy? The

choice of a single word can change the tone of a paragraph, evenan entire essay. In the first sentence of this paragraph, for

example, the phrasal verb "hanging out" is considerably more

casual than others we might have chosen: gathering,

congregating, assembling.

Audience

One difficulty in writing for a course is that it's hard to think

of the reader of our essays as an audience. Our instructor might,

in fact, be our sole reader, somebody who will pack a pile of

papers into a briefcase or backpack and take them home to read.

In fact, that person has to read those essays, whether they're goodor bad.

This is a very limited audience, indeed, and if we aim our

essay at that one individual, we have severely limited its appeal.

We would be much better off if we could conceive of our essays

٣٧



as being aimed towards a community of readers, the readership,say, of a small-town or neighbourhood newspaper. These readers

are interested in what we have to say––curious, in fact––but

they're easily distracted; they expect something that is fresh,

honest, imaginative, energetic, without being too nonsensical or

unconventional. We don't know exactly who is going to pick up

this newspaper, so we need to be on our best behaviour; our tone

must aim toward being friendly and helpful without being overly

casual (and never slangy); if we can maintain this tone of slight

formality without being stuffy, we've hit it just right.

informal formal

light, humorous, comic serious, grave, decorous

personal, subjective objective, impersonal

casual, offhanded impassioned

"loose," disorderly reasoned, reasonable

nonsensical, experimental controlled, reserved

plainspoken, simple ornate, elaborate

Contractions

One measure of the formality of our language is our use of contractions. The paragraph just before this one has five verb

contractions: it's (twice), they're, don't , and we've. We use

contractions all the time in casual conversation, of course, and

using contractions in our text will convey an informal quality. To

٣٨



elevate the style, eliminate the contractions and write out theverbs: "if we can maintain this tone of slight formality without

being stuffy, we have hit it just right." It is a very easy matter to

do a search for apostrophes in our text, and it is a very useful

exercise, also. First, we can check for any possessives we may

have formed incorrectly, but then we can also check for

contractions.

A pleasant informality may be void of elevated language, but

it is not an excuse for imprecision or unnecessary wordiness.

Read the section on writing Concise Sentences and review the

various means of pruning unnecessary words and clichés.

Here is a paragraph from an article which calls upon us to

stop using antibiotics haphazardly. Which parts of the paragraph

would you consider as formal or informal, and why?

Media reports have likely made you aware of this

problem, but they have neglected the implications.

Your brother catches a cold that turns into a sinus

infection. His doctor treats him with antibiotics, but

the bacteria are resistant to all of them. The infection

enters his bloodstream––a condition known as

septicemia––and a few days later, your brother dies.

(Septicemia is what killed Muppets creator Jim

Henson a few years ago.) Or instead of a cold, he

has an infected cut that won't heal, or any other

common bacterial disease, such as an ear or prostate

infection.

Michael Castleman, “Cold Comfort.”

And here is a paragraph from an article declaring that the cultural

assumptions of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment are current

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at the end of this century. Although you have only four sentencesto go on, can you say how this paragraph differs from the

paragraph above? Does this difference say something about the

audiences of the two articles, respectively? Do you prefer one

style to another? Which one feels more like your style?

Governments everywhere are at a loss regarding the

best policy for regulating the dwindling forest

reserves of the world. Few ethical guidelines have

been established from which agreement might be

reached, and those are based on an insufficient

knowledge of ecology. Even if adequate scientific

knowledge were available, we would have little

basis for the long-term valuation of forests. The

economics of sustainable yield is still a primitive art,

and the psychological benefits of natural ecosystemsare almost wholly unexplored.

Edward O. Wilson, “Back from Chaos.”

If we tried counting contractions for the entire articles from

which these paragraphs are taken, we would discover that there is

only one contraction––a shouldn't ––in Wilson's article and there

are twenty contractions in Castleman's, even though Wilson's

article is considerably longer. How do these contractions, or the

lack of them, affect your sense of the seriousness of the essays?

٤٠



Spelling

Working on Your Spelling

Improving your spelling skills is largely a matter of personal

commitment: looking up a word you're not sure of, keeping the

dictionary at hand, keeping a list of words you know you have

trouble with.

Using Mnemonics

Mnemonics (Now there's a toughie to spell! It's pronounced as if

that initial m isn't there.) are little memory devices you can use to

remember how to spell words. Good geography students will

remember that George Eliot's Old Grandfather Rode A Pig HomeYesterday. Some mnemonics seem more difficult to remember

than the spelling they're supposed to serve. Some would

remember the three e's in cemetery as three tombstones in a row.

When you think of stationery, think of the e in envelope. Does ithelp to think of the r in separate as separating two like letters?

Coming up with mnemonics to help you remember things is a

device you probably use in other studies all the time. Extend thehabit into your personal mission to improve spelling. Be as

inventive as you wish and have fun with the idea. It will pay off

in the long run.

Homonyms and Plurals

Homonyms are words that sound alike or nearly alike but

have different meanings and different spellings: affect-effect,

they're-their-there, the list goes on and on.

٤١



Creating plurals in English is usually quite simple: just add s to the end of the word. Sometimes, however, it isn't that easy and

the rules can be a bit perplexing.

Sounding It Out

Writers who try to rely too completely on the sound of

English words for hints on how to spell often have trouble with

some of the peculiar sound-spell combinations in the language.One apocryphal (apokrifil?) story tells about a girl who, when

asked to spell "fish," wrote GHOT on the chalkboard. It makes

perfect sense, of course, if it's the same "gh" we see in cough, the

same "o" we hear in women, and the same "t" we hear in nation.

A thorough acquaintance with prefixes and endings and roots

(see elsewhere in this section) will help some, and studying the

way words are broken down into sound units will help also.

It also helps to pronounce words correctly in the first place.

It's hard to spell strictly unless we hear that "t" in the word; andthe words February and library must retain their first "r." If we

try to change the noun accident into an adverb, we'll end up withaccidently, which is a really bad accident but is how many people

say the word. Try, instead, to change the adjective accidental into

an adverb: accidentally. (The same goes for incidentally and

coincidentally.)

The ability to sound things out correctly doesn't help us much

with Wednesday, though, especially with the inexplicable

American pronunciation which puts an "nz" sound before the "d."

And words like often and handsome, in which the "t" and "d"

sounds have disappeared (at least in the U.S.), continue to defy

phonetic spellers (fonetik spelurz). American author Mark Twain

٤٢



was keenly interested in the simplification of English spellingand his little essay called "A Plan for the Simplification of

English Spelling" is included here.

British Spellings

Writers who grow up in England, Canada, the Barbados, or

any place where spelling habits conform to British preferences

will be perplexed when the word colour comes back from anAmerican instructor with a slash mark through the u. When

Daniel Webster started putting his dictionary together, he thought

it would be a good idea to simplify some English spelling and

that -our was one ending he thought Americans could do without.

Standard American spelling, ever since then, has been sometimes

different from British, and it extends to other words as well. A

good dictionary should account for these differences. Instructors

should also be equipped to account for them, if not to allow for

them.

American Spelling British Spelling

canceled cancelled

center centre

check cheque

color colour

criticize criticise

gray grey

humor humour

judgment judgement

labor labour

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license licence

realize realise

theater theatre

tire tyre

valor valour

Rule #١: “ I before E except after C ”

This rule, designed to help us remember how to spell words such

as receive and chief , seems so promising in its simplicity at first.

• achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend,

grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce, priest

• ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit,

conceit

But then things get complicated: it doesn't work with words pronounced "ay" as in neighbour, freight, beige, sleigh, weight,

vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to the rule: either,

neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.

Still, the rule is relatively simple and worthwhile remembering.

Rule #٢: “Dropping Final E ”

When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop

the final e if the ending begins with a vowel:

• advancing

٤٤



surprising

However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:

• advancement

likeness

(However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e

when adding any ending: argument, argued, truly.)

Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final eis kept in words such as mileage and words where the final e is

preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous, manageable,

management, noticeable. (The word management, for example,

without that e after the g , would be pronounced with a hard g

sound.)

Rule #٣: “Dropping Final Y ”

When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y

to i when it is preceded by a consonant.

• supply becomes supplies

worry becomes worried

merry becomes merrier

This does not apply to the ending -ing , however.

• crying

studying

٤٥



Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel.

• obeyed

saying

Rule #٤: “Doubling Final Consonants”

When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we

double that consonant in many situations. First, we have to

determine the number of syllables in the word.

Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins

with a vowel when the last syllable of the word is accented and

that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a singleconsonant.

• submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant

is preceded by a vowel, so we double the t before adding, for

instance, an -ing or -ed : submitting, submitted.

• flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always

accented. Again, the last consonant is preceded by a vowel, so

we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed :

flapping, flapped.

• open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded

by a single vowel, but the accent falls on the first syllable, not

the last syllable, so we don't double the n before adding anending: opening, opened.

• refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last

syllable and a single vowel precedes the final consonant, so wewill double the r before adding an ending, as in referring,

٤٦



referral . The same would apply to begin, as in beginner,beginning .

• relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is

preceded by another consonant, not a vowel, so we do not

double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting.

• deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a

consonant preceded not by a single vowel, but by two vowels,

so we do not double the final l as in dealer dealing.. The same

would apply, then, to despair, despairing, despaired.

Rule #٥: “Adding Prefixes”

Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change its spelling.

For some reason, the word misspelling is one of the most often

misspelled words in English.

• unnecessary, dissatisfied, disinterested, misinform

٤٧



٨. My brother ____________ in bed all day yesterday .

laid

lay

lied

٩. How did they manage to ____________ that game ؟

lose

loose

١٠. The library has been incredibly ____________ today .

quitequit

quiet

Practice Exercise ٢ Indicate if the word is spelled correctly or not.

١. accidently

٢. independance

٣. foreign

٤. paralel

٥. privilege

٦. maintnance

٧. ommited

٨. grammar

٩. heighth

١٠. cemetery

١١. irresistable

١٢. arguing

٤٩



١٣. catagory

١٤. embarrass

١٥. enviroment

٥٠



SUMMARY


Remember:

. A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.

. A clause could be independent or dependent.

. Independent clauses could stand by themselves as discrete

sentences.

. To combine independent clauses, we can use coordination,

subordination and a semicolon.

. Dependent clauses cannot stand by themselves. They must be

combined with independent clauses so that they become parts of

sentences. Dependent clauses could function as nouns, adjectivesor adverbs.

. Clauses are combined into larger sentence-units: Compound,

complex and compound complex sentences (refer to the section

on " Sentence variety " p. ٤٦).

. Elliptical clauses are elegant efficient means of expression.

. Redundancy is the degree to which a written bit of discourse

contains more information than is needed for it to be understood.Redundant phrases in writing are bad habits which should be

avoid٠ed. Writing short and clear sentences (i.e. concise

sentences) is a major feature of good writing.

٥١



. Language units which are similar in content and function should be expressed in similar form.

Example: Shall we go home or go to movie?

(The two ideas or clauses are coordinate, i.e. equal in importance

or rank)

. Correlative conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions used in

pairs in a parallel construction (e.g. both.. and, either... or,

neither... nor, not only.... but also, etc....,)

They should be followed by the same grammatical construction.

Example: Either say you're sorry or get out.

(Two possibilities separated by ' or')

. The tone of a piece of writing is its general quality or nature.

The choice of words and the way sentences are put together,

therefore, convey the tone of a given piece of writing. Tonereflects the writers' attitude towards both . audience and subject

matter.

. One measure of the formality of writing is the use of

contractions. Using contractions makes a text informal, whereas

eliminating contractions elevates the style and maintains a tone

of formality.

Spelling rules:

" I before E except after C "

This rule helps us remember the spelling of words like achieve,

believe, grief, thief, grieve, etc........

٥٢



. "Dropping Final E "

Drop the Final 'e' if the ending of word begins with a vowel

(e.g. advancing). But, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep

the final e as in advancement

. " Dropping Final Y "

When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the

'y' to i when it is preceded by a consonant.. Accordingly "

supply becomes supplies.

. Doubling final consonants:

Double the consonants which mark the ending of words.

e.g. submit: submitting - submitted.

Adding prefixes to words does not change their spelling (e.g.

unnecessary, disinterested, dissatisfied etc...).

٥٣



. define an 'absolute phrase '

. use absolute phrases to connect ideas.

. do the exercise based on ' Combining sentences ' on pages ٧٦ -

٧٨

. identify the four mechanical considerations in providing

"transition" between ideas.

. appreciate the value of coherence in a piece of writing.

. recognise the given set of 'transitional tags '

. match the given set of transitional devices on pages ٨٠ - ٨١

with the functions provided.

. understand how repetition lends itself to coherence.

. appreciate the value of pronoun reference in a piece of writing.

. read critically the paragraph on page "٨٣".

. provide reasons for describing this paragraph as " unified ".

. identify the difference between the paragraph on page ٨٣ and its

revised version on the next page.

. define a "topic sentence".

. understand the concept of paragraph development by using

relevant details.

٥٦



PART II: PARAGRAPH LEVEL

Sentence Variety

A Note on Sentence Variety

Many writers, unsure of themselves, are leery of long

sentences because they fear the run-on, forgetting that it is often

better to risk imperfection than boredom.

What we need, then, is practice in handling long sentences.It's easy to feel confident in writing shorter sentences, but if our

prose is made up entirely of shorter structures, it would drive a

reader crazy after a while.

Run-ons and Length

Remember that a really long sentence and a run-on sentence

are not the same thing. Note the following monster of a sentence

from Thomas Hooker:

Now if nature should intermit her course and leave

altogether, though it were but for awhile, the

٥٧



observation of her own laws; if those principal andmother elements of the world, whereof all things in

this lower world are made, should lose the qualities

which now they have; if the frame of that heavenly

arch erected over our heads should loosen and

dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their

wonted motions, and by irregular volubility turn

themselves any way as it might happen; if the prince

of the lights of heaven which now as a giant doth

run his unwearied course, should, as it were througha languishing faintness, begin to stand and to resthimself; if the moon should wander from her beaten

way, the times and seasons of the year blend

themselves by disordered and confused mixture, the

winds breathe out their last gasp, the clouds yield norain, the earth be defeated of heavenly influence, the

fruits of the earth pine away as children at the

withered breasts of their mother no longer able to

yield them relief––what would become of manhimself, whom these things now do all serve?

from Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity

The modern reader might rebel at the complexity of those clauses

piled one upon the other, and it does seem rather ponderous atfirst. In fact, if you were to write such a sentence in academic

prose, your instructor would probably call you in for a

conference. But if, as reader, you let yourself go a bit, there's a

well earned delight in finding yourself at the end of such asentence, having successfully navigated its shoals. And, as writer

(avoiding such extremes), there's much to be learned by devising

such monsters and then cutting them back to reasonable size.

٥٨



Here are some hints about using long sentences to your advantage.

Coordination

Allow the complexity of a longer sentence to develop after the

verb, not before it. Make the connection between subject and

verb quick and then allow the sentence to do some extra work. In

the completer (predicate), however, be careful to develop thecomplex structures in parallel form. Here is a ٢٣٩-word sentence

(not a run-on, though) that succeeds grammatically but fails

stylistically because it gives way to too much work before the

subject-verb connection is made:

Knowing that millions of people around the world

would be watching in person and on television and

expecting great things from him––at least one more gold

medal for America, if not another world record––during

this, his fourth and surely his last appearance in theWorld Olympics, and realizing that his legs could no

longer carry him down the runway with the same

blazing speed and confidence in making a huge, eye-

popping leap that they were capable of a few years ago

when he set world records in the ١٠٠-meter dash and in

the ٤٠٠-meter relay and won a silver medal in the long

jump, the renowned sprinter and track-and-field

personality Carl Lewis, who had known pressure from

fans and media before but never, even as a professionalrunner, this kind of pressure, made only a few

appearances in races during the few months before the

Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, partly because

he was afraid of raising expectations even higher and he

did not want to be distracted by interviews and adoring

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fans who would follow him into stores and restaurantsdemanding autographs and photo-opportunities, but

mostly because he wanted to conserve his energies and

concentrate, like a martial arts expert, on the job at hand:

winning his favourite competition, the long jump, and

bringing home another Gold Medal for the United

States, the most fitting conclusion to his brilliant career

in track and field.

Repeated Terms

One of the scariest techniques for handling long sentences is the

repetition of a key term. When properly handled, repetition of

key words and phrases within a sentence and then within a

paragraph not only holds things together but creates a rhythm

that provides energy and drives the meaning home. Here’s an

example:

The Swiss watchmakers' failure to capitalize on theinvention of the digital timepiece was bothastonishing and alarming––astonishing in that the

Swiss had, since the beginnings of the industrial

revolution in Europe, been among the first to

capitalize on technical innovations, alarming in that

a tremendous industrial potential had been lost to

their chief competitors, the watchmakers of Japan.

In the following sentence, from a speech by John F. Kennedy

(dedicating the Robert Frost Library at Amherst College),observe how the repeated, parallel phrases pile up the meaning in

waves:

٦٠



In America, our heroes have customarily run tomen of large accomplishments. But today this

college and country honours a man whose

contribution was not to our size but to our spirit, not

to our political beliefs but to our insight, not to our

self-esteem, but to our self-comprehension....

I look forward to a great future for America, a

future in which our country will match its military

strength with our moral restraint, its wealth with our

wisdom, its power with our purpose. I look forward

to an America which will not be afraid of grace and

beauty, which will protect the beauty of our natural

environment, which will preserve the great old

American houses and squares and parks of our

national past, and which will build handsome and balanced cities for our future.

The same principle can apply in repeated whole sentences in a

paragraph. Watch how President Kennedy drove him his point inthe famous "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech:

There are many people in the world who really don't

understand, or say they don't, what is the great issue

between the free world and the Communist world.

Let them come to Berlin. There are some who say

that communism is the wave of the future. Let them

come to Berlin. And there are some who say in

Europe and elsewhere we can work with the

Communists. Let them come to Berlin. And thereare even a few who say that it is true thatcommunism is an evil system, but it permits us to

make economic progress. Lass' sie nach Berlin

kommen. Let them come to Berlin.

٦١



Remarks in the Rudolph Wilde Platz West Berlin: June ٢٦ , ١٩٦٣

Additional Hints on Variety

♦Try an occasional question, exclamation, or command. A

question can be especially useful at the beginning of a

paragraph where you want to summarize quickly what

preceded and launch into what will now follow. "And whatwere the results of this Proclamation of ١٧٦٣?" This reminds

your readers––Ah, that's what we're talking about––and

prepares them for what comes next.

♦A command or directive provides direction and energy.

Readers react to being grabbed by the collar and told what to

do. It's hard to ignore, if not to resist. Tone is very important

here. "Learning the principle of parallel structure can be the

most important thing you learn in writing class. Learn itnow!"

♦Try beginning an occasional sentence with something other

than the normal subject-followed-by-verb order of things.

Begin with a modifying clause or participial phrase instead.

"Having led his people in a successful resistance, Pontiac was

astonished to discover how Indian tribal differences and

individualism began, instantly, to erode their base of unified

power."

♦Try beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction

(and, but, nor, for, yet, or, so). Many writers assert that if

you begin a sentence with and or but you should have

connected that sentence to the prior sentence. Well, perhaps

٦٢







you should have, but give it a try. A sentence beginning witha conjunction will almost always call attention to itself, and if

that's what you want, do it. But not so often that it gets out of

control.

♦Try using a variety of basic sentence structures. We cancategorize sentences into four main types, depending on the

number and type of clauses they contain:

١. Simple (one independent clause): We drove from Cairo

to Libya in one day.

٢. Compound (more than one independent clause): We

were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's

birthday party.

٣. Complex (one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause): Although he is now ٧٩ years old, he

still claims to be ٦٥.

٤. Compound-complex (more than one independent

clause and at least one dependent clause): After it was

all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning

something, but we think he was really surprised.

♦ In terms of style, you will also find that sentences are

classified as periodic or cumulative sentences. Periodic

sentences begin with modifying phrases and clauses,

sometimes piling them on, and then end with an independent

clause, period.

If, instead of listening to the war-mongers of the

military-industrial establishment, the politicians had

only listened to what people had been writing in

٦٣

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sentence in the same way that a speaker can emphasize part of a sentence using voice stress. We could say "Coach

CALHOUN came up with the program of recruiting players

from foreign countries." and by stressing the word "Calhoun"

we let the listener know that we're distinguishing this coach

from all others (in this particular context). To create the same

kind of stress in writing, we can "cleave" (split) the sentence

into two parts:

•

It was Coach Calhoun who came up with the program of recruiting players from foreign

countries.

Or we could stress the idea of the PROGRAM in

this way:

• It was the program of recruiting players from

foreign countries that Coach Calhoun came up

with.

The cleft sentence usually uses it as the main subjectwith a to be verb; the real information in the

sentence, oddly enough, follows in the predicate and

then in a dependent clause beginning with a

dependent word (usually who, which, or that ).

Another form of the cleft sentence can be created

with what (instead of it).

• What you did in your youth is your own

business.

The what form of the cleft sentence will frequently

take the main verb (and business) of the sentence

and put it into an initial noun clause:

٦٥



Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter,however, on warm summer nights she often goes to the college

observatory.

Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter.

However, on warm summer nights she often goes to the

college observatory.

Marie is never interested in stargazing, during the winter

however, on warm summer nights she often goes to the college

observatory.

٦. The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the

night sky it is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of

stars.

The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the

night sky, it is actually a huge galaxy containing millions of

stars.The cloud-like Milky Way stretching across the night sky is

actually a huge galaxy containing millions of stars.

Although the Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretchingacross the night sky. It is actually a huge galaxy containing

millions of stars.

٧. Watch the sky closely for several minutes you are likely to see

an artificial satellite pass over.

Watch the sky closely for several minutes; you are likely to see

an artificial satellite pass over.

٦٨



Watch the sky closely for several minutes, you are likely to seean artificial satellite pass over.

If you watch the sky closely for several minutes. You are

likely to see an artificial satellite pass over.

٨. Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby she

secretly wished she had stayed at home.

Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby, she


Pretending to be interested in her brother's hobby, Louisa


Louisa pretended to be interested, in her brother's hobby, she


٩. Some club members were late for the meeting for example,Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.

Some club members were late for the meeting, for example

Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.

Some club members were late for the meeting, for example,

Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.

Some club members were late for the meeting; for example,Tanya and Scott came in at ٩:٣٠.

٦٩



Pronoun Reference

Remember that if you're referring to you, or we, or I , or

one, try to remain consistently within the same case.

One You should observe this carefully whenever you

write.

Confusion In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, we find thenarrator to be one of the few successful

characters in terms of moral development.However, even the narrator, you soon realize,

is seriously flawed. [We've shifted from the

third-person, plural "we" (quite common when

writing about literature) to the second-person,

singular "you."]

Repair

Work

In Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye, we find the

narrator to be one of the few successful

characters in terms of moral development.However, even the narrator, we soon realize, is

seriously flawed.

Confusion People enjoy themselves immensely at UConn

women's basketball games. You don't have to

be an expert in basketball to get caught up in

the crowd's enthusiasm. [In these sentences,we've gone from a third-person, plural

reference, "People," to second-person "you."]

Repair

Work

[We could write, instead:] People enjoy

themselves immensely at Uconn women's

basketball games. One doesn't have to be an

٧٢



expert in basketball to get caught up in thecrowd's enthusiasm. [However, the "one," after

a while, is going to feel overly formal, stuffy.]

Repair

Work

[Most writers would probably prefer this:]

People enjoy themselves immensely at UConnwomen's basketball games. It isn't necessary to

be an expert in basketball to get caught up in

the crowd's enthusiasm.

Exercise on Consistency in Tense and Pronouns

Select one answer from the choices provided after each

sentence. The word you choose should fit the blank in the

sentence.

١. When one has been going to college for as long as he has, __________ to think the college owes _______ a degree .

a) you start; you b) one starts; one c) he starts; him

٢. Spring begins early in Tennessee. First, the forsythia bursts

into blossom; then the dogwood trees _______ to bloom, and

the redbud is soon in its glory .

a) begin b) began

٣. The poetry of Robert Frost (١٨٧٤-١٩٦٣) often seems to suggest

some kind of fate controls our lives. His essays, too,

____________ a similar malignant presence.

a) indicate b) indicated

٧٣



Avoiding Primer Language

Primer style is characterized by too many short sentences. It

is important to note that there is nothing inherently wrong with

short sentences. Too many of them in a small space, however,

can remind readers of material they read in kindergarten or first

grade: See Dick. See Dick chase Jane. See Jane run.

Used within a mix of sentences cut to various lengths, short

sentences can be extremely effective as they are capable of

focusing the reader's attention on a particular point. Look at this

one. See? A quick review of your text, however, could reveal an

overabundance of short sentences and the need to combine some

of those sentences into longer structures. Variety and rhythm are

the keys here: long sentences, average sentences, short sentences.

Another symptom of primer style is a proliferation of verbs

that don't do anything. There's nothing wrong with the sentence,

"I am a student," but nothing is really happening in that sentence.A large section of text in which there are only intransitive or

linking verbs that express being but no action is just asking

readers to turn off the dial of their attention and go read

something else. Sentences weighed down with a preponderance

of linking verbs can often be eliminated or embedded into larger,

more complex and interesting structures.

For example, the two sentences:

• My sister is an engineer.

• My sister works for the state.

٧٥



can be combined to read:

• My sister works as an engineer for the state.

OR

• My sister, an engineer, works for the state.

Exercises on Avoiding Primer Language

Try to combine the following sentences into one effective

sentence with only one independent clause. (Any exceptions to

this requirement are noted as a hint.)

١. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is a novel written by Ken

Kesey.Its protagonist is Randall Patrick McMurphy.

He pretends to be insane to escape a work farm.

He discovers he is now trapped in an asylum.He shows other characters the truth of their situation.

٢. Tiger Woods is the name of a young American golfer.

He set a record in the ١٩٩٧ Master's Tournament.

He surprised all the veterans.

He was ٢٢ at the time.

٣. Ramonita Espinoza used to coach at Notre Dame University.She now works at UConn.

She is the new tennis coach.

٤. Ronald E. Pepin is a well known translator of medieval texts.

٧٦



He has two honorary degrees from Fordham University.He recently published his fourth book on ancient medical

practices.

He was only forty-four years old at the time.

٥. John F. Kennedy was inaugurated into office in January of

١٩٦١.

He was assassinated in November of ١٩٦٣.

He spent only ١٠٠٠ days in office.

٦. Some students become nervous around computers.

They are nervous around anything high-tech.

Other students seem to enjoy new challenges.

They regard learning how to use computers as a kind of game.

HINT: Use a semicolon in this re-write.

٧. ER is my favourite television program.

ER is now in its third year.

It has won numerous Emmy Awards.

٨. Lowell Weicker was once Governor of Connecticut.

He was leader of that state's American Party.

Weicker has long been known as a maverick among

politicians.

He now teaches at the University of Virginia.

٧٧



Sentence-Combining Skills

The need to combine sentences

Sentences have to be combined to avoid the monotony that

would surely result if all sentences were brief and of equal

length. Part of the writer's task is to employ whatever music is

available to him or her in language, and part of language's music

lies within the rhythms of varied sentence length and structure.

Even poets who write within the formal limits and sameness of

an iambic pentameter beat will sometimes strike a chord against

that beat and vary the structure of their clauses and sentence

length, thus keeping the text alive and the reader awake. This

section will explore some of the techniques we ordinary writers

use to combine sentences.

Compounding sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent

clauses. That means that there are at least two units of thought

within the sentence, either one of which can stand by itself as its

own sentence. The clauses of a compound sentence are either

separated by a semicolon (relatively rare) or connected by a

٧٨












coordinating conjunction (which is, more often than not,

preceded by a comma). And the two most common coordinating

conjunctions are and and but . (The others are or, for, yet , and so.)

This is the simplest technique we have for combining ideas:

• Jack Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the

territory of the Louisiana Purchase and beyond, but few

people know of his contributions to natural science.• Lewis had been well trained by scientists in

Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he was a

curious man by nature.

Notice that the and does little more than link one idea to another;

the but also links, but it does more work in terms of establishing

an interesting relationship between ideas. The and is part of the

immediate language arsenal of children and of dreams: one thing

simply comes after another and the logical relationship between

the ideas is not always evident or important. The word but (and

the other coordinators) is at a slightly higher level of argument.

Compounding sentence elements

Within a sentence, ideas can be connected by compounding

various sentence elements: subjects, verbs, objects or whole

٧٩

http://d/HP/pages/darling/grammar/conjunctions.htm

http://d/HP/pages/darling/grammar/conjunctions.htm



Using appositives to connect ideas

The appositive is probably the most efficient technique we

have for combining ideas. An appositive or appositive phrase is

a re-naming, a re-identification, of something earlier in the text.

You can think of an appositive as a modifying clause from whichthe clausal machinery (usually a relative pronoun and a linking

verb) has been removed. An appositive is often, but not always, a

parenthetical element which requires a pair of commas to set it

off from the rest of the sentence.

• Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of

Charbonneau, who was a French fur-trader, accompanied theexpedition as a translator.

• A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one

of the wives of the French fur-trader Charbonneau,

accompanied the expedition as a translator.

Notice that in the second sentence, above, Sacagawea's name is a

parenthetical element (structurally, the sentence adequately

identifies her as "a pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman"),and thus her name is set off by commas; Charbonneau's name,

however, is essential to the meaning of the sentence (otherwise,

٨٤





Clark's leadership and never once rebelled against their authority.

Using absolute phrases to connect ideas

Perhaps the most elegant––and most misunderstood––method

of combining ideas is the absolute phrase. This phrase, which is

often found at the beginning of sentence, is made up of a noun

(the phrase's "subject") followed, more often than not, by a

participle. Other modifiers might also be part of the phrase.

There is no true verb in an absolute phrase, however, and it is

always treated as a parenthetical element, an introductory

modifier, which is set off by a comma.

The absolute phrase might be confused with a participial

phrase, and the difference between them is structurally slight but

significant. The participial phrase does not contain the subject-

participle relationship of the absolute phrase; it modifies the

subject of the independent clause that follows. The absolute

phrase, on the other hand, is said to modify the entire clause that

follows. In the first combined sentence below, for instance, the

absolute phrase modifies the subject Lewis, but it also modifies

the verb, telling us "under what conditions" or "in what way" or

"how" he disappointed the world. The absolute phrase thus

٨٦





modifies the entire subsequent clause and should not be confused

with a dangling participle, which must modify the subject

which immediately follows.

• Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his

exploits .

• Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to

publish his journals .

• His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits, Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to

publish his journals.

• Lewis's long journey was finally completed .

•

His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.

• Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington,

D.C., completely alone .

• His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of

Discovery dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way

back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.

٨٧

http://d/HP/pages/darling/grammar/modifiers.htm

http://d/HP/pages/darling/grammar/modifiers.htm



Exercise on Combining Sentences

Combine each group of sentences into one effective sentence,

containing only one independent clause.

١. Hartford is the capital of Connecticut.

It is the second largest city in the state.

٢. Hartford was once known as an industrial centre.

It was the home of several manufacturers.

They made firearms, typewriters, bicycles, and even cars.

٣. Today, though, several insurance companies make Hartford

their home.

Aetna, the Travellers, the Hartford, and Cigna are in

Hartford.

Their home offices are within miles of one another.

٤. Manufacturers once took advantage of Hartford's access to

the Connecticut River.

They also enjoyed Hartford's well educated workforce.

٥. Eventually, cheap labour in the south lured manufacturing

away from Hartford.

Large empty factories were all that was left of Hartford's

industrial past.

٨٨



١٢. Mark Twain loved industrial inventions.

He lost a fortune investing in them.

One of these inventions was the elaborate Paige typesetter.

Unfortunately for Twain, this machine was developed at the

same time as the Linotype.

The Linotype machine was much simpler and less expensive.

١٣. Mark Twain's beloved daughter, Susy, died in the Hartford

home.She died of spinal meningitis.

Twain never felt the same about the house again.

He soon left the house and Hartford.

He returned only once.He came back for the funeral of his friend, Charles

DudleyWarner.

٩٠



Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas

The most convincing ideas in the world, expressed in the

most beautiful sentences, will move no one unless those ideas are

properly connected. Unless readers can move easily from one

thought to another, they will surely turn to something else or turn

on the television.

Providing transitions between ideas is largely a matter of

attitude. You must never assume that your readers know what

you know. In fact, it's a good idea to assume not only that your

readers need all the information that you have and need to know

exactly how you arrived at the point you're at, but to assume also

that they are not quite as quick as you are. You might be able to

leap from one side of the stream to the other; believe that your

readers need some stepping stones and be sure to place them in

readily accessible spots.

There are four basic mechanical considerations in providingtransitions between ideas: using transitional expressions,repeating key words and phrases, using pronoun reference,

and using parallel form.

USING TRANSITIONAL TAGS

Transitional tags run the gamut from the most simple—the

six little conjunctions: and, but, nor, for, yet, or, so —to more

complex signals that ideas are somehow connected—the

conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions such ashowever, moreover, nevertheless, on the other hand .

٩١



Paragraph Development & Topic Sentences

A typical expository paragraph starts with a controlling idea or

claim, which it then explains, develops, or supports with

evidence. Paragraph sprawl occurs when digressions are

introduced into an otherwise focused and unified discussion.

Digressions and deviations often come in the form of irrelevant

details or shifts in focus.

Irrelevant Details

When I was growing up, one of the places I enjoyed

most was the cherry tree in the back yard. Behind

the yard was an alley and then more houses. Every

summer when the cherries began to ripen, I used to

spend hours high in the tree, picking and eating the

sweet, sun-warmed cherries. My mother alwaysworried about my falling out of the tree, but I never

did. But I had some competition for the cherries —

flocks of birds that enjoyed them as much as I did

and would perch all over the tree, devouring the fruit

whenever I wasn't there. I used to wonder why the

grown-ups never ate any of the cherries; but actually

when the birds and I had finished, there weren't

many left.

No sentence is completely irrelevant to the general topic of this

paragraph (the cherry tree), but the sentences Behind the yard

was an alley and then more houses and My mother always

٩٧



worried about my falling out of the tree, but I never did do notdevelop the specific idea in the first sentence: enjoyment of the

cherry tree.

Shift in Focus

(١) It is a fact that capital punishment is not a

deterrent to crime. (٢) Statistics show that in stateswith capital punishment, murder rates are the same

or almost the same as in states without capital

punishment. (٣) It is also true that it is more

expensive to put a person on death row than in life

imprisonment because of the costs of maximum

security. (٤) Unfortunately, capital punishment has

been used unjustly. (٥) Statistics show that every

execution is of a man and that nine out of ten are black. (٦) So prejudice shows right through.

Once again, no sentence in this paragraph (to the left) is

completely irrelevant to the general topic (capital punishment),

but the specific focus of this paragraph shifts abruptly twice. The

paragraph starts out with a clear claim in sentence ١: It is a fact

that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. Sentence ٢ provides evidence in support of the initial claim: Statistics show

that in states with capital punishment, murder rates are the same

or almost the same as in states without capital punishment.

Sentence ٣, however, shifts the focus from capital punishment as

٩٨



a deterrent to crime to the cost of incarceration: It is also truethat it is more expensive to put a person on death row than in life

imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security.

Sentence ٤ once again shifts the focus, this time to issues of

justice: Unfortunately, capital punishment has been used

unjustly. Sentences ٥ and ٦, Statistics show that every execution

is of a man and that nine out of ten are black and So prejudice

shows right through, follow from ٤ if one believes that executing

men and blacks is in fact evidence of injustice and prejudice.More importantly, however, we are now a long way off from the

original claim, that capital punishment does not deter crime. The

focus has shifted from deterrence to expense to fairness.

The following paragraph on the same topic is much more

effectively focused and unified:

(١)The punishment of criminals has always been a

problem for society. (٢) Citizens have had to decide

whether offenders such as first-degree murderers

should be killed in a gas chamber, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in

society. (٣) Many citizens argue that serious

criminals should be executed. (٤) They believe that

killing criminals will set an example for others and

also rid society of a cumbersome burden. (٥) Other

citizens say that no one has the right to take a life

and that capital punishment is not a deterrent to

crime. (٦) They believe that society as well as the

criminal is responsible for the crimes and that killing

٩٩



with saliva, stonefly nymphs clinging to rocks in theswirling currents, and the wormlike larvae of

blackflies edging the stones under riffles or where

the stream spills over steeply slanting rocks. But

now the stream insects were dead, killed by DDT,

and there was nothing for a young salmon to eat.

Rachel Carson, Silent Spring

The first part of Carson's topic sentence ––Soon after the spraying had ended–– is a transitional clause that looks back to the

previous topic: DDT spraying. Topic sentences often begin with

such transitional clauses referring to the previous paragraph. The

second part of the topic sentence ––there were unmistakable signsthat all was not well–– shapes and controls what follows. This

kind of bridging helps the reader follow Carson's argument.

Notice, too, how Carson further helps the reader follow her

argument by providing a more focused version of the topic

sentence later in the paragraph ––All the life of the stream was stilled. This sentence tells us exactly what Carson meant by all

was not well.

١٠٢



PART III : ESSAY LEVEL

Objectives:


. identify the main parts of an essay.

. read critically the "Essay Writing Tips ".

. know what an introduction to an essay should contain.

. define the body of an essay.

. identify the content of the body of an essay.

. identify the approaches which can be used in organizing the

body of essay.

. define a "paragraph".

. specify the features of the body of an essay.

. recognise what a conclusion in an essay usually contains.

. read critically " Things not to do in an introductory paragraph "

on p. ٩٤

. identify the tasks an introductory paragraph should achieve.

١٠٥



. identify the different kinds of essay.

. specify what each kind of essay aims at.

. describe how each kind of essay is organized.

. go through the examples illustrating the different kinds of essay

on pages ١١١- ١١٨.

. look / read critically how each of the three parts of each essay

example (pp.١١١- ١١٨) is realized functionally

. read critically the part entitled " The Five - paragraph Essay ".

. match the model essay provided with the generalizations given

on pages ١١٩ - ١٢١.

. read analytically the commentary on pages ١٢٣ - ١٢٤

. appreciate how "organization" of an essay makes it unique.

١٠٧



PART III: ESSAY LEVEL

Essay Writing Tips

An essay does not merely list facts. The facts must be organized

into themes to support a central argument or thesis. The thesis is

introduced at the beginning and developed one step at a time.

The stronger the thesis, the easier it will be to develop a strongargument. Using an outline can help organize your thoughts and

guide in writing the essay. Organizationally, the essay has three

main parts:

• Introduction

• Body

• Conclusion

١. Introduction. In the introduction, state the thesis, outline themain points to be made, and describe the conclusions to be

drawn. Essays don't have surprise endings. They are not

mysteries; the reader should know from the beginning what

conclusions will be drawn. The reader should be drawn intothe essay by the introduction. (Hint: Many times, it is easier to

١٠٨



write the introduction last, after you clearly know thearguments developed in the essay.)

٢. Body. The bulk of an essay is in the body. In the body,

present the facts and develop thoughts and arguments. The

body may be organized in many ways, but the approach must

be clear, whether it is chronological, thematical, geographical,

or otherwise. Keep in mind these guidelines:

• Use paragraphs. Remember the definition of a paragraph as a unit of thought limited to one major

idea. Every paragraph relates to and supports the

thesis or central argument. Make sure of facts and

that they support the argument. Use specific

examples to support general statements.

• Use good grammar.

Write in complete sentences.

Use past tense instead of present tense when

appropriate. Use active verbs rather than passive ones.

Vary vocabulary.

Avoid sexist language (such as generic "he" or

"the history of man" when you mean humans or

people.)

• Analyze, don't describe. Don't just tell what

happened. Try to explain why it happened and why

it is significant. Facts are important, but meaningless

without interpretation.• Support your point of view. Essays don't have

"correct" answers. The point is to use facts to

develop an argument supporting a point of view.

١٠٩



Although definitions are extremely useful and it might

serve your purpose to devise your own definition(s) later

in the essay, you want to avoid using this typical

beginning to an essay.

Students are told from the first time they receive instruction in

English composition that their introductory paragraphs should

accomplish two tasks:

١. They should get the reader's interest so that he

or she will want to read more.

٢. They should let the reader know what the

writing is going to be about.

The second task can be accomplished by a carefully crafted

"thesis statement." Writing thesis statements can be learned

rather quickly. The first task––securing the reader's interest––is

more difficult. It is this task that this discussion addresses.

First, admit that it is impossible to say or do or write anything

that will interest everybody. With that out of the way, the

question then becomes: "What can a writer do that will secure the

interest of a fair sized audience?"

Professional writers who write for magazines and receive pay

for their work use five basic patterns to grab a reader's interest:

١. historical review

٢. anecdotal

٣. surprising statement

١١٢



[This article begins with a surprising, evenshocking, statistic, ٨٠٠٠ children die each year from

accidents. The article then lists seven easy actions a

person can take to help guard a child against

accidents. These range from turning down the water

heater to ١٢٠ degrees Fahrenheit to putting firearms

under lock and key.]

٤ Famous person: People like to know what celebrities say anddo. Dropping the name of a famous person at the beginning of a

paper usually gets the reader's attention. It may be something that

person said or something he or she did that can be presented as

an interest grabber. You may just mention the famous person's

name to get the reader's interest. The famous person may be dead

or alive. The famous person may be a good person like the Pope,

or he or she may be a bad person like John Wilkes Booth. Of

course, bringing up this person's name must be relevant to the

topic. Even though the statement or action may not be readilyrelevant, a clever writer can convince the reader that it is

relevant.

from "Dear Taxpayer" by Will Manley

in Booklist , May ١, ١٩٩٣.

The most widely read writer in America today is not

Stephen King, Michael Chrichton or John Grisham.It's Margaret Milner Richardson, the Commissioner

of the Internal Revenue Service, whose name

appears on the "١٠٤٠ Forms and Instructions"

booklet. I doubt that Margaret wrote the entire ١٠٤٠

١١٦



pamphlet, but the annual introductory letter, "A Note from the Commissioner," bears her signature.

[This is the first paragraph of an article about the

lady named above. The author used the names of

three famous, modern American writers to get a

reader's interest. Notice that the first name on his list

is a name that is probably more widely known than

the other two. Stephen King has been around for

some time now, and everyone, from teenagers to

grandparents, know his name whether they have

read his books or not.]

٥ Declarative: This technique is quite commonly used, but it

must be carefully used or the writer defeats his whole purpose of using one of these patterns, to get the reader's interest. In this

pattern, the writer simply states straight out what the topic of his

paper is going to be about. It is the technique that most studentwriters use with only modest success most of the time, but good

professional writers use it too.

from "The Tuition Tap" by Tim

Lindemuth in K-Stater , February, ١٩٩٤.

In the College of Veterinary Medicine and

Engineering, for example, nearly one-third of theteaching faculty may retire by the year ٢٠٠٤. In the

College of Education, more than a third of the

professors are ٥٥ years old and older. The largest

turnover for a single department is projected to be in

١١٧



geology. More than half of its faculty this year are inthe age group that will retire at the millennium, says

Ron Downey of K-State's Office of Institutional

Research and Analysis. The graying of K-State's

faculty is not unique. A Regents' report shows

approximately ٢٧ percent of the faculty at the six

state universities will retire by the end of this

decade, creating a shortage of senior faculty.

[This is a straight forward introduction that gets

right down to the topic of the aging of the faculty of

Kansas State University. There are no historical

reviews, no surprising statements, no anecdotes, no

quotations from or about famous people. This is a

discussion that leads to further discussion about the

topic. The biggest difficulty about this type of

introduction is that it can get boring. It is not likely

to get the interest of anyone except those who are

already interested in this subject. Use this pattern

with caution.]

These patterns can give a "lift" to your writing. Practice them.

Try using two or three different patterns for your introductory

paragraph and see which introductory paragraph is best; it's often

a delicate matter of tone and of knowing who your audience is.

Do not forget, though, that your introductory paragraph must also

include a thesis statement to let your reader know what your

topic is and what you are going to say about that topic.

Supporting Paragraphs

What are supporting paragraphs?

١١٨



Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay.

What do they do?

They develop the main idea of your essay.

How do I write them?

١. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay.

٢. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph.

٣. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and

examples.

To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use special

transition words. Transition words link your paragraphs together

and make your essay easier to read. Use them at the beginning

and end of your paragraphs.

Examples of transition words that can help you to link your

paragraphs together:

For listing different points For counter examples

FirstSecond

Third

However Even though

On the other hand

Nevertheless

For additional ideas To show cause and effect

Another

In addition to

Therefore

Thus

١١٩



٤. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I

want to say about this topic? Why should people be interested

in this topic? Why is this topic important?

٥. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the

most important point you are going to present. If you cannot

decide which point is the most important, just choose one point

and stick to it throughout your paragraph or essay.

٦. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops yourmain idea. Once you have chosen the most important point of

your paragraph or essay, you must find the best way to tell

your reader about it. Look at the facts you have written. Look

at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas

will best support the main idea of your essay. Once you have

chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which

order to put them in the essay. Write down your own note set

that you can use to guide yourself as you write your essay.

Writing Essays

What is the writing stage?

The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.

Five Writing Steps:

١. For the introduction, write the thesis statement and give some

background information.

٢. Develop each supporting paragraph and make sure to follow

the correct paragraph format.

١٢٢



Style and Organization

١. Make sure your essay has an introduction, supporting

paragraphs, and a summary paragraph.

٢. Check that you have a thesis statement that identifies the main

idea of the essay.

٣. Check that all your paragraphs follow the proper paragraphformat.

٤. See if your essay is interesting.

Publishing Essays

What is the publishing stage?

The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your

essay to hand in.

Publishing Steps:

١. Make a paper copy of your essay.

٢. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents.

٣. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.

١٢٤



Kinds of Essay

١. Definition Essay

When you are writing a definition essay, you take a term or an

idea and write about what it is. Often, definitions are combined

with classification or other forms of organization in the essay.

You need to give a careful definition of the key term before

going on to discuss different types or examples.

Example question:

Write an essay defining energy

resources and discuss the different

types.

Introduction: Define the key term energy resources.

١. Define one type of energy resources:

renewable resources.

Supporting paragraphs:

٢. Define another type of energy

resources: non-renewable resources.

Summary paragraph: Summarize energy resources.

٢. Classification Essay

١٢٥



Example question: Write an essay describing the polar bear.Introduction: Introduce what a polar bear is.

١. Describe where the polar bear lives.

٢. Describe the body of the polar bear.


٣. Describe what the polar eats.

Summary paragraph: Summarize what a polar bear is.

١٢٧



٤. Compare and Contrast Essay

In a compare and contrast essay, you write about the similarities

and differences between two or more people, places, or things.

You can organize the essay by writing about one subject first and

then comparing it with the second subject. A more effective wayis to organize the essay by comparing each subject by category.

Example: Write an essay comparing the weather in

Cairo with the weather in Aswan.

Introduction: Introduce weather in the cities of Cairo

and Aswan.

١. Compare weather in spring and

summer for both cities. State how they

are similar or different.


٢. Compare weather in autumn and

winter for both cities. State how they

are similar or different.

Summary paragraph: Summarize the similarities anddifferences.

٥.Sequence Essay

In a sequence essay, you are writing to describe a series of eventsor a process in some sort of order. Usually, this order is based on

time. You organize the essay by writing about each step of the

process in the order it occurred.

Example question:Write an essay outlining the stages o

privatization in Egypt.

١٢٨



Introduction: Define what privatization is.

١. Describe what the public sector was

like in the past.

٢. Describe what the public sector is like

now.


٣. Describe the future of the public

sector in Egypt.

Summary paragraph:Summarize the main stages of privatiza-

tion in Egypt.

٦. Choice Essay

In a choice essay, you need to choose which object, idea, or

action that you prefer. You organize the essay by describing each

option and then giving your opinion.

Example question: Write an essay choosing between

spending time with one or two close

friends and spending time with a large

number of friends.

Introduction: Introduce the concept of friendship.

١٢٩



٢. Explain second reason: better living

conditions in the newly-built cities.

Summary

paragraph:Summarize main reasons.

٨. Evaluation Essay

In an evaluation essay, you make judgments about people, ideas,

and possible actions. You make your evaluation based on certain

criteria that you develop. Organize the essay by discussing the

criteria you used to make your judgment.

Example

question:

Write an essay evaluating the importance of the

Parliament.

Introduction: Give your judgment on whether the Parliament

is important.

Supporting

paragraphs:١. Explain first criteria: meeting place for

government

٢. Explain second criteria: represent Egyptians

٣. Explain third criteria: make laws for Egypt

Summary

paragraph:

Conclude with an overall judgment about the

Parliament

١٣١



١٣٢



Body — Second paragraph:

The second paragraph of the body should contain the second

strongest argument, second most significant example, second

cleverest illustration, or an obvious follow up the first paragraph

in the body. The first sentence of this paragraph should include

the reverse hook which ties in with the transitional hook at the

end of the first paragraph of the body. The topic for this

paragraph should be in the first or second sentence. This topic

should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory

paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a

transitional hook to tie into the third paragraph of the body.

Body — Third paragraph:

The third paragraph of the body should contain the weakest

argument, weakest example, weakest illustration, or an obvious

follow up to the second paragraph in the body. The first sentence

of this paragraph should include the reverse hook which ties inwith the transitional hook at the end of the second paragraph. The

topic for this paragraph should be in the first or second sentence.

This topic should relate to the thesis statement in the introductory

paragraph. The last sentence in this paragraph should include a

transitional concluding hook that signals the reader that this is the

final major point being made in this paper. This hook also leads

into the last, or concluding, paragraph.

Conclusion:

Concluding paragraph:

This paragraph should include the following:

١. an allusion to the pattern used in the introductory paragraph,

١٣٤



uses the following image to describe a static scene: "His roomwas as black as pitch with the thick darkness..." Poe used the

words "black," "pitch," and "thick darkness" not only to show the

reader the condition of the old man's room, but also to make the

reader feel the darkness." (٣) "Thick" is a word that is not usually

associated with colour (darkness), yet in using it, Poe stimulates

the reader's sense of feeling as well as his sense of sight.

(١) Further on in the story, Poe uses a couple of words that

cross not only the sense of sight but also the sense of feeling todescribe a dynamic scene. (٢) The youth in the story has been

standing in the open doorway of the old man's room for a long

time, waiting for just the right moment to reveal himself to the

old man in order to frighten him. (٣) Poe writes: "So I opened it

[the lantern opening]—you cannot imagine how stealthily,

stealthily—until, at length, a single dim ray, like the thread of the

spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture

eye." (٤) By using the metaphor of the thread of the spider

(which we all know is a creepy creature) and the word "shot,"

Poe almost makes the reader gasp, as surely did the old man

whose one blind eye the young man describes as "the vulture

eye."

(١) The reader does not know much about what the old man

in this story looks like except that he has one blind eye. (٢) In the

second paragraph of "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe establishes the

young man's obsession with that blind eye when he writes: "Hehad the eye of the vulture—a pale blue eye, with a film over it."

(٣) This "vulture eye" is evoked over and over again in the story

until the reader becomes as obsessed with it as does the young

١٣٦



man. (٤) His use of the vivid, concrete word "vulture" establishes

a specific image in the mind of the reader that is inescapable.

(١) "Thick darkness," "thread of the spider," and "vulture

eye" are three images that Poe used in "The Tell-Tale Heart" to

stimulate a reader's senses. (٢) Poe wanted the reader to see and

feel real life. (٣) He used concrete imagery rather than vague

abstract words to describe settings and people. (٤) If Edgar Allan

Poe was one of Stephen King's teachers, then readers of Kingowe a debt of gratitude to that nineteenth-century creator of

horror stories.

Commentary:

The introductory paragraph includes a paraphrase of something said by a famous person in order to get the reader's

attention. The second sentence leads up to the thesis statementwhich is the third sentence. The thesis statement (sentence ٣)

presents topic of the paper to the reader and provides a mini-

outline. The topic is Poe's use of visual imagery. The mini-

outline tells the reader that this paper will present Poe's use of

imagery in three places in his writing: (١) description of static

setting; (٢) description of dynamic setting; and (٣) description of

a person. The last sentence of the paragraph uses the words

"manipulation" and "senses" as transitional hooks.

In the first sentence of the second paragraph (first

paragraph of the body) the words "sense" and "manipulation"are used to hook into the end of the introductory paragraph. The

first part of the second sentence provides the topic for this

١٣٧



paragraph—imagery in a static scene. Then a quotation from"The Tell-Tale Heart" is presented and briefly discussed. The last

sentence of this paragraph uses the expressions "sense of feeling"

and "sense of sight" as hooks for leading into the third paragraph.

The first sentence of the third paragraph (second paragraph

of the body) uses the words "sense of sight" and "sense of

feeling" to hook back into the previous paragraph. Note that in

the second paragraph "feeling" came first, and in this paragraph

"sight" comes first. The first sentence also includes the topic for

this paragraph—imagery in a dynamic scene. Again, a quotation

is taken from the story, and it is briefly discussed. The last

sentence uses the words "one blind eye" which was in the

quotation. This expression provides the transitional hook for the

last paragraph in the body of the paper.

In the first sentence of the fourth paragraph (third

paragraph in the body), "one blind eye" is used that hooks into

the previous paragraph. This first sentence also lets the reader

know that this paragraph will deal with descriptions of people:"... what the old man looks like...." Once again Poe is quoted and

discussed. The last sentence uses the word "image" which hooks

into the last paragraph. (It is less important that this paragraph

has a hook since the last paragraph is going to include a summary

of the body othe paper.)

The first sentence of the concluding paragraph uses the

principal words from the quotations from each paragraph of the

body of the paper. This summarizes those three paragraph. The

second and third sentences provide observations which can also be considered a summary, not only of the content of the paper,

but also offers personal opinion which was logically drawn as the

result of this study. The last sentence returns to the Edgar Allan

Poe-Stephen King relationship which began this paper. This

١٣٨



sentence also provides a "wrap-up" and gives the paper a sense of finality.

١٣٩



- surprising statement

- famous person

- declarative

. Supporting paragraphs (i.e. the body) in an essay develop its

main idea. They should have topic sentences, supporting

sentences, and a summary sentence,

. Transition words link the units (i.e paragraphs) of an essay andmakes it easier to read.

. Writing an essay goes through different stages:

- pre - writing

- writing

- editing

- publishing

. kinds of essay can be classified as follows:

- definition essay

- classification essay

- description essay

- compare and contrast essay.

- sequence essay

-choice essay

- explanation essay

١٤١



- evaluation essay

. the five- paragraph essay is a classic format for compositions.

١٤٢




Objectives:


. extract the main point in each paragraph of the essay entitled "

The Computer as writing assistant...... "

. provide the main topic of the essay.

. show evidence whether the writer of the essay has provided all

details about using a computer, a word-processor, or otherwise.

. pick up some of the transitional to go used in the essay.

. identify the functions of the tags.

.choose one of the composition topics provided and write an

essay on it.

. analyse the model essay on pages ١٤٠-١٤٢ in terms of

organization.

. provide a statement about the topic of the essay entitled " Noise

Pollution ".

. provide a summary of the story at the beginning of the essay.

. show whether the story given is relevant to the topic of the

essay or otherwise

. define "Noise Pollution" from the writer's perspective.

١٤٣



. show whether the facts / examples provided in the essay supportthe main argument or otherwise.

. identify the conclusion reached at the end of the essay.

. choose one of the composition topics provided and write an

essay on it.

. provide a statement about the main topic of the essay " smoking

and quitting are matters of free will ".

. identify the writer's attitude towards smoking.

. provide some details from the essay which support the main

argument

. pick up some of the transitional tags used in the essay.

. identify the conclusion reached at the end of the essay.

. write an essay or one of the composition topics provided.

. provide answers to the discussion items based on the essay

entitled "what happened to the News? ".

. write an essay on one of the composition topics provided.

١٤٤




The Computer as Writing Assistant

More Than a Fancy Typewriter

That computer sitting before you is more than a fancytypewriter. With modern word-processing programs and the

ability of the computer to attend to more than one task at a time,

the computer can become an invaluable assistant in the writing

process. If you are still typing with two fingers, however, you

must learn how to take advantage of all the computer has to offer.

It might be a good idea to call a brief time-out in your academic

courses and learn some keyboarding skills. Until voice-

recognition software becomes a more affordable reality, the

ability to use the keyboard with speed and efficiency is going to

be one of the keys to academic success. You don't want to spend

hours pecking away at the keyboard when a mini-course in

keyboarding will give you the skills necessary to keyboard like a

speed-demon. And paying someone else to keyboard your paper

is not only expensive; it also means that you're not taking

advantage of everything that this technology has to offer. If you

don't have time during the regular semester, promise yourself that

before another winter's intersession or summer session passes by,you will take a course in keyboarding. You will never regret it.

There are also software packages that promise to turn you into anexecutive secretary in a week, and they can be effective. Having

the discipline of a course and the encouragement of an instructor and classmates can be helpful, though.

١٤٥



One of the first things you'll learn in a keyboard class is howto SAVE the material you're typing. Once you've learned the first

basic step, it's easy to save your document as you go along. Some

software, in fact, has an automatic SAVE feature that saves your

work every few minutes. When you're done with your work,

make sure that final copies of your documents are safely "put

away" in two places––on a floppy disc and on the hard drive or

on two separate floppies. Floppies "go bad," and someday you

will be very glad that you got in the habit of saving things twice.

Your instructor is not interested in what is already an old excuse:"My floppy is corrupted." The only caution here is that you must

be careful to work with the latest saved version. Carefully label

your discs and keep your backup copy as fresh as your main

floppy. Also, carry floppy discs in a hard plastic case.

If your document is really important or private, learn to keep

copies in a safe place, away from nasty weather and

electromagnetic fields (like some scissors or paperclips and those

magnetic closers on cabinet doors). Also, get in the habit of

checking the disc drive before you leave the computer station.Carefully saving your documents on a floppy doesn't do much

good if you leave it in the disc drive and the next person who

uses the lab accidentally blows away your precious text or helpshimself to a free floppy disc.

As you enter the Editing and Rewriting phases of writing

your paper and you begin to move blocks of text around and

delete material or insert new paragraphs here and there, it might

be a good idea to begin to save subsequent drafts of your paper.Label the draft files systematically and simply: ozone_ ١.doc,

ozone_ ٢.doc, etc. The reason for this is that we sometimes "blow

away" something that is quite good and when we want to retrieve

it, it's gone if we constantly over-ride a single saved document.

١٤٦

http://d/HP/pages/darling/grammar/composition/editing.htm

http://d/HP/pages/darling/grammar/composition/editing.htm



(A distinct disadvantage of digital writing!) A high-densityfloppy disc should be able to hold many versions of several text

documents.

Discussion:

١. Sum up the main points in each paragraph.

٢. What is the main topic of this essay?

٣. Do you think that the writer has provided all the details about

using the computer as a word-processor?

٤. Mention some of the transitional tags used by the writer in the

essay.

Composition:

- Write an essay explaining why you have decided to buy a

personal computer.

- Write an essay choosing between buying a computer and

buying a typewriter.

- What possible disadvantages can computers have? Explain

with reasons.

- Compare and contrast two modern inventions.

١٤٧



Noise Pollution

Ever felt like murdering your neighbour for blasting music

too loud? That's exactly what ٧٨-year-old retired farmer

Lambrinos Lykouresis did two years ago in Lithakia, on the

Greek island of Zakynthos. Lykouresis, who claims he had

complained to his neighbour for months and only wanted to

listen to the evening news in peace, suddenly snapped. On May

٣١, ١٩٩٦ he got up from his armchair, took his hunting rifle from

the shelf, hobbled over to the neighbouring apartment and rang

the bell. When ٤٠-year-old housewife Imberia Boziki answered

the door, he fired three times at point-blank range, killing her

instantly and wounding her ٢٤-year-old son.

Lykouresis now listens to the evening news in Greece's

Ioannina maximum security prison. Convicted of manslaughter

in ١٩٩٦, he is serving two life sentences. The Lykouresis case is

an extreme example of the lengths to which some people will go

for a little peace and quiet. And it's sad testimony to the

devastating effects of one of the world's most pervasive yet least

publicized environmental problems: noise pollution, the presence

of intrusive and unwanted sounds that can seriously affect

physical and psychological health.

And the Greeks are not alone. According to Europe's

Environment, a report published in ١٩٩٥ by the European

Environment Agency (E.E.A.), about ٤٥٠ million people–– ٦٥٪ of

the European population––are regularly exposed to noise

intensities above ٥٥ dB, a level high enough to cause annoyance,

aggressive behaviour and sleep disturbance. Although noise-data

١٤٨



collection is limited and methods may vary, the E.E.A. alsoconcluded that some ١١٣ million Europeans are routinely

subjected to more than ٦٥ dB, the level at which hypertension can

result, and ١٠ million endure noise above ٧٥ dB, which can lead

to high stress levels, increased heart rates and potential hearing

loss.

Unfortunately, the primary sources of noise pollution are also

mainstays of modern life. Apart from people––who create a

racket through stereos and televisions and at outdoor

entertainment and sporting events––the usual culprits are planes,

trains and automobiles. In Germany, for example, the Federal

Environmental Agency estimates that ٧٠٪ of the country's

inhabitants feel continuously disturbed by road traffic. In the

Netherlands, more than a million people are subjected to

excessive noise levels as a result of their proximity to Schiphol

Airport, according to a report by the Dutch National Institute for

Public Health and the Environment (R.I.V.M.). In an increasingly

overcrowded and congested Europe, noise pollution is a problem

that resonates everywhere, not just in urban centres. And

members of the silent majority who suffer from these acoustic

intrusions are starting to speak out.

In Britain, individuals saddled with loud and uncontrollableneighbours can complain to the local council. But taking noise-

makers to court can be a long and exhausting process. And

councils often lack the resources––and the will––to prosecute.

"There's a lot of prejudice against people who complain," saysGibson. "Most people move house rather than confront the

source of the problem."

Unfortunately, those unable or unwilling to move away havelittle choice but to insulate themselves as best they can from the

١٤٩



noise. Double-glazing helps, but the effectiveness of sound barriers is limited. In general, the higher the barrier and the closer

to the noise source, the better it works. But with extremely wide

highways barriers can't do much to block traffic noise coming

from the farthest lanes.

The noisy nature of modern life is unlikely to be muted any

time soon. But that doesn't mean that noise pollution is destined

to drive us all mad or deaf. Sensible urban planning, innovative

new technology and creative acoustic architecture––plus some

old-fashioned good neighbourliness––can go a long way toward

restoring peace and quiet. And that may well be the best way to

stop the sound of silence from becoming an endangered species.

Discussion:

١. State the topic of this essay.

٢. Summarize the story with which the writer begins his essay.

٣. Why, in your opinion, does the writer begin his essay with this

story? Is it relevant to the essay topic?

٤. How is ‘noise pollution’ defined by the writer?

٥. Does the writer include facts/examples in his essay to support

his argument?

٦. What conclusion does the writer reach at the end of his essay?

١٥٠



Composition:

- Imagine that you are Lykouresis, writing to explain why and

how you killed your neighbour, Imberia Boziki. Write the

essay in the descriptive style.

- Write an explanation essay on the sources of noise pollution

in Egypt.

١٥١



Smoking and quitting are matters of free will

The increasing attempt to hold tobacco companies responsible

for the consequences of smoking behaviour poses a greater threat

to liberty in a free society than nicotine ever could. When the

government acts like a parent, attempting to protect people from

themselves, it makes children out of adult citizens.

Most of us know people who smoked for years and then quit

abruptly. Their bodies had adapted to nicotine and since they

chose to quit, they did. Question: What do we attribute that

behaviour to? Answer: Free will.

And what of people who do not want to quit? Why explain

their behaviour using terms such as weak will and physiological

addiction? Those people simply choose to continue smoking,

even if a doctor or loved one has suggested they quit. They aren't

suffering from a weak will. They have an iron will: They choose

to continue smoking against medical advice. And ironically, theyare often the ones who transform their iron will into an iron fist,

demanding they be financially compensated for the consequences

of their own behaviour.

There's nothing particularly unusual about non-compliance

with medical advice or blaming others for one's own behaviour.

Many people continue to engage in certain behaviours against

medical advice. How many people continue to eat a high-fat diet

when their doctor recommends against it? If they develop

cardiovascular disease, will they blame McDonald's or Burger King for hooking them on hamburgers and French fries? Why

not?

١٥٢



Smoking and quitting, like eating and dieting or exercisingand being a couch potato, are matters of free will and personal

choice. Yes, habits may cause disease—but habits aren't disease

in and of themselves. Cancer is a disease. Smoking is a habitual

behaviour. Moreover, likening a behaviour to a disease seems

especially cruel to people with real diseases. A person cannot

choose to quit or moderate diabetes.

The price of freedom in a free society is responsibility for the

consequences of one's actions. Liberty and responsibility are

positively correlated. That's a fact. People who claim addiction

causes people to smoke say the two are negatively correlated.

That's fiction. We cannot increase freedom by decreasing

personal responsibility. That's the road to serfdom.

Discussion:

١. State the main topic of this essay.

٢. What is the writer’s attitude towards smoking?

٣. Mention some of the supporting details used by the writer to

support his argument.

٤. Give examples of transitional tags used in the essay.

٥. What conclusion does the writer reach at the end of his essay?

Composition:

- Compare and contrast two articles you have read on smoking.

١٥٣



What Happened to the News?

When television news started out, back in the ١٩٥٠s, it

occupied less than a thirty-minute slot. Ten or fifteen minutes

would be granted to local stations for their news, and then the

networks would say all there was to say about national and world

news in the remaining fifteen to twenty minutes. There were very

few advertisements during the news; it wasn't regarded as

appropriate to sponsor news about floods and fires and politicaldisasters. Life must have been simpler then.

Nowadays many television stations set apart ninety minutes

for local news alone, and that's just for the early evening news

show. On March ١٧, ١٩٩٨, we watched a local news show in

Hartford for one hour, from ٥ to ٦ p.m., and kept track of what

seemed to be really news and what was––well, not news.

First of all, during this one hour of news, there were ٣٥

advertisements. Among other things advertised, there were adsfor cars, fast-food chains, mutual funds, feminine hygiene

products, cheese, utility companies, phone service, shampoos,

and deodorants. Most of the ads were fast paced, colourful, andsometimes funny. They seemed to do a lot in their thirty seconds.

Graphically, they were the most interesting part of the hour. In

addition, there were ten advertisements apparently produced bythe television station itself that advertised programs and services

of the station––sometimes featuring what was coming up later

that evening, sometimes touting the virtues of the station's newsteam and weather forecasters.

Perhaps the most annoying moments in the news hour are the

little moments of conviviality and chit-chat between members of

١٥٥



the news team, the little asides of mutual congratulation andgratitude and commiseration (with the various victims in the

day's news) that are supposed to make us see how wonderfully

human the newscasters are. What must the fifteen-minute, get-it-

done-and-get-out newscasters of the ٥٠s think of all this?

Whatever happened to the news? What we need to do now is

to take a stopwatch to the news hour and determine how much of

the time is spent actually reporting "hard news," the kind of thing

that was put into that fifteen-minute segment during the earlydays of television news. We're willing to wager that over a one-

hour news show there is considerably less than fifteen minutes

occupied with the news. We can't say that our lives were simpler

back then, but apparently we had less time to spend watching

nonsense.

Discussion:

• Does the writer convince you of anything?

• Do you think the writer goes overboard with his illustrations?

If so, can you say what you would leave out?

• The writer insists on a difference between "hard news" and

the kind of thing he sees on the news program. Is it clear what

the writer means by "hard news"? Would it be more fair if the

writer provided us with a good definition of what "news"really is?

• Should the writer do a more scientific or statistical survey of

news programs––using a stopwatch, perhaps, watching other

١٥٦



channels and sampling the news on several different eveningsover a period of weeks or even months?

• Which of the following statements would you consider as a

the writer’s conclusion?

- News programs are getting longer and longer and

offering less and less actual news.

- News programs are full of advertisements.

Composition:

- Write an essay evaluating TV programs

- Write an essay comparing two TV channels. Statewhich channel you would prefer to watch. Give specific

reasons for your choice.

- Both newspapers and television news programs can begood sources of information about current events. Whatdo you think are the advantages and disadvantages of

each of these sources?

١٥٧



SUMMARY


Remember:

١. The Computer as writing assistant more than a fancy

typewriter.

. A Computer can be an invaluable assistant in the writing

process.

. A Course in keyboarding can provide you with the necessary

skills.

. Software packages can make you an executive secretary in a

week.

. Keyboard classes help you save the material.

٢. Noise Pollution.

. Lykouresis desperately killed his neighbour's wife and wounded

her ٢٤. year - old son for blasting music too loud.

. Noise pollution can seriously affect physical and psychological

health. A high percentage of Europeans are exposed to noise

intensities above ٥٥ dB. At the level of ٦٥ dB, hypertension,

increased heart rates and hearing loss can result.

. Planes, trains end automobiles are primary sources of noise

pollution

١٥٨



. Urban planning and new technology can help us restore peaceand quiet.

٣. Smoking and quitting are matters of free will.

. Smokers who quit after years of smoking have free will.

. People who choose to continue smoking against medical advice

demand financial compensation for the results of their behaviour.

. Many people continue to eat a high fat diet against their doctors'advice. However, they can never McDonald's for providing them

with hamburgers and French fries.

. Smoking and quitting are matters of personal choice. In a free

society, one is responsible for one's actions. We cannot increase

freedom by decreasing personal responsibility.

٤. What happened to the new?

. Television news occupied less than ٣٠ minutes in the ١٩٥o's.

But nowadays many television stations devote ٩٠ minutes to

local news alone.

. A local news show in Hartford in ١٩٩٨ continued for an hour

during which there were ٣٥ advertisements for cars,, fast food,

shampoos... etc.

. We need to determine how much of the time devoted to thenews is spent actually reporting 'hard news'.

١٥٩



PART V: WRITING TOPICS

Objectives:


. go through the list of writing topics given.

. classify the topics according to the kinds of essay previously

learnt.

. read critically a number of the topics and provide an outline for

each.

. write some topic sentences stating the main points in some of

the topics provided.

. write some essay on a number of the topics based on students'

personal choice.

. exchange their writings with their classmates.

. discuss how the writings are organized.

. identify some transitional tags used in the writings.

١٦٠



PART V: WRITING TOPICS

♦Some people enjoy change, and they look forward to new

experiences. Others like their lives to stay the same, and they

do not change their usual habits. Compare these two

approaches to life. Which approach do you prefer? Explain

why.

♦Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

Playing a game is fun only when you win.

Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

♦Some people prefer to spend time with one or two close

friends. Others choose to spend time with a large number of

friends. Compare the advantages of each choice. Which of these two ways of spending time do you prefer? Give reasons

to support your answer.

١٦١



♦Think of the most important class you have ever taken. Whydid you enjoy this class so much? Use specific reasons and

details to explain your answer.


Universities should give the same amount of money to

their students’ sports activities as they give to their

university libraries.

Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.

♦Some people think that children should begin their formal

education at a very early age and should spend most of their

time on school studies. Others believe that young childrenshould spend most of their time playing. Compare these two

views. Which view do you agree with? Why?

♦Some people prefer to spend most of their time alone. Others

like to be with friends most of the time. Do you prefer tospend your time alone or with friends? Give reasons to

support your answer.


People should read only those books that are about real

events, real people, and established facts.

Use specific reasons and details to support your

opinion.

♦When choosing a place to live, what do you consider mostimportant: location, size, style, number of rooms, types of

rooms, or other features? Use reasons and specific examples


١٦٣



Which opinion do you agree with? Give reasons to supportyour answer.

♦Some high schools require all students to wear school

uniforms. Other high schools permit students to decide what

to wear to school. Which of these two school policies do youthink is better? Use specific reasons and examples to support

your opinion.

♦ If you could make one important change in a school that you

attended, what change would you make? Use reasons andspecific examples to support your answer.

♦Your school has received a gift of money. What do you think

is the best way for your school to spend this money? Usespecific reasons and details to support your choice.

♦ It has been said, “Not everything that is learned is contained

in books.” Compare and contrast knowledge gained from

experience with knowledge gained from books. In your

opinion, which source is more important? Why?

♦Some people believe that the best way of learning about life

is by listening to the advice of family and friends. Other people believe that the best way of learning about life is

through personal experience. Compare the advantages of

these two different ways of learning about life. Which do you

think is preferable? Use specific examples to support your

preference.

♦You need to travel from your home to a place ٤٠ miles (٦٤

kilometres) away. Compare the different kinds of

transportation you could use. Tell which method of travel you

would choose. Give specific reasons for your choice.

١٦٥



♦Some people prefer to spend their free time outdoors. Other people prefer to spend their leisure time indoors. Would you

prefer to be outside or would you prefer to be inside for your

leisure activities? Use specific reasons and examples to

support your choice.

♦Some people believe that students should be given one long

vacation each year. Others believe that students should haveseveral short vacations throughout the year. Which viewpoint

do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples tosupport your choice.

♦Students at universities often have a choice of places to live.

They may choose to live in university dormitories, or they

may choose to live in apartments in the community. Compare

the advantages of living in university housing with the

advantages of living in an apartment in the community.

Which would you prefer? Give reasons for your preference.

♦What do you consider to be the most important room in ahouse? Why is this room more important to you than anyother room? Use specific reasons and examples to support

your opinion.

♦Would you prefer to live in a traditional house or in a modern

apartment building? Use specific reasons and details to



A person’s childhood years (the time from birth to ١٢

years of age) are the most important years of a person’s

life.

١٦٦



Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

♦Your country is going to build a new national university.

What academic area should be the main focus of this

university? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.


Parents are the best teachers.

Use specific reasons and examples to support your

answer.

♦ In the twentieth century, food has become easier to prepare.

Has this change improved the way people live? Use specific

reasons and examples to support your answer.

♦Your community has enough money to hire one new

employee. Which one of the following should your community hire?

a community health worker •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

a counsellor

an emergency medical technician

a fire-fighter

a judge

a landscaper

a police officer

a recreation centre director a teacher

Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay.


١٦٧



♦What is the most important animal in your country? Why isthis animal important? Use reasons and specific details to

explain your answer.

♦Some items (such as clothes or furniture) can be made by

hand or by machine. Which do you prefer — items made by

hand or items made by machine? Use reasons and specific

examples to explain your choice.


A zoo has no useful purpose.

Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.

♦Some people prefer to live in a small town. Others prefer to

live in a big city. Which place would you prefer to live in?


♦People learn in different ways. Some people learn by doing

things; other people learn by reading about things; otherslearn by listening to people talk about things. Which of these

methods of learning is best for you? Use specific examples to


♦Some people trust their first impressions about a person’s

character because they believe these judgements are generally

correct. Other people do not judge a person’s character

quickly because they believe first impressions are often

wrong. Compare these two attitudes. Which attitude do you

agree with? Support your choice with specific examples.

♦A university plans to develop a new research centre in your

country. Some people want a centre for business research.Other people want a centre for research in agriculture

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(farming). Which of these two kinds of research centres doyou recommend for your country? Give reasons for your

recommendation.


There is nothing that young people can teach older

people.


position.

♦How do movies or television influence people’s behaviour?

Use reasons and specific examples to explain your answer.

♦Music tells us something about a culture. What does the

music of your country reveal about the culture of your

country? Use reasons and specific examples to support your

answer.

♦

It has recently been announced that a new movie theatre may be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this

plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your

answer.

♦A company has announced that it wishes to build a large

factory near your community. Discuss the advantages and

disadvantages of this new influence on your community. Do

you support or oppose the factory?


Television has destroyed communication among friendsand family.

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♦ In some countries people are no longer allowed to smoke in

many public places and office buildings. Do you think this is

a good law or a bad law? Use specific reasons and examplesto support your position.

♦ Imagine that you have received some land to use as you wish.

How would you use this land? Use specific details to explain

your answer.

♦Many parts of the world are losing important natural

resources, such as forests, animals, or clean water. Chooseone resource that is disappearing and explain why it needs to

be saved. Use specific reasons and examples to support your

opinion.

♦When people move to another country, some of them decide

to follow the customs of the new country. Others prefer to

keep their own customs. Compare these two choices. Which

one do you prefer? Support your answer with specific details.

♦Decisions can be made quickly, or they can be made after careful thought. Read and think about the following

statement: The decisions that people make quickly are always

wrong. Do you agree or disagree with the statement? Use

reasons and examples to support your opinion.


It is more important for students to study history and

literature than it is for them to study science and

mathematics.

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All students should be required to study art and music

in high school.

Give specific reasons to support you opinion.


It is better to make the wrong decision than to

make no decision at all.


position.


Reading fiction (such as novels and short stories) is

more enjoyable than watching movies.

Use specific reasons and examples to support your position.

♦Some people think we should spend as much money as

possible exploring outer space (for example, travelling to the

moon and to other planets). Other people disagree and think

we should spend this money for our basic needs on Earth.

Which of these two opinions do you agree with? Use specific

reasons and details to support your answer.

♦What is one of the most important decisions you have made?

Why was this decision important? Use specific reasons and

details to explain your answer.

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When people succeed, it is because of hard work; luck

has nothing to do with success.


answer.

♦Some people think that governments should spend as much

money as possible on developing or buying computer

technology. Other people disagree and think that this moneyshould be spent on more basic needs. Which one of these

opinions do you agree with? Use specific reasons and details


♦ It is better for children to grow up in the countryside than in a big city. Do you agree or disagree? Use specific reasons and

examples to develop your essay.

♦ In general, people are living longer now. Discuss the causes

of this phenomenon. Use specific reasons and details todevelop your essay.

♦ In general, people are living longer now. How will this

change affect society? Use specific details and examples todevelop your essay.

♦We all work or will work in our jobs with many different

kinds of people. In your opinion, what are some important

characteristics of a co-worker (someone you work closely

with)? Use reasons and specific examples to explain whythese characteristics are important.


Sometimes it is better not to tell the truth.

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♦ In some countries, teenagers have jobs while they are still

students. Do you think this is a good idea? Support your

opinion by using specific reasons and details.

♦A person you know is planning to move to your town or city.

What do you think this person would like and dislike about

living in your town or city? Why? Use specific reasons and

details to develop your essay.


Private companies should spend more money to clean

up pollution in the environment.

Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay.

♦ In the future, students may have the choice of studying at

home by using technology such as computers or television or of studying at traditional schools. Which would you prefer?

Use reasons and specific details to explain your choice.

♦When famous people such as actors, athletes and rock stars

give their opinions, many people listen. Do you think we

should pay attention to these opinions? Give specific reasons

and examples to support your answer.

♦When people need to complain about a product or poor

service, some prefer to complain in writing and others prefer to complain in person. Which way do you prefer? Use specific


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♦You have been asked to suggest improvements to a park thatyou have visited. This might be a city park, a regional park, or

a national park. What improvements would you make? Why?


recommendations.

♦ If you were asked to send one thing representing your

country to an international exhibition, what would youchoose? Why? Use specific reasons and details to explain

your choice.♦There are many different kinds of advertising (on the radio,

on television, in newspapers, in magazines, and on

billboards). In your opinion, which one of these kinds of

advertising is the most effective? Why? Use specific reasons

and examples to support your answer.

♦Many people have a close relationship with their pets. These

people treat their birds, cats, or other animals as members of

their family. In your opinion, are such relationships good?Why or why not? Use specific reasons and examples tosupport your answer.

♦Advertising helps to sell products. Describe the qualities of

an effective advertisement. Use specific details and examples


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A sense of humour can sometimes be helpful in

difficult situations.


answer.

♦Some people think that they can learn better by themselves

than with a teacher. Others think that it is always better to

have a teacher. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons todevelop your essay.

♦What are some important qualities of a good supervisor

(boss)? Use specific details and examples to explain why

these qualities are important.

♦Should governments spend more money on improving roads

and highways, or should governments spend more money on

improving public transportation (buses, trains, subways)?

Why? Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay.

♦Choose one of the following careers and explain why it is

important to society.

accountant

aeroplane pilot

architect

dentist

lawyer

actor

computer

programmer

farmer

tour guide

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♦Use specific reasons and details to explain your answer.

♦ It has recently been announced that a shopping centre may be

built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this

plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your

answer.

♦ It is generally agreed that society benefits from the work of

its members. Compare the contributions of artists to societywith the contributions of scientists. Which type of

contribution do you think is valued more by your society?

Give specific reasons to support your answer.


High schools should allow students to study the courses

that students want to study.



It is better to be a member of a group than to be the

leader of a group.


answer.

♦Some people prefer to plan activities for their free time verycarefully. Others choose not to make any plans at all for their

free time. Compare the benefits of planning free timeactivities with the benefits of not making plans. Which do you

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prefer—planning or not planning for your leisure time? Usespecific reasons and examples to support your choice.


People are never satisfied with what they have. They

always want something more or something different.

Use specific reasons to support your answer.

♦Some people say that advertising encourages us to buy things

we really do not need. Others say that advertisements tell us

about new products that may improve our lives. Which

viewpoint do you agree with? Use specific reasons and

examples to support your answer.

♦You have enough money to purchase either a house or a

business. Which would you choose to buy? Give specific

reasons to explain your choice.

♦

Some students prefer to study alone. Others prefer to studywith a group of students. Which do you prefer? Use specific


♦Some people like doing work by hand. Others prefer using

machines. Which do you prefer? Use specific reasons and

examples to support your answer.

♦ It has recently been announced that a new restaurant may be

built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this

plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.

♦ It has recently been announced that a new high school may

be built in your neighbourhood. Do you support or oppose this

١٧٩



plan? Why? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.

♦You have been told that dormitory rooms at your university

must be shared by two students. Would you rather have the

university assign a student to share a room with you, or wouldyou rather choose your own roommate? Use specific reasons

and details to explain your answer.

♦Some people say that the best preparation for life is

learning to work with others and be co-operative.Others take the opposite view and say that learning to

be competitive is the best preparation. Discuss these

positions, using concrete examples of both. Tell which

one you agree with and explain why.

♦Supporters of technology say that it solves problems

and makes life better. Opponents argue that technology

creates new problems that may threaten or damage the

quality of life. Using one or two examples, discussthese two positions. Which view of technology do you

support? Why?

♦Some people believe that automobiles are useful and

necessary. Others believe that automobiles cause

problems that affect our health and well-being. Which

position do you support? Give specific reasons for your

answer.

♦ Inventions such as eyeglasses and the sewing machinehave had an important effect on our lives. Choose

another invention that you think is important. Give

specific reasons for your choice.

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♦Do you agree or disagree with the followingstatement?

Teachers should make learning enjoyable and fun

for their students.

Use reasons and specific examples to support your

opinion.

♦ Imagine that you have been asked to form a five person team

to tackle a business problem. Describe the personal attributes,values, and attitudes of ideal team members.

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A First Course in Essay Writing

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