Post on 24-Mar-2020
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3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3. PLANT PROFILE
3.1 AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS
3.1.1 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION / TAXONOMY38
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Magnoliophyta
Class – Magnoliopsida
Order – Caryophyllales
Family – Amaranthaceae
Genus – Amaranthus
Species – Amaranthus caudatus
3.1.2 VERNACULAR NAMES
39
Kannada – Chilike soppu, keelu harive, keere soppu
English – Love-lies-bleeding, inca wheat, tumbleweed
Hindi – Kedari-chua, ramdana, chulai, chawli, chauli
Sanskrit – Rajadri
Telgu – Netakoora
Tamil – Punki-k-kirai, cikapputtottakkirai, cirukirai
Marathi – Raajagira, bhaji
Urdu – Tukhm chaulai surkh
3.1.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Amaranthus caudatus belongs to the family Amaranthaceae. The
Amaranthaceae family consists of hardy, weedy, herbaceous, fast-growing, cereal-like
Fig No- 3.1 Amaranthus caudatus
40
plants. Amaranth is one of those rare plants whose leaves are eaten as a vegetable
while the seeds are used as cereals40
.
Amaranth is an herbaceous annual growing to 15—100 cm tall. It was once
nearly as important a food as maize and beans in Central and South America. The
Amaranthus plants are spread throughout the world, growing under a wide range of
climatic conditions and they are able to produce grains and leafy edible vegetable41
Amaranthus caudatus occurs as erect herbs. The leaves are obovate to
rhomboid. Panicles are terminal and axillary, pendulous. Sepals and stamens are five
each, awns of bracts curved outwards. Tepals are unequal42
.
Amaranthus caudatus is a versatile plant since it can grow under a broad range
of climate, soil and cultivar systems. The most characteristic of the seeds and leaves
may be that they contain a high proportion of high quality protein43
3.1.4 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Triterpenoids, Saponins, Glycosides, linoleic, linolenic and oleic acid,
squalene, rutin, quercetin, phytosterols, quinone, flavanoids, soluble and insoluble
fiber, tannins, saponins, 20% protein, all 8 essential amino acids (high in lysine,
threonine and tryptophan), vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B17, C, E, folic acid,
Calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Zinc, β-
carotene44,45
.
3.1.5 USES 42,46,47,48
Amaranthus caudatus is used as anti-diarrheal, anti-hemmorhagic, Astringent,
emmenagogue, nutritive, Tonic, galactogogue, diuretic. Amaranthus caudatus is also
used as anthelmintic and the mild flavored leaves are rich in vitamins and minerals.
41
It is used as vegetable for enriching iron deficiency. Nutritionally amaranth grain has
2-5 times higher biological value than a common cereal grain, while containing
substantially higher levels of proteins with 2-3 times higher lysine content.
Amaranth has been used nutritionally for infants, children, pregnant and
lactating woman, as it is comparable to the properties of milk. Amaranth aids in
countering heavy menstrual bleeding and vaginal discharge. It helps control dysentery
and diarrhea. With high lysine amaranth is an important protein source for
vegetarians.
The plant is used for purifying blood and in piles and as diuretic in stranguary.
It also given in scrofula and applied to scrofulous sores.
The roots were used to cure kidney stones and leaves used to cure cuts,
leprosy, boils, burns, fever, the decoction of the stem used in jaundice.
Amaranth Oil treatment can be effective with the other drug treatment. It
brings down adverse effect of an other drug, reduces toxicosis, makes better blood
characteristics and human health in general. The oil is also used to help heal burns,
insect bites. The exceptional qualities of amaranth oil are based on the high content
of squalene and characteristic composition of fatty acids, which represent its effective
components. Amaranth Oil contains about 77 % of non-saturated fatty acids (about 50
% of linolenic and linoleic acids), squalene and vitamin E in the rare form of
tocotriene which takes part in the biosynthesis of cholesterol.
3.1.6 MEDICINAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
Filomena conforti et al., reported invitro antioxidant effect and inhibition of α-
Amylase of two varieties of Amaranthus caudatus seeds, it deals with biological
42
properties, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties of two varieties of Amaranthus
caudatus seeds i.e. Oscar blanco and Victor red. The oil, squalene and phenolic
contents were reported to have determined and found to possess very different
levels of squalene41
.
Zeng F et al., studied the effect of rare earth element europium on amaranthin
synthesis in Amaranthus caudatus seedlings.49
Andrea Y et al., reported the Cholesterol-lowering effect of extruded amaranth
(Amaranthus caudatus L.) in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. These results reported
that the consumption of extruded amaranth reduces LDL and total cholesterol levels
and may be another option to prevent coronary heart disease50
.
Rinderle SJ et al., have reported the isolation and characterization of amaranthin, a
lectin present in the seeds of Amaranthus caudatus, that recognizes the T- (or cryptic
T)-antigen51
.
Bruni Ret et al., studied about the Amaranthus caudatus seed oil, a nutraceutical
resource from Ecuadorian flora. Seed oil from Ecuador was analyzed for determining
the tocopherol, fatty acid, and sterol contents52
.
el Bouyoussfi M et al., studied the location of the three disulfide bonds in an
antimicrobial peptide from Amaranthus caudatus using mass spectrometry53
.
De Bolle MF et al., studied about the antimicrobial peptides from Mirabilis jalapa
and Amaranthus caudatus its expression, processing, localization and biological
activity in transgenic tobacco54
.
43
De Bolle MF, et al., have reported on Cloning and characterization of a cDNA
encoding an antimicrobial chitin-binding protein from amaranth, Amaranthus
caudatus55
.
Broekaert WF et al., reported antimicrobial peptides from Amaranthus caudatus
seeds with sequence homology to the cysteine/glycine-rich domain of chitin- binding
proteins. The physicochemical and biological properties were characterized from the
two antimicrobial peptides (Ac-AMP1 and Ac-AMP2) which were isolated from
seeds of amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus). It was proved that the antimicrobial effect
of Ac-AMP1 and Ac-AMP2 is strongly antagonized by cations 56
.
B. Ashok Kumar et al., showed the Antinociceptive and Antipyretic Activities of
Methanol Extract Amaranthus caudatus Linn57
and Anthelmintic activity58
.
3.2 AMARANTHUS SPINOSUS
3 .2.1 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION / TAXONOMY59
:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae
Phylum: Magnoliophyta
Subphylum: Euphyllophytina
Infraphylum: Radiatopses
Class: Magnoliopsida
Subclass: Caryophyllidae
Superorder: Caryophyllanae
Order: Caryophyllales
Fig No-3.2 Amaranthus spinosus
44
Suborder: Chenopodiineae
Family: Amaranthaceae
Subfamily: Amaranthoideae
Tribe: Amarantheae
Genus: Amaranthus
Specific epithet: spinosus L.
Botanical name: Amaranthus spinosus L
3.2.2 VERNACULAR NAMES60
:
English: Spiny amaranth, Pig weed, Thorny amaranth,
Sanskrit: Meghanada
Kannada: Mulla-dantu, Mulla harave soppu
Hindi: Kantamiris, Kantabhaji
Telugu: Mundla kura, Nalladoggali
Tamil: Mud-kerrai, Mullukeerai
3.2.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 61
Amaranthus spinosus is believed to originate from lowland tropical South
andCentral America and was introduced into other warmer parts of the world. This
weedhas a wide distribution including the United States of America, and all tropical
andsubtropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia and India.
Amaranthus spinosus grows annually as an erect, monoecious herb
(individualflowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same
plant),upto 100-300cm tall, much branched.
45
3.2.4 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS62, 63, 64, 65
Amaranthus spinosus contains 7-p-coumaroyl apigenin 4-O-beta-
Dglucopyranoside,a new coumaroyl flavone glycoside called spinoside,xylofuranosyl
uracil, beta-D-ribofuranosyl adenine, beta-sitosterol glucoside,hydroxycinnamates,
quercetin and kemferol glycoside, betalains, betaxanthin,betacyanin, amaranthine and
isoamaranthine, gomphrenin, betanin, stigmasterol,linoleic acid, 0.15% rutin and beta-
carotene.
Structure of Spinoside
Structure of β-sitosterol
46
Structure of linoleic acid
Structure of Rutin
Structure of beta-carotene
47
3.2.5 USES:
Juice of Amaranthus spinosus is used by tribals of Kerala, to prevent swelling
around stomach.The leaves are boiled without salt and consumed for 2-3 days to cure
jaundiceand also employed to cure some kind of rheumatic pain and stomach ache66
The leaves and roots are applied as poultice to relief bruises, abscesses,
burns,wound, inflammation, menorrhagia, gonorrhoea, eczema and inflammatory
swelling 67
It is used as a sudorific, febrifuge, an antidote to snake poison and as a
Galactagogue68
Amaranthus spinosus is used to induce abortion by the Nepalese69
.
It is also used in nutritional deficiency disorders and various other diseases
inmany parts of Africa70
.
3.2.6 MEDICINAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
Lin B et al., have reported that dichloromethane extract ofAmaranthus spinosus
(2mg/ml) moderately inhibit Blastocystis hominis, a common human protozoan. The
reference anti-protozoan agent, metronidazole(40μg/ml) killed 97% of the protozoan
and inhibited all protozoan samples atconcentrations of 1.25-20 μg/ml71
.
Olufemi B.E et al., have reported that Amaranthus spinosus extract exhibit a highly
specific prostaglandin synthesis inhibitory activity in vitro in an anti-inflammatory
model test system, indicating its anti-inflammatory properties72
.
Mandal M et al., have reported Immuno-modulatory effect by the aqueous extract of
Amaranthus spinosus leaves by stimulating splenocyte proliferation in primary
splenocytes from female BALB/c mice73
.
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Ashok Kumar B.S et al., reported the effect on gastrointestinal tract motility.
Aqueous extract of Amaranthus spinosus was evaluated in mice by using charcoal
meal method. Results showed gastrointestinal motility at 100 mg/kg dose of A.
Spinosus74
.
Rahman A.H.M.M et al., reported that juice made from Amaranthus spinosus whole
plants are used in the treatment of asthma and cold fever75
.
Muthukumar T et al., showed the antifungal activity of the roots of Amaranthus
spinosus76
.
Prusti A.B et al., have reported that the juice of Amaranthus spinosusleaves are
applied locally in snake-bite77
.
Anisuzzaman M et al., have reported that root paste of Amaranthus spinosus is
slightly warmed and applied on locally for boils78
.
Li S et al., have reported that whole plant of Amaranthus spinosus is used against
pruritus, abscess bleeding, hemorrhoids bleeding, eczema andscabies79
.
Paridhavi M et al., have reported anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory activity80
.
Sikdar M et al., have reported that stem and roots of Amaranthus spinosus are used
as antidote against snakebite, given to cow to increase the flow of milk, root is good
for menorrhagia and gonorrhea81
.
Parveen et al., have reported that whole plant and roots of Amaranthus spinosus are
used topically and orally. Root paste is applied externally on boils, decoction of herb
is used for mouth wash for toothache82
.
49
Hussain Z et al., have reported antinociceptive activity of Amaranthus spinosus. 50%
of ethanolic extract of Amaranthus spinosus (whole plant) has been evaluated for
antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities83
.
Hussain Z et al., reported the hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of 50%
ethanolic extract of whole plant of Amaranthus spinosus84
.
Suryavanshi V.L et al., have reported simple and efficient reverse phase high
performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of rutin in whole
plant powder of Amaranthus spinosus Linn62
.
Azhar U.H et al., have reported spinoside, new coumaroyl flavones glycoside,
isolated from the n-butanol fraction of the methanolic extract of the whole plant of
Amaranthus spinosus and assigned the structure 7- pcoumaroyl apigenin 4-O-β-D-
glucopyranoside55 on the basis of spectroscopic techniques including 1D and 2D
NMR spectroscopy. In addition α- xylofuranosyl uracil56 β-D-ribofuranosyl
adenine57 and β- sitosterol glucoside58have also been isolated for the first time from
this species65
.
Florian C.S et al., showed the characterization with respect to the phenolic profile
including the betalains85
.
Pundir C.S et al., have reported the purification and properties of amembrane bound
oxalate oxidase from Amaranthus spinosus leaves86
.
Sheela K et al., reported the proximate composition of underutilized green leaf,
Amaranthus spinosus in Southern Karnataka87
.
Ashok Kumar.B.S et al., studied the Estimation of Rutin and Quercetin in
Amaranthus spinosus,88
Antioxidant activity by Non-Enzymatic
50
Haemoglycosylation,89
analgesic activity90
and studied effect of Amaranthus Spinosus
Linn, leaf Extract on Gastrointestinal Tract.91
3.3 AMARANTHUS VIRIDIS
3.3.1 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION / TAXONOMY 92
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae
Phylum: Tracheophyta
Subphylum: Euphyllophytina
Infraphylum: Radiatopses
Class: Magnoliopsida
Subclass: Caryophyllidae
Superorder: Caryophyllanae
Order: Caryophyllales
Suborder: Chenopodiineae
Family: Amaranthaceae
Subfamily: Amaranthoideae
Tribe: Amarantheae
Genus: Amaranthus
Specific epithet: viridis - L.
Botanical name: Amaranthus viridis
Fig No 3.3: Amaranthus viridis
51
3.3.2 VERNACULAR NAMES93, 94
:
Hindi: chauraiya
Kannada: Chelakeerae soppu, Dagglisoppu, keere soppu.
Malayalam: Cerhiraa, Mullanchira.
Sanskrit: Thanduliya.
Tamil: Kuppaikkeerai.
Telugu: Chilaka thota koora.
.
3.3.3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION94, 95
:
Amaranthus viridis is probably originated from America, found throughout India
in waste places. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is
a cosmopolitan weed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, also
penetrating far into temperate regions (e.g. in Europe, North America, Asia and
Australia). In tropical Africa it is also a widespread and common weed.
Amaranthus viridis grows annually as an erect, monoecious herb (individual
flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant), up
to 100-300cm tall, much branched. Leaves are alternate, simple, petiolate, base
tapering (markedly attenuate), margins entire (sometimes sinuate), apex acute or
obtuse or retuse or emarginate (and often mucronulate), Blade glabrous.
3.3.4 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS94,96,97,98,99
:
The powdered leaves yield tannin, with some reducing sugar and resin but no
alkaloids.
Identification of spinosterol (24-ethyl-22-dehydrolathosterol) as major component
along with 24-methyllathosterol 24- ethyllathosterol, 24-methyl-22-
52
dehydrolathosterol, 24-ethyl cholesterol and 24-ethyl-22-dehydrocholesterol as minor
components in sterol fraction. It contains flavonoids, rutin and quercetin. The roots of
the plant contains amasterol ( 24-methylene-20-hydroxycholesta-5,7-dien-3β-ol) a
steroidal constituent.
O
OH
OH
O
OH
OH
OH
3.3.5 USES:
The herb is used as astringent, emollient, in dysentery, inflammation100
,
constipation101
, eczema, bronchitis, antidiabetic101
, anaemia and leprosy, Plant is used
as sag for cooking and fodder plant. Leaves are emollient and anthelmintic102
. Roots/
shoots are used to control excessive menstruation, blood purifier101, 103
, digesting
agent, piles104
.
The Negrios of the Philippines apply the bruised leaves directly to eczema,
psoriasis, and rashes with good results. The leaves make a good emollient preparation
available in some of the Filipino villages for insect bites, sunburn, and regular
burns105
.The reddish-brown fibre from the leaves are soaked and use for eye
treatments. The decoction of young roots is used for the treatment of respiratory
complaints, asthma106
.
Quercetin
53
3.3.6 MEDICINAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITY:
Narong Chungsamarnyart et al., studied the antiviral activity against the Foot and
Mouth Disease virus (FMDV) type O, local strain KPS/005/2545 of forty-seven
ethanol crude-extracts of 42 plants. The leaves and stem extracts of Amaranthus
viridis were used. The concentration 0.024µg/µl of Amaranthus viridis L. leaves and
stems inhibited the FMDV concentration 1X102.44
TCID50. It has antiviral proteins
against tobacco mosaic virus107
.
Navjot Kaur et al., has purified lectin from the seeds of Amaranthus viridis Linn
Anti-Proliferative Effect. Amaranthus lectin was found inhibitory to HB-98 cells and
partially to PD-388D1 cell lines108
.
Kwon S.Y et al., has purified an antiviral protein from the leaves of Amaranthus
viridis was named amaranthin109
.
Jana Kalinova et al., studies were conducted to confirm the presence of rutin, one of
the most common quercetin glycosides, and other quercetin derivatives in plants of
genus Amaranthus110
.
Liu D et al ., studied the effects of different concentrations (10(-6)M, 10(-5)M and
10(-4)M) of K2Cr2O7Cr(VI) on some minerals (Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn), lipid
peroxidation, activities of antioxidant enzymes, photosynthetic function, and
chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics were investigated in hydroponically grown
Amaranthus viridis L. Results indicated that chromium was accumulated primarily in
roots111
.
Kwon S.Y et al., acDNA library was constructed in Uni-ZAP XL vector with poly(A)
RNA purified from leaves of Amaranthus viridis112
.
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Zain-ul-Abedin M et al., were able to develop cultures from the cut-end parts of
this plant tissue. The commonly used media were modified to achieve good and fast
growth. Results have been obtained on the techniques, histology, chromosomal, and
biochemical studies which indicate that the plant could be useful as a research tool to
study problems in crop improvement at the cellular level113
.
Simone Mendonca et al., studied amaranth’s protein cholesterol-lowering effect and
investigates its mechanisms hypercholesterolemia was induced in male hamsters
through diet rich in casein (300 g/kg diet) containing regular levels of cholesterol
(0.5 kg/g) fed during 3 weeks. They suggested that amaranth protein has a metabolic
effect on endogenous cholesterol metabolism114
.
B.S.Ashok Kumar et al., showed the Invitro anthelmintic propertiy of methanol
extract of Amaranthus viridis linn,115
Antinociceptive and antipyretic Activities116
and
estimation of Bioflavonoids in Amaranthus viridis Linn By HPLC117
.