Post on 25-Dec-2015
Classification of Living Thingso Humans and many other animals are vertebrates
• Characterized by a segmented vertebral column
o Common characteristics suggest the same path in evolution
Homeostasiso The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival
in a changing environment
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Anatomy o Is the oldest medical science
• 1600 B.C. Physiology
o Is the study of function
• Biochemistry• Biology• Chemistry• Genetics
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Anatomyo Describes the structures of the body
• What they are made of
• Where they are located
• Associated structures
Physiologyo Is the study of:
• Functions of anatomical structures
• Individual and cooperative functions
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Anatomyo Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines
large, visible structures • Surface anatomy: exterior features
• Regional anatomy: body areas
• Systemic anatomy: organ systems
• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death
• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
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Anatomy
o Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules
• Cytology: study of cells and their structures
• cyt- = cell
• Histology: study of tissues and their structures
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Physiologyo Cell physiology: processes within and between cells
o Organ physiology: functions of specific organs
o Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system
o Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
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The Chemical (or Molecular) Levelo Atoms are the smallest chemical units o Molecules are a group of atoms working together
The Cellular Levelo Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles
working together
The Tissue Level o A tissue is a group of similar cells working together
The Organ Level o An organ is a group of different tissues working together
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The Organ System Level o An organ system is a group of organs working togethero Humans have 11 organ systems
The Organism Level o A human is an organism
Chemical and Molecular Levels
Cellular Level
Atoms in combination
Complex protein moleculeProtein filaments
Heart musclecell
Tissue LevelOrgan Level
Cardiac muscletissue
The heart
Thecardiovascular
system
Organ systemlevel
Organismlevel
The Organ Systemso Integumentary
• Major Organs
• Skin
• Hair
• Sweat glands
• Nails
• Functions
• Protects against environmental hazards
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Provides sensory information
The Organ Systemso Skeletal
• Major Organs• Bones• Cartilages• Associated ligaments• Bone marrow
• Functions• Provides support and protection for
other tissues• Stores calcium and other minerals• Forms blood cells
The Organ Systemso Muscular
• Major Organs
• Skeletal muscles and associated tendons
• Functions
• Provides movement
• Provides protection and support for other tissues
• Generates heat that maintains body temperature
The Organ Systemso Nervous
• Major Organs• Brain• Spinal cord• Peripheral nerves• Sense organs
• Functions• Directs immediate responses to stimuli• Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ
systems• Provides and interprets sensory information about
external conditions
The Organ Systemso Endocrine
• Major Organs• Pituitary gland
• Pancreas
• Gonads
• Endocrine tissues in other systems
• Functions• Directs long-term changes in the activities of
other organ systems
• Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body
• Controls many structural and functional changes during development
• Thyroid gland
• Adrenal glands
The Organ Systemso Cardiovascular
• Major Organs
• Heart• Blood• Blood vessels
• Functions
• Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved
materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
• Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature
The Organ Systemso Lymphatic
• Major Organs
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils• Functions
• Defends against infection and disease
• Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
The Organ Systemso Respiratory
• Major Organs
• Nasal cavities
• Sinuses
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
• Alveoli
The Organ Systemso Respiratory
• Functions
• Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs)
• Provides oxygen to bloodstream
• Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream
• Produces sounds for communication
The Organ Systemso Digestive
• Major Organs
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas
The Organ Systemso Digestive
• Functions
• Processes and digests food
• Absorbs and conserves water
• Absorbs nutrients
• Stores energy reserves
The Organ Systemso Urinary
• Major Organs• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
• Functions• Excretes waste products from the blood
• Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced
• Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination
• Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH
The Organ Systemso Male Reproductive
• Major Organs
• Testes
• Epididymis
• Ductus deferentia (vas deferens)
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Penis
• Scrotum
The Organ Systemso Male Reproductive
• Functions• Produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending
fluids, and hormones
• Sexual intercourse
The Organ Systemso Female Reproductive
• Major Organs
• Ovaries
• Uterine tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina
• Labia
• Clitoris
• Mammary glands
The Organ Systemso Female Reproductive
• Functions• Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and
hormones
• Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery
• Provides milk to nourish newborn infant
• Sexual intercourse
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Homeostasis
o All body systems working together to maintain a
stable internal environment
• Systems respond to external and internal changes to
function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid
balance)
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Mechanisms of Regulation
o Autoregulation (intrinsic)
• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some
environmental change
o Extrinsic regulation
• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
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Receptor o Receives the stimulus
Control center o Processes the signal and sends instructions
Effector o Carries out instructions
Normalconditiondisturbed
Informationaffects
RECEPTOR
Thermometer
HOMEOSTASIS
STIMULUS:Room temperature
rises
Normal roomtemperature
RESPONSE:Room temperature
drops
CONTROL CENTER(Thermostat)
Normalconditionrestored
EFFECTOR
Air conditionerturns on
Sendscommands
to
20° 30° 40°
In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat(the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi-tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case,when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostatturns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.
With this regulatory system, roomtemperature fluctuates around theset point.
Airconditioner
turns on
Airconditioner
turns off
Time
Ro
om
te
mp
era
ture
(°C
)
22Normalrange
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The Role of Negative Feedback
o The response of the effector negates the stimulus
o Body is brought back into homeostasis
• Normal range is achieved
Normaltemperature
disturbed
Informationaffects
RECEPTORS
Temperaturesensors in skin
andhypothalamus
HOMEOSTASIS
STIMULUS:Body temperature
rises
Normal bodytemperature
RESPONSE:Increased heat loss,
body temperaturedrops
CONTROL CENTER
Normaltemperature
restored
EFFECTORS
• Sweat glands in skin increase secretion• Blood vessels in skin dilate
Sendscommands
to
Events in the regulation of body temperature, which arecomparable to those shown in Figure 12. A control centerin the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostatwith a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flowto the skin and increased sweating.
The thermoregulatory center keepsbody temperature fluctuatingwithin an acceptable range, usuallybetween 36.7 and 37.2°C.
Vesselsdilate,
sweatingincreases
Vesselsconstrict,sweating
decreases
TimeBo
dy
tem
per
atu
re (
°C)
37.2Normalrange37
36.7
Thermoregulatorycenter in brain
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The Role of Positive Feedback
o The response of the effector increases change of the
stimulus
o Body is moved away from homeostasis
• Normal range is lost
o Used to speed up processes
Clottingaccelerates
Positivefeedback
loop
Blood clotChemicals
This escalating processis a positive feedbackloop that ends with theformation of a blood clot,which patches the vesselwall and stops the bleeding.
As clotting continues,each step releaseschemicals that furtheraccelerate the process.
The chemicals start chainreactions in which cells,cell fragments, andsoluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot.
Damage to cells in theblood vessel wall releaseschemicals that begin theprocess of blood clotting.
Chemicals
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Systems Integration o Systems work together to maintain homeostasis
Homeostasis is a state of equilibriumo Opposing forces are in balance
o Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation
Physiological systems work to restore balanceo Failure results in disease or death
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Superficial Anatomy
o Locating structures on or near the body surface
Anatomical Landmarks
o Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward
o Supine: lying down, face up
o Prone: lying down, face down
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Superficial Anatomyo Anatomical Landmarks
• References to palpable structures
o Anatomical Regions• Body regions
• Abdominopelvic quadrants
• Abdominopelvic regions
o Anatomical Directions• Reference terms based on subject
Cephalic or head
Frontal orforehead
Cranialor skull
Facialor face
Oral or mouthMental or chin
Axillary or armpit
Brachialor arm
Antecubitalor front of
elbowUmbilicalor navel
TrunkAbdominal(abdomen)
Mammaryor breast
Thoracic orthorax, chest
Cervical or neck
Buccal or cheek
Otic or ear
Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbitalor eye
Anterior view
Antebrachialor forearm
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Pollexor thumb
Digits(phalanges)
or fingers (digitalor phalangeal)Patellar
or kneecap
Cruralor leg
Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Tarsal orankle
Anterior view
Hallux orgreat toe
Pedalor foot
Femoralor thigh
Pubic(pubis)
Inguinalor groin
Manualor hand
Pelvic(pelvis)
Trunk
Acromial orshoulder
Olecranalor back
of elbow
Dorsal orback
Upperlimb
Cervicalor neck
Cephalicor head
Posterior view
Posterior view
Lumbaror loin
Glutealor buttock
Popliteal orback of knee
Suralor calf
Calcaneal orheel of foot
Plantar orsole of foot
Lower limb
Upperlimb
Abdominopelvic quadrants. The fourabdominopelvic quadrants are formed by twoperpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. Theterms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions.
Right UpperQuadrant
(RUQ)
Right LowerQuadrant
(RLQ)
Left UpperQuadrant(LUQ)
Left LowerQuadrant(LLQ)
Righthypochondriac
region
Right lumbarregion
Rightinguinal
region
Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvicregions provide more precise regional descriptions.
Left hypochondriacregion
Left lumbarregion
Left inguinalregion
Epigastricregion
Umbilicalregion
Hypogastric(pubic)region
Stomach
Spleen
Urinarybladder
Liver
Gallbladder
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Anatomical relationships. The relationship betweenthe abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and thelocations of the internal organs are shown here.
Cranial
Posterioror dorsal
Anterioror ventral
Caudal
A lateral view.
Superior Right Left
Lateral
Proximal
Medial
Proximal
Distal
DistalInferiorAn anterior view. Arrowsindicate important directionalterms used in this text;definitions and descriptionsare given in Table 12.
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Sectional Anatomyo Planes and sections
• Plane: a three-dimensional axis
• Section: a slice parallel to a plane
• Used to visualize internal organization and structure
• Important in radiological techniques• MRI
• PET
• CT
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Essential Functions of Body Cavities1. Protect organs from accidental shocks2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs
Ventral body cavity (coelom)
o Divided by the diaphragm
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
• Provides protection• Allows organ movement• Linings prevent friction
Ventral Body Cavity
Thoracic Cavity
Surrounded by chest wall anddiaphragm
Surrounds right lung Contains thetrachea, esophagus,and major vessels
MediastinumRight Pleural Cavity
Peritoneal Cavity
Surrounds left lung
Subdivides during development into
Surrounds heart
Pericardial Cavity
Contains many digestive glandsand organs
Abdominal Cavity
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Extendsthroughoutabdominal cavityand into superiorportion of pelviccavity
Pelvic Cavity
Contains urinarybladder,reproductiveorgans, lastportion ofdigestive tract
Left Pleural Cavity
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Serous Membranes
o Line body cavities and cover organs
o Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer
• Parietal layer — lines cavity
• Visceral layer — covers organ
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The Thoracic Cavity
o Right and left pleural cavities
• Contain right and left lungs
o Mediastinum
• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus
• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
• The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
Pleuralcavity
Pericardialcavity
Thoraciccavity
Peritonealcavity
Abdominalcavity
Pelviccavity
Diaphragm
Abdominopelviccavity
Spinal cord
Mediastinum
Parietalpleura
Pleural cavity
Pericardial cavity
Right lung
POSTERIOR
Left lung
ANTERIOR
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The Abdominopelvic Cavity
o Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic
cavity
• Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall
• Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs
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The Abdominopelvic Cavityo Abdominal cavity — superior portion
• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones
• Contains digestive organs
• Retroperitoneal space
• Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall
• Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive
tract