An Instructor Manual to Evangelical Theology:

A Biblical and Systematic Introduction

By Ovidiu Boochew & Kirsten Mackerras

Introduction

The instructor manual for Evangelical Theology is intended to provide useful resources to assist in the preparation and teaching of a course on theology.

The first section titled chapter summaries contains five items. 1) Key terms are given, which are important words and phrases that show up in the chapter. 2) Key points are the most crucial points that the chapter makes. 3) Chapter summaries give an overview of what is in each chapter. 4) Pedagogical suggestions give ideas about how to teach various items that are discussed in each chapter. 5) Suggested essay questions are given, which seek broadly to address the main areas in each chapter.

The second section gives student learning objectives. These objectives give a brief overview of the main areas covered in each chapter of the book, and they provide an idea of what a student should get out of each chapter.

The third section contains chapter quizzes, which have true/false, fill in the blank, and multiple choice questions. Answers are given in bold type.

The fourth section gives the suggested essay questions for all the chapters in one location.

Sample syllabi and exams are part of the resources available to professors but are available separately. Syllabi and exams have been created for several possible course configurations, including courses that utilize Evangelical Theology for one, two, and three semester sequences. You will find zipped folders containing appropriate syllabi and exams for each of these sequencing options on Textbook Plus.

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Table of Contents

Chapter Summaries....................................................................................................................................3

Student Learning Objectives....................................................................................................................99

Quizzes...................................................................................................................................................113

Suggested Essay Questions....................................................................................................................193

Syllabi and Exam Information...............................................................................................................201

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Chapter Summaries

1.1 – What is Theology?

Key Termstheology; dogmatics; evangelical; community of faith; gospelizing

Key Points Theology is the study of the living God undertaken in communion with God and in the context

of the community of faith The subject and context of the discipline, therefore, sets theology apart from other branches of

philosophical enquiry Evangelical theology is the task of enacting, or living out, the drama of the gospel – transform-

ing the followers of Jesus into what the gospel would have them be

Chapter SummaryTheology is the study of God, his attributes, and his relationship to the world. It expresses what

the church confesses, believes, and teaches about God based on the word of God. Deriving from the Greek words theos (“God”) and logos (“word”), theology is an attempt to systematically outline the elements of the faith for a community of faith. In one sense, theology shares an affinity with other intellectual disciplines such as philosophy and religion.

However, two key differences separate theology from other intellectual disciplines. First, the theologian, in contrast with the student of literature, philosophy, or religion, claims to be in intimate, personal contact with the subject of the study. What is studied is not the idea of God but the living, personal God. Second, theology cannot be undertaken in separation from a community of faith, a gathering of believers who likewise share a relationship with the subject of the study. Theology, then, is a conversation among family members. It is enacted and lived out, not simply memorized and systematized. Performing the drama of the gospel in the context of the community of faith is the goal of theology.

Evangelical theology, moreover, describes the drama in which believers participate. It delineates the gospel, the narrative that determines the pattern of behavior for Christ’s disciples, and it is concerned with the transformation of those who profess to bear Christ’s name. In sum, theology unearths the manifold riches of gospel truth and seeks to instill and cultivate those spiritual realities in the lives of disciples.

Suggested Essay Questions In what ways is theology similar and dissimilar to other intellectual disciplines? What are the

implications for the life of the Christians? Evaluate the drama model of theology. What are its benefits and shortcomings in describing the

task, method, and goal of theology?

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1.2 – What Do You Have to Say before You Say Anything?

Key Termsprolegomena; epistemology; Justin Martyr; Thomas Aquinas; Martin Luther; John Calvin; Reformation; Enlightenment; modernity; rationalism; empiricism; naturalism; Charles Hodge; foundationalism; first principles; Karl Barth; postmodernity; Michel Foucault; Jacques Derrida; relativism; Stanley Grenz; Kevin Vanhoozer; Alister McGrath; critical realism; classical liberalism

Key Points Prolegomena is pre-theology: theology that clears the deck on issues like the method, sources,

and the purpose of theology Prolegomena has usually been defined and driven by the dominant philosophical frameworks of

an age An evangelical prolegomena is the gospel: the beginning, center, and boundary of evangelical

theology

Chapter SummaryPrior to formally commencing the study of God, theologians undertake what is called

“prolegomena,” an expression of one’s foundation and methodology for doing theology. Deriving from the Greek word prolegō (“things spoken in advance”), prolegomena is what is said before anything about God is said. Prolegomena is linked with epistemology, the theory of knowledge, and often addresses questions such as “Is there a God to be known?” and, “If so, how do we know this God?”

The development of prolegomena has a long history in the church’s witness and theology. However, prolegomena has usually been driven by the reigning philosophical paradigms of the age. Justin Martyr, for example, appealed to Platonic and Stoic philosophers in his defence of Christianity. This established a common ground for discussion, even if the task was apologetic, rather than systematic theology. Thomas Aquinas in the Middle Ages, writing at a time when Europe was reacquainted with Aristotelian philosophy, used philosophical proofs for the existence of God taken from Aristotle in his prolegomena.

The Reformation saw an effort to reorient the foundation of theology and the knowledge of God in Scripture, rather than any philosophical system. Martin Luther negatively spoke against philosophy as the foundation of Christian knowledge, while John Calvin positively presented humanity’s knowledge of God through the Scriptures as the starting point of theology. The key contribution of the Reformation, therefore, is the assertion that the foundation and beginning point of theology should be God’s self-communication of himself to his creatures in Scripture.

However, a side effect of the Reformers’ staunch rejection of medieval philosophy and denouncement of ecclesial authority was the inception of a complete anti-authoritarian and anti-religious sentiment that would flower in the succeeding centuries. The Reformation attitude of questioning ecclesial authority, coupled with the Renaissance explosion in literature, art and science, led to a questioning of the very idea of religious revelation. The Enlightenment, as this period of rationalism, skepticism, and concern for human progress was called, established an intellectual period known as modernity.

Modernity had four philosophical characteristics. First, reason was viewed as universal and unassailable. Truths derived from reason were superior to beliefs drawn from tradition or superstition. Second, further truths could be established upon certain foundations, whether self-evident truths within rationalism or sense data in empiricism. Third, intellectual and cultural progress was the meta-narrative of modernity, an optimistic outlook towards humanity’s potential and destiny. Fourth, supernatural explanations were rejected in favour of naturalism, and the result was skepticism, deism, and atheism.

These characteristics severely impacted Christian theology and prolegomena. Some theologians

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retreated from the modernist challenge, while others tried to salvage Christian theology, either by adopting deism, or by employing theology as a philosophical explanation for humanity’s religious feelings. Key doctrines were either abolished or reinterpreted. There was also, however, a resistance to modernity from the part of some theologians. Charles Hodge, for example, insisted on Christian theology being a science and developed a prolegomena which reflected that conviction. Ironically, Hodge’s methodology, while a rejection of modernity, was also an appropriation of it, since Hodge allowed modernity to set the agenda, task, and method of theology. In a sense, Hodge submitted the word of God to reason.

Another significant answer to the challenges of modernity came from Karl Barth, who rejected the modernist prolegomena, not by apologetically responding to modernity’s challenge but by insisting on the primacy of the word of God as the ground of theology. For Barth, prolegomena is not done before theology, less so to propose an apologetic for theology, but is done first in theology.

The advent of postmodernity once again changed the shape of prolegomena. Postmodernity consists of a deconstruction of modernity’s confidence in the meta-narrative of progress and a synthesis between philosophical skepticism and epistemological relativism. Post-liberal theology rejects prolegomena because it sees no need to justify a theological system which has no truth-claim outside its community of reference. Responses range from an adoption of postmodernity to construct Christian orthodoxy (Stanley Grenz), a serious response to postmodernity’s literary theories (Kevin Vanhoozer), and a reinvigoration of theology as science, albeit not with a naïve modernist approach but a critical realist methodology (Alister McGrath).

Given this proliferation in approaches to prolegomena, is there, after all, a need for it in theology? Prolegomena is indeed useful for orienting the theologian to the task of theology as knowledge of God must begin with the knowledge of humanity. An evangelical theology, moreover, must have the gospel as its prolegomena. The gospel orients humanity toward God and is the nexus into the reality of the God who has revealed himself. Several other reasons precipitate this requirement.

A theology that begins with the gospel will have its beginning, center, and boundary defined by the gospel. It possess logical priority over other doctrines, given it is where humanity first experiences a redemptive relationship with God. Developing the gospel as prolegomena will prevent deviations into liberalism or fundamentalism. The gospel is the natural integrating point of Christian theology, a factor which the New Testament itself points to (cf. “the gospel of God” [Rom 1:1; 15:16; 2 Cor 11:7; 1 Thess 2:8-9]). Finally, the canon itself is gospel-shaped (cf. Gen 3:15; Rev 14:6) and there is good warrant for reading the Scriptures through the lens of the gospel. Evangelical theology, therefore, is theologia evangelii—a theology of the gospel, and the gospel is its beginning, boundary, and unifying theme.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss what they perceive as the reigning philosophical framework in contem-

porary culture and propose what a prolegomena would look like if it was driven by the respect-ive philosophical frameworks

Read Genesis 3:15 and Revelation 14:6. Have students discuss the implications of the fact that the scriptural narrative begins and ends with a mention of the gospel

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate the impact of the Reformation attitude towards philosophy and tradition for Christian

theology and intellectual disciplines more generally. What was Karl Barth’s contribution toward developing a prolegomena? How should an evangelical theology be developed in light of the challenges of Postmodernity?

Make reference to the contributions of Stanley Grenz, Kevin Vanhoozer, and Alister McGrath.

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Defend the necessity and possibility of the gospel as the prolegomena to an evangelical theo-logy.

1.3 – What Is the Gospel?

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Key Termsgospel; kingdom of God; Son of David; Son of God; Lord; Messiah; Caesar; Suffering Servant; repentance; faith; discipleship; salvation; legalism; social gospel; N. T. Wright; Richard Niebuhr

Key Points The gospel is the announcement that God’s kingdom has come through the life, death, and re-

surrection of Jesus Christ The gospel announces the status of Jesus as Son of David, Son of God, and Lord The gospel is intimated in the Old Testament The response evoked by the gospel is faith and repentance Salvation is the chief benefit of the gospel Deviations from the gospel include legalism and the social gospel

Chapter SummaryIf the task of evangelical theology is to set out the content of the gospel, the obvious question

which arises is: what is the gospel? N. T. Wright, for example, defines the gospel as a royal announcement that Jesus Christ, the one who died for humanity’s sin and was resurrected according to the Scriptures, is now enthroned as Lord of the world. This announcement calls people to salvation through repentance and faith. A fuller definition of the gospel can be offered if several strands of biblical testimony are considered.

First, it is clear that the gospel is the message of the kingdom of God. The kingdom of God is the redemptive reign of God which breaks into the world as a result of divine intervention in key events. The connection between kingdom and gospel can be clearly seen as early as the book of Isaiah, where the content of “good news” is an announcement of God’s reign (Isa 52:7). The “gospel of the kingdom,” moreover, functions as an abbreviation for Jesus’ preaching (Matt 4:23; 9:35; Luke 4:43; 8:1; 16:16; Acts 8:12). The myriad hopes of the Old Testament, including the return from exile, the Gentile pilgrimage to Jerusalem, renewal of the covenant, forgiveness of sin, rebuilding of the temple, etc., are summed up in the announcement of the kingdom. Apostolic preaching demonstrates the same connection (cf. Acts 8:2; 28:23, 31), warranting the conclusion that the gospel is intimately connected with the announcement of the saving reign of God effected through Jesus the Messiah.

Second, included in the gospel is the story of Jesus’ life, death, resurrection, and exaltation. The gospel is not a systematic deduction but a story. It is not an abstract description of God’s holiness, humanity’s sin, and Christ’s salvation, but a narrative of the Messiah’s deeds, climaxing in his rejection, crucifixion, and resurrection. The apostolic sermons in Acts all exhibit the general pattern of proclaiming Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection in the context of the fulfilment of Scriptures (e.g., Acts 2:22-24). While it is true that the cross and resurrection are often the focus (e.g., Rom 4:25; 8:34; 1 Cor 15:3-5; 2 Cor 5:15; etc.), the conclusion that Jesus’ death efficaciously deals with human sin could not be reached without understanding the identity of Jesus as the Messiah attested by royal birth, preaching of the kingdom, and confession before Pilate. Hence, the gospel is wider then atonement theology; it is news of events centered on Jesus the Messiah.

Third, the identity of Jesus as the Son of David, Son of God, and Lord of the world is key to authentic gospel proclamation. The fundamentally Christological nature of the gospel is demonstrated by the apostolic emphasis on the fact that the crucified Nazarene is truly the Son of David, and now stands vindicated as the Lord of glory (cf. Acts 2:36). A key component of the gospel, then, is the announcement of the vindication of Jesus’ identity in contrast to human rejection and claims of falsehood. Moreover, the gospel announcement clashes with the Roman empire’s declaration of Caesar as the Lord and Saviour of the world. By proclaiming the gospel, Christians exposed the Empire’s “gospel” as a parody (see Luke 2:1-20; Acts 17:7).

Fourth, the gospel is intimated in the Old Testament, demonstrating that it is anchored in the

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scriptural storyline and represents its fulfilment. Paul confidently asserted that the events outlined in the gospel occurred “according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor 15:3-4) and that the Old Testament testified to the gospel (Rom 1:2-3; cf. Gal 3:8). The risen Jesus himself declares that Israel’s Scriptures testified to himself (Luke 24:26-27, 44). While neither Paul nor Jesus mentioned specific passage, one may infer that such key events and figures as the Passover sacrifice (Exod 12; cf. 1 Cor 5:7), the Suffering Servant (Isa 53), the Prophet (Deut 18:18), the anointed one (Isa 61), and the vindicated righteous sufferer (Pss 16; 17; 22) are evoked. The gospel, then, is an announcement that the story reaching back into the Hebrew Scriptures has now found its fulfilment.

Fifth, repentance and faith are the responses evoked by the gospel. Persons are invited to respond to the message by repenting—that is, changing one’s verdict regarding Jesus’ identity and expressing contrition for sin—and entrusting oneself to God’s faithfulness displayed in Jesus Christ.

Sixth, salvation is the chief benefit of the gospel (Rom 1:16; Eph 1:13). The multivalent imagery for salvation—healing, forgiveness, restoration, rescue from danger, eternal life—are all promised in the gospel.

In light of the above, the gospel may be defined as “the announcement that God’s kingdom has come in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, the Lord and Messiah, in fulfilment of Israel’s Scriptures. The gospel evokes faith, repentance, and discipleship; its accompanying effects include salvation and the gifts of the Holy Spirit.”

Deviations from the gospel, however, also exist and must be avoided at all costs. Legalism, the notion that one’s merits commend a person to God or the idea that a true insider is recognized by specific works rather than the grace of Christ must be resisted. Moreover, the social gospel is also an error, since it takes what is a good and biblical principle—concern for mercy, justice, and the poor (cf. Mic 6:8; Matt 11:5; Jas 2:15-17)—and defines the gospel by it. Social action and concern for the poor, however, are only implications of the gospel and Christians displays their likeness to Christ by their care for the marginalized and oppressed.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students produce their own definition of the gospel prior to reading the chapter. Compare

and discuss their definitions with the one offered in the book. Have students prepare a short presentation on one of the six key theological fixtures comprising

the gospel.

Suggested Essay Questions What is the meaning of the “kingdom of God” in Jesus’ ministry and preaching? Analyze the interaction between gospel and empire in the New Testament. What is the importance of the Old Testament in defining and presenting the gospel? Discuss the relationship between gospel and acts of mercy and justice.

1.4 – The Necessity and Goal of Theology

Key Termssystematic theology; biblical theology; exegesis; essential elements; nonessential elements; heresy;

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redemptive-historical story; Irenaeus; Valentinians; Anselm; Ignatius

Key Points Theology is necessary in order to provide a unified approach to the varied biblical material and

to defend the faith from incursions and error The goal of theology is to know God better and to have a faith seeking understanding

Chapter SummaryThe necessity of theology is often question, given that theology can become academic and dry

when divorced from the life of faith. Moreover, the esoteric nature of some topics and the divisive attitudes sometimes engendered often discourage Christians from undertaking the task of theology. However, theology is crucial to the life of the church and it is an important vehicle to reach the goal of the Christian life: maturity in Christ.

The necessity of theology may be defended as follows. First, it is necessary to provide a system that unifies the diverse witness of Scripture. While exegesis explores a given biblical text, the task of theology is to integrate the results of exegesis into a coherent system that accurately represents and reflects the varied biblical materials.

Second, theology provides tools for responding to the ever-changing challenges to Christian faith. The systematization of biblical teaching can be used to answer theological and ethical dilemmas which are not explicitly treated in Scripture. For example, various modern scientific issues and ethical concerns are not covered in Scripture, yet by working out what the whole body of biblical teaching says, theologians can construct an application to questions, issues, and subjects which did not confront the original recipients.

Third, theology is a necessary part of discipleship, spiritual maturity, and the church’s witness to the world. The early Christians community was a teaching community, devoting themselves to the teaching of Jesus and the apostles (Acts 2:42; 2 Thess 3:6; 1 Tim 4:6; 2 Tim 1:13; 2 John 9) and striving for the ability to instruct one another (Rom 15:14; Col 3:16). Moreover, studying theology fulfils the command that Christians move beyond elementary teachings (1 Cor 3:2; Heb 5:12-13), thus, ideally, leading to greater spiritual maturity. Theology is also an important part of answering the inquiries of the world (1 Pet 3:15), thus leading to a stronger witness.

Fourth, theology has a threefold task of maintaining the integrity of the faith from errors both inside and outside the church. Theology provides perspective on essential and nonessential elements of the faith, distinguishing between matters of “first importance” (1 Cor 15:2-3) and matters of conscience (Rom 14-15). Moreover, theology defines and defends orthodoxy against heresies and distortions (2 Tim 1:13-14; Jude 3). Finally, the interconnectedness between various Christian doctrines is demonstrated by theology. A systematic theology, for example, can show the relation between sin, atonement, Trinity, church, etc.

Fifth, theology is ultimately the story of God, and this story is told in order to pro-claim God’s deeds and show where humanity fits in that story and how to live accordingly. This redemptive story has five acts: creation and fall, patriarchs and Israel, Jesus, the church, and the consummation, and theology interprets the story of Scripture in order to bring out its meaning for the individual and for the community.

The necessity of theology, however, is perhaps most clearly demonstrated by its goal. Paul’s prayer for the Ephesians was that the church “may know him better” (Eph 1:17). The goal of instruction in the Scriptures and the exploration of Christian faith is to know God better and to increase insight and intimacy. As Anselm has expressed it, theology is to be “faith seeking understanding.” Doctrine does not replace faith; rather, doctrine informs faith, with the result of a closer relationship. The theological student aspires to become “mature and fully assured” (Col 4:12) and to understand God’s grace (Col 1:6). Theology, then, and devotion to the teaching of Jesus and the apostles, is

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necessary for spiritual thriving.

Pedagogical Suggestions Ask students why they have enrolled into a theology class and/or are reading a theological text-

book. Have students discuss in what ways theology will be of benefit to their aspirations as future pas-

tors/missionaries/Christian leaders.

Suggested Essay Questions Is theology necessary for maintaining the integrity of the Christian faith? Why/why not? How can theology enhance Christian discipleship and devotion?

1.5 – Is Theology Possible?

Key TermsJ. C. Ryle; loci; historical situatedness

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Key Points Several obstacles make the undertaking of theology challenging, including the choice of loci,

the diversity of the Bible, and the tendency to assimilate to the dominant philosophical frame-work of the age

Theology, however, is possible because these challenges can be offset by a humble recognition of the limitations of theology, the incorporation of exegesis and biblical theology, and an ac-knowledgment of one’s historical situation and potential for the interference of culture

Chapter SummarySystematic theology is an attempt to methodically present the sum of Christian belief and

demonstrate its interconnectedness and relevance. The danger, however, is that the system can often overtake the theology, leading to a veneration of the system above what the texts of Scripture actually say. Three obstacles make the construction of a systematic theology challenging.

First, the traditional focus of systematic theology on areas such as the doctrine of God, the person and work of Christ, ecclesiology, etc., necessitates that biblical material is classified into categories which may not be derived from Scripture. Second, the diversity of authors, genres, and cultural settings in the Bible make synthesis difficult. The challenge is to accurately reflect the rich diversity of Scripture (e.g., note Isaiah’s theology of salvation as return from exile and John’s focus on salvation as eternal life) while establishing and maintaining a doctrinal core. Third, systematic theology itself has the tendency to reflect the prevailing philosophical framework of the day. Just as patristic theology was influenced by neo-Platonism, medieval theology by Aristotle, and more recent theological frameworks being indebted to postmodern literary theory, there is the danger that one’s theological system will be culturally and intellectually conditioned by the age.

Several considerations may be taken into account in order to respond to these obstacles. First, there must be a humble recognition of the limitation of systematic theology. The traditional loci, while selective, are an attempt to make the most out of the rich material of Scripture with limited categories. Doing theology is saying what we can, the most we can, and in the best way we can. Second, an incorporation of exegesis and biblical theology will minimize the risk of flattening the characteristics of each biblical author. The agenda for theology must be set by an analysis of the texts themselves. Third, an awareness of one’s historical and intellectual position in the rich history of theology and philosophy will make a theologian sufficiently self-critical as the task is engaged. The goal is to see a “faith seeking understanding” in the context in which God has placed each respective generation.

Pedagogical Suggestions Select a doctrine or traditional locus and have different students study that doctrine in a particu-

lar book of the Bible. Discuss how one would go about synthesizing the varied results into a co-herent doctrinal core.

Suggested Essay Questions Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the traditional loci in systematic theology.

1.6 – Sources for Theology

Key TermsScripture; Bible; canon; Word of God; inspiration; revelation; ultimate norm; kerygma; tradition; Gnostic; canonization; apostolicity; orthodoxy; antiquity; usage; rule of faith/regula fidei; sola scriptura; believing criticism; consultative norm; natural revelation; natural theology; sensus

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divinitatis; special revelation; Emil Brunner; Alvin Plantinga; experience; validating norm; culture

Key Points Evangelical theology takes into account Scripture, tradition, nature, and experience as sources

of authority Scripture is the ultimate norm, the primary source for theology Tradition, the rich deposit of what the church has learned through Scripture, is the consultative

norm for theology Nature, or natural revelation, is not exactly a source for theology but its stimulus Experience is the validating norm for theology, the confirmatory aspect of theology Culture, though not a source for theology, is the embedded context in which theology takes

place

Chapter SummaryTheology cannot happen automatically. A number of sources are employed by theologians in

order to construct a theology, though the number, nature, and usage of these sources are disputed. Scripture and tradition are two sources which were heavily disputed during the Reformation. Similar questions could be asked of experience, reason, and culture. An evangelical theology, however, should incorporate four sources of authority: Scripture, tradition, nature, and experience.

Given that evangelical theologians look to the gospel as the source of their faith, evangelical theology must thus be elicited by the gospel. Consequently, since the Scriptures testify to the gospel message, the Scriptures must be seriously considered as the primary source for theology. This is so since it is Scripture that attests to God’s self-disclosure and delineates the redemptive story of God proclaimed in the gospel.

Scripture is part of God’s Word, which exists in three forms: the eternal Word of God, Jesus Christ, the spoken prophetic word, and the inscripturated revelation of the Old and New Testaments. The gospel testifies to the incarnate Word of God, the gospel’s proclamation is the spoken Word of God, and the gospel is preserved in the written Word of God. This is demonstrated, first, by the fact that gospel testifies to the Scriptures as the interpretive framework for the events of the life, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus. Second, the inner witness of the Holy Spirit convicts that what is being read in Scripture are not simply human words but the words of God (John 16:13; 1 Cor 2:10-12; 1 John 2:20). Third, Scripture itself testifies to its being “breathed out” by God (2 Tim 3:16). Inspiration is God’s supervision of the sources and authors in order to produce the revelation that he intended. Scripture, then, is the ultimate norm for theology. It establishes what is authoritative for Christian belief and practice.

Evangelicals have generally been weak in the area of tradition, though tradition itself is an important source for theology. The New Testament itself is the written product of a stream of traditions which were passed on in the early church (Luke 1:1-2; Rom 6:17; 1 Cor 11:23-25; 15:1-3; 2 Thess 2:15; 2 Tim 1:13). Ironically, it was the neglect of tradition that led to heresy, such as the Gnostic distortion of the faith, and, more recently, to the Unitarian error.

The relationship between Scripture and tradition is complex and symbiotic, and the process of canonization attests to this. Debate and uncertainty regarding the canonical status of certain books raged in the early centuries of the church before a consensus was reached. The criteria employed to determine which books held canonical status were apostolicity, orthodoxy, antiquity, and usage. The “rule of faith,” a general outline of Christian belief circulating in the early church, was itself determinative for the canonization process, as well as later theological hermeneutics, creeds, and confessions. Though it must be clarified that it was the Word of God that created the church, not the church the Word of God, this complex process demonstrates the interplay between Scripture and tradition.

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In light of this process, evangelical theology should be positively disposed towards tradition. Though often abused in church history, as the Catholic development of the magisterium clearly exhibited, it can be incorporated to great benefit. The Reformation itself, though reacting to Catholic abuse of tradition, evidently was indebted to the ecumenical councils and patristic theology. Sola scriptura should be understood to mean that Scripture is the primary authority, but not the only authority.

It may additionally be argued that engaging with tradition is unavoidable and necessary. All readers of Scripture bring their preconceptions and presuppositions to the table and all their attitudes toward Scripture, church, or theology become tradition as soon as they are constructed, spoken, written, and passed on. The posture of “believing criticism” should be adopted toward tradition. Traditions embedded in church history should be allowed to inform theology but always in the critical light of Scripture. As a tool for reading Scripture, tradition is the consultative norm for theology.

Nature, or natural revelation, has long been affirmed as a source of theology. The reality of natural revelation is affirmed by Scripture, whether in the majestic declaration of Psalm 19 or Paul’s reasoning from nature with the Gentiles in Acts 17. The question of a “natural theology,” however, is complex. Scripture is explicit that humanity in its fallen state suppresses the reality of God revealed in nature (Rom 1:18-25). While Calvin’s sensus divinitatis or natural awareness of God may be affirmed, theologians differ whether theology can be constructed from natural revelation alone. Emil Brunner, for example, positively identifies it as the starting point of theology and the conduit for special revelation and Karl Barth negatively insists that God does not need nature to make himself known. Compounding the difficult is the fact that the concept of “nature” is not neutral, thus necessitating great care in using nature as a source. More accurately, nature may be termed the inspiration, or stimulus, for theology.

Experience, or the acquisition of knowledge and relational intimacy through a personal encounter with the living God, is similarly difficult to incorporate as a source of theology. This is so because of various abuses and the difficulty of distinguishing between authentic and inauthentic religious experiences. However, three factors lead to its inclusion as a source of theology. First, the experience of the risen Lord in the life and worship of the church was a unifying element. Second, doctrines are built on experiences, as, for example, the doctrine of grace can only develop after one has experienced grace. Third, theological statements are undergirded by religious experiences, which can be revelatory in some sense. Thus, experience is the validating norm for theology, the confirmatory element, and proving ground of a theological system.

Finally, the status of culture as a source for theology is ambiguous and once again a variety of positive and negative attitudes exist. However, whatever model of Christ and culture one adopts, the necessity of operating in a culture is evident. Culture shapes language, heritage, and frame of reference, and thus provides an embedded context in which theology takes place.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss their particular church/denomination’s practices in reading Scripture,

conducting worship, running church, etc. and to what extent they are traditions and whether these practices reflect their particular culture.

Have students recount particularly powerful/convicting/dramatic religious experiences and to what extent they shape their theology.

Suggested Essay Questions Define and defend the inspiration of Scripture. “The Word of God created the church; the church did not create the Word.” Discuss. What is the place of natural revelation in systematic theology? Evaluate Richard Niebuhr’s Christ and culture models and propose a solution.

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1.7 – Toward a Gospel-Driven Theological Method

Key Termsmethodology; biblicism; Wayne Grudem; theological proposition; apologetic theology; Summa Theologica; dialectic theology; Rudolf Bultmann; Wesleyan Quadrilateral; John Wesley

Key Points

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Naïve biblicism, the default setting for many evangelicals, inadequately approaches theology with nothing more than a Bible and a concordance

The goal of theology is not simply theological propositions but also engagement in the theolo-gical drama

An evangelical theological method views all doctrines through the gospel lens and situates the areas of study around the gospel, thereafter embarking on a creative dialogue between the sources for theology

Chapter SummaryMethodology is crucial to the task of theology, since how one does theology inevitably

determines the end result of theology. The gospel is the starting point of evangelical theology, in order to ensure that the end result is pervaded and distinctly defined by the good news of Jesus Christ. However, before the specifics of evangelical methodology are set out, an evaluation of evangelicalism’s “default setting” for constructing theology is necessary.

A common assumption in evangelical circles is that the only necessary tools for constructing a theology are the Bible and a concordance. Furthermore, the assumption is that the only goal of theology is a list of theological propositions to be believed. First, it has already been established that while Scripture is the primary source of authority, tradition, nature, experience, and cultural setting must be accepted as dialogue partners. The dangers of biblicism are amply demonstrated in the methodology of Wayne Grudem, whose robustly biblical approach is both a strength and a weakness. For Grudem, canonical, hermeneutical, cultural, and historical factors are not to be considered in the construction of theology. To give an example, the doctrine of divine impassibility is rejected without interaction with centuries of debate surrounding the doctrine. Due consideration must be given to the “cloud of witnesses” from other theological subdisciplines.

Second, the goal of theology is far greater than a list of theological propositions to be asserted. Contrary to the opinion some theologians, the Bible is not a scattered list of facts which must be systematically assembled. Scripture in its variegated form, which consists of a diversity of genres, must be considered. The concern is not simply with what God has said, but also how he has said it. While facts and propositions are important, and indeed asserted in the proclamation of the early church (Acts 4:20; 1 John 1:1-3), the goal of theology is a deeper knowledge of God and participation in the divine drama. In an evangelical methodology, then, Scripture is understood in the light of the regula fidei, which enables an integration of Christian canon and community in fruitful exchange.

Other methods of doing theology also exist. Apologetic theology, for example, proceeds by answering questions that are presented. Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologica demonstrates this method. Dialectic theology, which was espoused by Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann, and Emil Brunner, emphasizes the infinite tensions, paradoxes, and ambiguities inherent in the Christian faith. The Wesleyan Quadrilateral, which is built on the practices and theology of John Wesley, is a framework which sees revelation primarily in Scripture, illuminated by tradition, vivified in personal experience, and confirmed by reason.

When doing evangelical theology, however, five factors should be kept in mind. First, the starting point of evangelical theology is defining the gospel. Second, the various loci are identified in relationship to the gospel. A reciprocal relationship exists between various doctrines and the gospel, and the task is to identify what the gospel says about a particular doctrine and how that doctrine in turn illuminates the gospel. Third, a creative dialogue is undertaken with the various sources for theology. Scripture is examined as the primary source, tradition is explored, natural revelation is considered, and experience is reflected upon. Fourth, the question of the significance of the various loci is explored when appropriated and applied in light of the gospel. This step asks the question, “So what?” and ascertains the significance of a doctrine for engagement with the biblical script which Christians are to perform. Fifth, following the application, what is learned is thought over, acted out, prayed about, and

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brought back into the theological method in order to produce fresh proposal and appraisals. This is the continuing spiral between theology and practice which must be carried out.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students look up “Trinity” in a concordance and construct a theology using the relevant

passages. Read James 2:19. Have students discuss the dangers of limiting theology to assent to a list of

propositions.

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate biblicism as a theological method. How should an evangelical theology be done?

2.1 – God and the Gospel

Key Terms gospel, Trinity, creation, redemption, new creation, purpose, plan

Key Points The gospel is God's initial and primary form of self-revelation. It is the basis for all that we

know about God.

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Chapter SummaryThe gospel is both about God and from God. It is God's initial act of self-revelation; everything

else we know and think about God is working out from what we know of God in the gospel. Hence, an evangelical theology is an exposition of and extrapolation from the gospel. The gospel is the result of the Triune God working to redeem creation. It provides the best information about who God is and what he is like. The gospel occurs in the larger framework of creation and new creation, and shows us what God's ultimate purpose is.

Pedagogical Suggestions This chapter is an introduction to the section, introducing the key themes that will be dealt with

in later chapters. It is suggested that it is taught in conjunction with these chapters.

Suggested Essay Questions How is the doctrine of the Trinity expressed in and essential to the gospel?

2.2 – Getting an Affinity for the Trinity

Key Terms gospel, Trinity, unitarian, tritheistic, modalism, adoptionism, Arius, consubstantial, Gnosticism, eternally begotten/proceeding, hypostasis, Logos Christology, monad, subordinationism, substance, monotheism, Sabellianism, hypostatic union, filioque, economic Trinity, immanent Trinity, perichoresis

Key Points The gospel points to a Triune God- the Father chooses, the Son redeems, and the Spirit

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regenerates. According to the Athanasian Creed, each member of the Trinity is uncreated, limitless, eternal,

and omnipotent. The doctrine of the Trinity, though not explicitly found in scripture, is implicit in Scripture and

the logical outworking of scriptural ideas. There are hints of Trinitarianism in the Old Testament, which are expanded in the New Testament.

Patristic approaches to the Trinity focused on how the Son relates to the Father and how the Son's human and divine natures relate.

A Trinitarian theology must contain the following elements:o The unity of one God in three personso The eternity of the three personso The shared and equal deity of the three personso The shared and equal essence of the three personso The Trinity includes distinction in roles and relationships within the Godheado The Trinity will always be an ineffable mystery.

Chapter SummaryThe gospel points to a Triune God, describing a Father who chooses, a Son who redeems, and a

Spirit who regenerates. The doctrine is often misunderstood and undervalued, though it is one of the most unique doctrines in Christianity, distinguishing it from paganism and other monotheistic religions. But to know God as he is, we need to grapple with this mystery.

The Trinity cannot be established from proof-texts; it is a doctrine that was fully articulated after the biblical period. According to the Athanasian Creed (5th century), each member of the Trinity is uncreated, limitless, eternal, and omnipotent. The creed attributes each of these attributes to each person, to avoid subordinationism and underscore the unity of the Godhead.

The doctrine of the Trinity arose as the early church sought to explain how God's actions in the gospel indicated his nature, and to find language for what they found in Scripture and in their experience of worship. Though not explicitly found in the Bible, it is an inference drawn from scriptural ideas. It is a framework that follows the trajectories found in Scripture. There are hints of Trinitarianism in the Old Testament, which are expanded in the New Testament. The whole Bible is adamant that there is one God (Deut 6:4; Isa 44:6-8; Mark 12:29-30; Rom 3:30; 1 Cor 8:6; Jude 25), the creator and covenant God of Israel. This God chose to reside in the tabernacle and Jerusalem temple (Ezra 5:11). The Old Testament gives inklings of multiple persons in the Godhead in the use of plural pronouns to describe God (Gen 1:26; 3:22; 11:7; Isa 6:8). The characters of Wisdom, the Word, the angel and the Spirit of the Lord indicate entities that work closely with God and yet are to also be identified with God himself.

The New Testament describes veneration of Jesus alongside the Father. Each member of the Trinity is described as divine and as a person. Key moments of salvation history involve all three members of the Trinity working towards one purpose (Matt 3:16; Matt 28:18-20). In Romans, Paul expresses salvation through a Trinitarian framework (Rom 1:1-4; 15:16, 30). The Corinthian letters contain many hints of Triune action (cf. 2 Cor 13:14), both in salvation (1 Cor 6:11) and in equipping the church (1 Cor 12:3-7). Most New Testament letters can be said to display an incipient Trinitarianism, but in the Gospel of John the emphasis on the Trinity is stronger. The Fourth Gospel forces commentators to explain the divinity of the Father, Son and Spirit, without compromising the Bible's monotheism. Jesus is both subordinate to the Father (John 5:17, 26-27; 6:44, 57; 8:16-18, 42; 10:36), and equal to and one with the Father (John 5:18; 10:30; 14:9-10; 17:11, 21-23). The Spirit is sent by Jesus to complete his work once Jesus returns to the Father. John's proto-Trinitarianism is stated most clearly in John 17. This displays the progressive nature of revelation.

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In the Patristic period, Christian thinkers wrestled with how the Son relates to the Father, and how the Son's human and divine natures relate. Justin Martyr identified Jesus’ divinity as the Logos, and used the illustration “light from light” to describe the shared essence of the Son and the Father. Tertullian was the first to describe God as being of one substance but three distinct persons. Against Arius, Athanasius maintained that the Son is of equal divinity and eternity as the Father, which was established at the Councils of Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381) and Toledo (589). The church also dismissed three heresies regarding Christ's humanity and divinity in this period. Apollonarius taught that Christ was essentially the Logos in a human body, lacking a human soul; and his views were rejected by the Council of Constantinople (381). Nestorius taught that Christ's human and divine natures coexisted in his person but were not united. His views were refuted at the Council of Ephesus (431). Eutyches believed that at the incarnation, Christ's human and divine natures were blended to make one new nature. The Council of Chalcedon (451) countered this view and affirmed hypostatic union, which holds that Christ's natures were perfectly united but unmixed. These councils also refuted views that the Spirit was of lesser status than the Father and the Son. At the Council of Toledo (589), the filioque clause was added to the Nicene Creed, stating that the Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son.

Other important ideas related to the intra-Trinitarian relationships are perichoresis, which teaches that the members of the Trinity “inter-permeate” each other, and functional subordination, which discusses the way in which the Son submits to the Father to accomplish their shared plan. Finally, Trinitarian theology must be expressed in our worship, our ministry, missions and community.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students compile biblical evidence for the Trinity. Have students list practical applications for the doctrine of the Trinity. Have students consider how they would explain or defend the doctrine of the Trinity to a

Muslim or a Jew.

Suggested Essay Questions Why is the divinity of the Son and/or the Spirit necessary for the Gospel? Explain why the gospel requires a theology of the Trinity? Examine the Trinitarian theology of Justin Martyr, or the Shepherd of Hermas. Is the Son eternally functionally subordinate to the Father? What are the Scriptural grounds for the Filioque clause? Should we remove it from the Nicene

creed or leave it in? Does our worship proclaim the Trinity? In what ways can we make our worship, prayer, and

church services more Trinitarian?

2.3 – What Is God Like?

Key Terms divine attributes, communicable attributes, incommunicable attributes, aseity, anthropomorphism, immutable, impassible, omnipresent, omnipotent, omnibenevolent, omniscient, middle knowledge, gender, masculine, feminine, analogical

Key Points God's attributes are the qualities of his being found consistently when he is revealed. These attributes are typically divided into two categories: communicable and incommunicable. God's incommunicable attributes include being eternal, self-sufficient, immutable, impassible,

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omnipresent, omnipotent, omnibenevolent, and omniscient. God's communicable attributes include being personal, faithful, loving, holy, wise, and glorious. God is described using masculine language in Scripture, but this is primarily analogical for the

kind of relationship he has with his creation.

Chapter SummaryWe know God as he is revealed in the gospel. He is known through creation, manifested in

Israel's history, spoken about in the Scriptures, incarnated in Jesus, and experienced in the Holy Spirit. The characteristics of God's being are called divine attributes. The Reformed tradition divides this into two categories: communicable attributes which can be shared with humans, and incommunicable attributes which are unique to God himself.

In terms of incommunicable attributes, God is eternal, existing without beginning or end. God is self-sufficient; his existence is not dependent upon any other being, which is known as aseity. God is immutable, which means that he is changeless in his character. This means that he is dependable not capricious. Depictions in Scripture of God changing his mind or relenting are anthropomorphisms, employing human imagery to describe God's interaction with his creatures. This doctrine is often seen as indicating God's coldness and removal from the world, but in fact describes his moral constancy. God is impassible, describing his inability to be affected by any emotion or event external to himself. This does not mean that he does not have emotions, but that these emotions do not change his personality or purpose. God experiences emotions, even suffers, but he foreknows and chooses these events. God is omnipresent, not limited to a spatial location, though he remains distinct from creation. He is present in certain places in different degrees (eg. The Jerusalem Temple). God is all-powerful, or omnipotent and can achieve everything he wills, and nothing is able to thwart his plan. He is omnibenevolent, indicating his perfect goodness and lack of malice. Finally, God is omniscient, which describes his perfect knowledge of all things, past, present and future, and all possibilities (his middle knowledge).

God also possesses communicable attributes, which can be shared to some degree with human beings. God is personal, rather than being merely a force or power, and has relationships within the Trinity and with creation. God is faithful, indicated in his commitment to the covenant promises he made throughout the Bible. Human faith is a reflection of God's own faithfulness. God is loving, which prompts his covenant faithfulness and acts of redemption. He is holy, indicating his integrity, transcendence, and moral uprightness, but more fundamentally his distinction from creation and sheer “God-ness.” God is wise, which describes the consistency, goodness, and effectiveness of his knowledge and its workings. Jesus is the incarnation of God's wisdom, which nullified the wisdom of this world. Finally, God is glorious, radiating infinite magnificence.

God is depicted in Scripture using primarily masculine language. Yet he is depicted as a loving Father, rather than an abusive or oppressive figure. God is described using the masculine pronoun, which does not mean that he is intrinsically male, but that he relates to us primarily in the masculine mode and we relate to him in the feminine mode. However, maleness and femaleness combine to constitute the image of God; as his character cannot be confined to masculine qualities and Scripture also uses feminine imagery to describe God. Theological language is analogical, describing the kind of relationship God has with his people, rather than indicating his gender. Finally, the essence of God's being is his glory, holiness and love.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students compile a list of the attributes of God revealed in the gospel. Divide students into groups. Have them read Exodus 3 or 33-34 and make a list of the attributes

of God the passage describes. Divide students into groups. Name an attribute of God and have the students see how many

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Bible passages referring to that attribute they can find in a minute. Divide students into groups. Assign each group an attribute of God, and have them search the

Bible for passages that describe this attribute. Have students share their findings with the class. Have students reflect on Anselm's statement “God is that than which no greater being can be

conceived” as a prompt for worship. Have students sing (or write!) a song that lists God's attributes. Have students discuss whether any one of God's attributes is primary. Have students discuss how they would respond to the following statement: “Using masculine

language to describe God is intrinsically patriarchal and oppressive.”

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate the doctrine of divine impassibility. You cannot understand God's love unless you also understand his holiness and his wrath.

Discuss. Is it scriptural to refer to God as “Mother?” Why or why not? Which attribute of God best describes his essence?

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2.4 – The God Who Creates

Key Terms creation, creator, new creation, source, power, inimitability, exclusive monotheism, regal monotheism, transcendence, immanence, providence, covenantal monotheism, creational monotheism, deism, pantheism, panentheism, henotheism, paganism, gnosticism, anthropological, cosmological, creatio ex nihilo

Key Points The gospel fits within the framework of creation and new creation. God is the creator and source of all; nothing has existence apart from him. The ideas of exclusive monotheism, regal monotheism, providential monotheism, and

covenantal monotheism combine to form a monotheistic doctrine of creation. Each member of the Trinity was involved in creation. The doctrine of creation looks forward to the new creation, where God will recreate the world

and conform it to his own glory and goodness. This is both anthropological and cosmological. Creation is intrinsically good, but fallen. God created the world out of nothing (creatio ex nihilo)

Chapter SummaryThe gospel presupposes God's original act of creation and looks forward to the new creation.

The concepts of covenant and creation are of the gospel’s essential framework, as the renewal of Israel's covenant is inextricably linked with the renewal of creation. The doctrine of creation is the grounds for God's authority to judge the world.

Many creeds and confessions begin with affirming that God is the creator and that the world and its contents are not eternal. God is almighty, the Lord of heaven and earth; everything owes its existence to God and is dependent upon him for its well-being. Confessing God as creator means affirming his unsurpassed power and denying the possibility of any comparable rival (exclusive monotheism). God's identity as creator gives him authority and kingship over his creation (regal monotheism). God is both distinct from and at work within creation, sustaining it through his providence. Humans are the climax of God's creation, as his image bearers and stewards. Though humanity disobeyed God and brought evil into creation, God intends to restore it in accordance with his covenant. This view of God as creator can be summarized by the term creational monotheism. Creational monotheism excludes such views as deism, pantheism and panentheism, henotheism and paganism, and gnosticism. God is distinct from creation. Creational monotheism suggests two interlocking realities, a visible and an invisible realm. The existence of suffering implies two sets of dualisms: a good/evil dualism, and a present/future dualism. In the future, God will rid the world of evil on the grounds of the resurrection.

Moreover, we can add to our doctrine of creation elements that make our doctrine exclusively Christian. Each member of the Trinity was active within creation. In Irenaeus's illustration, the Son and Spirit were the gloves the Father used to make the world. The biblical testimony affirms that the Son and the Spirit were instrumental in creation; the Spirit is the life-giver and the Word was the chief agent who fashioned the created order. God chose to create the world in order to magnify the love within the Godhead by creating creatures to share that love. God's will to love creation causes him to be committed to it, and can be seen as the grounds for redemption. Hence, God commits himself to remake the world, in fulfillment of the Abrahamic and Sinaitic covenants. The new creation is both anthropological and cosmological, involving redemption for humanity and for all of creation. Jesus' resurrection was the beginning of the new creation, inaugurating the new age; the outpouring of the Spirit was another element of the inaugurated new creation. The second stage in the new creation will

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be the consummation of creation itself. Jesus will be universally recognized as Lord, all evil and pain will disappear, and everything will be made new. There is a unity in God's acts of creation, reconciliation, and re-creation. Creation is intrinsically good; hence sin, evil and rebellion are not intrinsically a part of it.

God created the world out of nothing, showing no need to rely on anything outside himself to do so. Creatio ex nihilo implies that everything is ontologically dependent upon God. Unlike other ancient cosmogonies, Genesis 1:1-2 indicates an absolute beginning to the world; God created it out of nothingness. Likewise, the New Testament points to God as the ultimate ground of creation. Though this teaching arose in the Patristic period as a response to Gnosticism, it aligns with Scripture. The doctrine of creation should lead us to acknowledge our creatureliness and dependence upon God, and turn towards him in worship. It should also lead us to care for the earth as God's stewards, and to strive to understand it through scientific endeavor.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss the following question: Is it important to worship on Sunday? What is the

symbolism behind this act? Have students discuss what signs of order there are in the universe. How does the doctrine of

creation legitimize and support the scientific endeavor? Have students discuss what place ecology has in a doctrine of creation.

Suggested Essay Questions Why is it important to maintain the tension between God's transcendence and immanence? What is unique about a Christian doctrine of creation? Is the doctrine of creation jeopardized if we accept an old earth or theistic evolution? Did regeneration occur in the Old Testament? Understanding the new creation is essential to understanding the gospel. Discuss.

2.5 – The God Who Reveals Himself

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Key Terms revelation, natural revelation, special revelation, christological revelation, noetic effects of sin, natural theology, ontological argument, cosmological argument, teleological argument, moral argument, illumination, inspiration, plenary inspiration, canon, Scripture, incarnation

Key Points Revelation is God's self-disclosure; apart from it we would have no knowledge of God. God reveals himself through nature (natural revelation). This speech is universal in scope, but

humans cannot understand it because their minds are blinded by sin. There are still some benefits to natural theology, though it cannot be used to establish God's existence definitively.

Special revelation is God's communication of himself through history, proclamation, Scripture, and illumination. This revelation is salvific.

The clearest form of revelation occurred in the incarnation.

Chapter SummaryGod is a god who makes himself known. The gospel presupposes both God's acting and God's

speaking, and is at the center of divine revelation. It stands in continuity with Old Testament revelation and also reveals the mystery of God's plan to bring Gentiles to the obedience of faith.

We are unable to know God without him revealing himself to us. He does so of his own initiative, and this grace and revelation of his are chiefly redemptive. However, it is not enough for people to know of God's existence. Hence, God must reveal himself as Saviour; the goal of revelation is the restoration of fellowship between God and humans. The gospel is revealed through the historical events of Jesus' life, propositional in the things it affirms about him, and leads people to experience him. Revelation occurs through the Holy Spirit, and thus gives a personal encounter with God. Bird describes revelation as “the self-presentation of the Triune God, who through the Holy Spirit communicates saving truth about himself and draws humankind into a community in fellowship with his Son, so that they might know him, experience his mercy, and enjoy him forever” (p 171, emphasis original).

There are three modes of revelation: natural, special and christological. Natural revelation is the knowledge of God intimated universally, by nature, the universe, and what is observable in human nature (Ps 19:1-4). Observing the world gives us an awareness that there is a Creator distinct from creation but responsible for its existence. While God's power and divine nature are evident, the problem with natural revelation is that the sinful nature turns minds away from God, leading people to suppress this knowledge of him (Rom 1:18-25). They exchange the truth for a lie, and worship creation instead of the creator. Natural revelation is not salvific and it is only properly perceived once one has received special revelation. Natural theology is the study of what can be known about God through the human constitution, history, and nature. It can be approached in two ways, one that asks what humans would know about God if there were no fall, and another which asks what humans can know despite the fall. Aquinas' theology posited that the existence of God can be verified by natural theology combined with reason. However, some theologians, such as Barth, reject natural revelation and natural theology. Barth holds that all revelation is salvific, and since no saving knowledge is gained from considering nature, it is not revelation. Van Til rejected natural theology because it could only establish the probability of God's existence, and maintained that his existence must be presupposed. Plantinga holds to a “Reformed epistemology,” which holds that believing in God is “properly basic,” and warranted on its own terms. Theistic proofs can confirm a belief in God, but are not the grounds for the belief in the first place. Bird suggests the following ideas about natural theology: 1. Creation witnesses to God, even if that witness is ignored. 2. Natural theology is grounded in a natural knowledge of God, and is a legitimate subsection of Christian theology. 3. Theistic proofs can support belief and help establish the plausibility of our worldview. 4. Belief in God is established and warranted on the grounds of God's

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revelation of himself in the gospel and by the inner testimony of the Holy Spirit. In conclusion, natural revelation can act as a preparation for the gospel.

Special revelation is God's unique communication of himself through history, proclamation, Scripture and illumination. It is necessary because some act on God's part is necessary for humanity to be saved. Christianity is a historical religion, claiming that God acts in the sphere of history: it stands or falls based on its historicity. Revelation occurs when God acts in history; thus revelation is universally observable, rather than restricted to the subjective responses of the observers. Revelation also occurs in proclamation and inspired writing (Scripture). God so invests himself in the Scriptures that they reveal his very presence. The Bible presents itself as the words of God spoken through and to humans, though some would question this statement. Scripture is a record of revelatory events, the content of revelation in that it offers the divine interpretation of historical events, and the instrument through which the Spirit speaks to God's people in the present. Scripture is both personal and propositional, but the best way to affirm the truth of the variety of biblical genres is to say that the Bible is canonically factual. Revelation is a triune act; it has a sender, a content, and an effect, corresponding to each member of the Trinity. Through the Spirit, hearing Scripture allows for a genuine encounter with God. Illumination is the enlightening of a person's mind to understand revelation. It is how the Spirit ensures that revelation is received and achieves its transforming purpose.

Finally, christological revelation occurs in the incarnation, the greatest and clearest revelation of God in history. Though this is a form of special revelation, Bird holds that it is qualitatively greater than all other forms of special revelation. Scripture is essential for knowing Jesus, but is not the only way to know about him. In Jesus Christ, we glimpse the inner being of God and see his plan for the world coming to fruition. The incarnation reveals the compatibility between the divine and human spheres of existence, validates God's covenant plan by fulfilling it, points to Jesus' unique role in salvation as the ultimate mediator, and emphasizes God's graciousness. Truth can be identified not only with canonical propositions, but with the activity of the Spirit of truth and with Jesus as the way of truth.

Pedagogical Suggestions Discuss the arguments for God's existence (pp 180-83). Have the students discuss whether they

are convinced or unconvinced by each argument. Ask students whether they think that Scripture is inspired on a verbal or a conceptual level. Discuss the parable of the elephant (p 212). Is this an appropriate analogy for the existence of

multiple religions? Why not?

Suggested Essay Questions On what grounds is Scripture authoritative? Bibliology is inextricably linked with pneumatology. Discuss. The only way God speaks today is through Scripture. Discuss. Is it more accurate to refer to Scripture as infallible or inerrant? Discuss. Is Scripture inspired at a verbal or a conceptual level? Evaluate Barth's doctrine of revelation.

2.6 – God’s Purpose and Plan

Key Terms purpose, plan, doxological, dispensational theology, dispensation, rapture, millennium, covenant,

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covenant theology, covenant of works, covenant of redemption, covenant of grace, protoevangelium, Pelagianism, Adamic administration, Messianic administration

Key Points God's highest purpose is to glorify himself through his sacrificial love. Dispensational theology sees biblical history divided into six dispensations, and a disjunction

between Israel and the church in God's plan. Covenant theology sees God's relationship with humanity as mediated by several covenants.

This is a better scheme for understanding the unity of the Bible.

Chapter SummaryTo speak of God's purposes is to refer to his ultimate intention in creation and redemption.

God's purposes are primarily doxological; the gospel explains how God glorifies himself by glorifying the messianic Son and sharing his glory with his followers. In the Old Testament, people appealed to God's glory, the sake of his name, when they asked him for deliverance. In the New Testament it was revealed how God had incorporated Gentiles into his people so that both Jew and Gentile would join in praising him. However, the primary way that God is glorified is on account of his self-giving love for his creation. Hence, God is most glorified in the cross, which displays his glory most fully. God's plan was determined in eternity, and is immutable. The plan focuses on his Son, for the benefit of the elect, and aims to bring about the new creation.

Multiple theological systems have been posited to explain how God's actions unite to form his plan. Aiming to read the Bible literally, dispensational theology suggests six unique “dispensations,” or administrations in God's dealings with people. In this scheme, God has two plans for salvation: one involving Israel, and one involving the church. However, it envisages too much discontinuity between the epochs of salvation history. The New Testament clearly sees one people of God, made of Jew and Gentile.

Covenant theology sees the divine-human relationship as mediated by several covenants. Classic Reformed theology suggests a covenant of redemption: the intra-Trinitarian pact to save the world; the covenant of works, where Adam was promised eternal life if he was obedient (later republished as the Sinaitic covenant); and the covenant of grace, which includes the covenants made with Noah, Abraham, David, and the new covenant. The system suggests that the Messiah fulfilled the covenant of works, allowing the covenant of grace to be fully realized. Though the unity of this system is attractive, it is not clear that there ever was a covenant with Adam. Bird reframes covenant theology, emphasizing the covenant of grace given to Abraham as the centerpiece of God's plan. It was hinted at in the protoevangelium, and fulfilled in Jesus, as Jesus fulfills the roles given to Adam and Israel. Furthermore, the Sinaitic covenant was a temporary, national covenant, designed to cocoon God's promises around Israel. In summary, the covenant of grace is God's plan to take people from being “in Adam” to being “in the Messiah.”

Pedagogical Suggestions At the start of the lesson, have students diagram the key events in God's plan on a timeline. Have students search the Bible for statements about what motivates God to act. Have students debate whether dispensationalism or Reformed theology is a better system for

understanding the unity of the Bible.

Suggested Essay Questions Is dispensationalism or covenant theology a better framework for understanding the Bible? Is it egotistical for God to be primarily concerned with his own glory? Was a covenant of works made with Adam?

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Is the Mosaic law antithetical to salvation by grace?

3.1 – Gospel and Kingdom

Key Terms eschatology, kingdom of God, biblical theology, new creation, Pax Romana, The Enlightenment, modernism, postmodernism, nihilism, consummation

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Key Points Eschatology and the kingdom of God are central themes throughout the Bible. Christian eschatology counters the power claims of Roman imperialism, modernism and

postmodernism. It tells the story of how God's purposes will win in the end, and even now are being worked out in the world.

Eschatology is central to the doctrine and mission of the church.

Chapter SummaryThe kingdom of God is often associated with the end of time, but in fact it is a central motif

throughout the entire Bible. All of redemptive history is driven by the ideas that God is both already king and yet becoming king. The theme played a central role in Jesus’ preaching. Hence, eschatology provides the framework for Christian theology, as well as comprising the essential nucleus of the gospel. Redemption is both present and future; all of theology is based on God's promise to right and recreate the world, drawing it to himself. Furthermore, eschatology has implications for our actions in the present.

The Christian story exists in a world of competing meta-narratives. The defining narrative of the Roman Empire taught that the gods had chosen the Caesars to bring peace and prosperity to the world. Modernist idealism worshipped “reason,” not realizing that progress did not necessarily improve the world, but could also facilitated injustice and claims to power. Postmodernism claims to be a reaction against modernism, rejecting the ideas of absolute truth and human objectivity, but retains the view that humans are the ultimate arbitrators.

In contrast, Christian eschatology claims that God is working out his good purposes in the world. The gospel gives us a glimpse into the future, showing us that God intends to judge evil, remake the world, and give resurrection life to his people. Jesus and the kingdom are closely intertwined, as Jesus is the king who will complete God's purposes. The kingdom of God has two key moments: the fulfilment of covenant promises to Israel in the mission of Jesus, and the future consummation at the end of the age. Put simply, the kingdom is already and yet to come. Eschatology is the story of how God's purposes are already invading this world, and how this invasion will finally be completed.

Eschatology matters because it reveals God's faithfulness to his covenants with Israel and shows the cross as the defeat of the powers of evil. The belief that God will judge the rulers of this age allows Christians to critique our leaders and governments, and the belief that God will judge us spurs us in our service of God. The belief that God will raise us bodily allows us to affirm the material world and look forward to its renewal. The establishment of God's kingdom spurs us to announce its arrival in mission. Finally, an apocalyptic eschatology allows Christians to respond appropriately to suffering and death: they are real enemies, but will finally be defeated. Eschatology provides us with hope for the future and motivation in the present to work in the world, rather than seeking to escape from it.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students read Tom Wright's Surprised by Hope throughout the eschatology section of the

course. Have students discuss why we need eschatology. Have students discuss what place eschatology plays in their churches. What place should it

have? How does it affect our evangelism, outreach and daily lives?

Suggested Essay Questions All theology is a subset of eschatology. Discuss. “Eschatology, rightly understood, is the most practical thing that can be thought” (Barth, quoted

p 236). How does eschatology affect Christian praxis? How does Christian eschatology affirm the importance of the body and the physical world?

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Why does this matter? How does eschatology affect a Christian view of ecology?

3.2 – Apocalypse Now... And Not Yet!

Key Terms eschatology, consistent eschatology, parousia, realised eschatology, inaugurated (or proleptic) eschatology, last days, consummation, apocalypticism, apocalypse, apocalyptic eschatology, prophetic eschatology, millennium, preterism, tribulation

Key Points

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There have been multiple attempts to describe biblical eschatology and how Jesus understood the presence of the kingdom of God. Schweitzer believed that Jesus expected a radical political upheaval that failed to eventuate. Dodd believed that the kingdom had come fully in Jesus’ ministry. Others remove the eschatological emphasis from Jesus’ teaching entirely.

The best scheme to understand biblical eschatology is inaugurated eschatology, which emphasizes both the present and the yet-to-come elements of the kingdom.

Chapter SummaryThis chapter summarizes the history of scholarship surrounding the kingdom of God and how

biblical scholarship has long wrestled with the nature of the kingdom of God. Weiss and Schweitzer proclaimed a consistent eschatology, which saw Jesus as an apocalyptic seer who proclaimed the imminence of vast political upheaval. In their view, Jesus went to Jerusalem to die because of the failure of the “Son of Man” to appear. The rest of Christianity was a response to the failure of the Kingdom of God's arrival, and was characterised by an abandonment of eschatology. However, “the Son of Man” is clearly Jesus’ self-reference, and he did not set a timetable for the kingdom's consummation. Finally, the delay of the parousia was not the problem it is made out to be, as the later biblical writings involve eschatological hope.

C. H. Dodd and others promoted a realized eschatology. They taught that Jesus believed the kingdom had come in his own ministry, and that this kingdom was wholly transcendent. Other scholars tried to de-eschatologize Jesus and align him with Greek philosophical traditions. However, if this is the case, Jesus is wrenched from his Jewish context and it is hard to understand how later Christian eschatology developed. The most biblical way of understanding Jesus’ teaching on the kingdom is called inaugurated (proleptic) eschatology, which is described below. This emphasizes that the kingdom is both present and yet to be fulfilled.

The Old Testament presupposes that God is king. Hope in the Old Testament focuses around the ideas of a Davidic deliverer, freedom from pagan oppressors or exile, the reconstitution of the twelve tribes, a new covenant and temple, and judgment for the wicked. The New Testament authors are agreed that these hopes are fulfilled in Jesus. Jesus began his ministry by announcing that the kingdom of God was near. Yet he also gives a strong future expectation for the kingdom. In John, Jesus emphasizes the present element of the kingdom. John describes Jesus as the incarnation of God's glory and the source of eternal life. Yet this book still awaits a final judgment and resurrection. Paul sees Christ as the one through whom “the culmination of the ages” has come, a the resurrection—the event expected at the end of history—happened in the middle of history with Jesus. The Spirit also indicates the presence of the age to come and a deposit of what is still to come. He regards redemption, freedom, inheritance, and righteousness as things in which believers participate in the present but also anticipate for the future. Revelation uses manifold symbols and metaphors to describe God's eventual defeat of Satan, though it also spends much time discussing the present situation of its audience. The church is encouraged to endure persecution as they wait for the consummation, and the new heavens and new earth. Hence, the last days describe the period from Jesus’ first coming until the consummation. They are marked by an anticipation of the future hope.

Thus, we can see from the New Testament sources, it is important to emphasize both the present and future elements of the kingdom. Some people in the New Testament thought that the present life contains the fullness of what God has promised us and that the day of the Lord has already occurred. Others scoffed at God's delay in coming back. The Corinthian church suffered from a lack of eschatology (rather than an over-realized eschatology), and rejected the idea of an embodied afterlife. Both a downplaying of the promises yet to be fulfilled, and an obsession with predicting and describing the end. The story of biblical eschatology tells of how God's kingdom has broken into the world in Jesus, and how those purposes will eventually be worked out. God will put the world aright; sin, death

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and the devil will be defeated; and God will reign forever.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students search the gospels for statements about the kingdom, and divide them into “now”

and “not yet” categories. Have students compile examples of over-realized or under-realized eschatologies. What are the

dangers of such positions?

Suggested Essay Questions Understanding the kingdom of God is essential to understanding the biblical storyline. Discuss. How does John's eschatology differ from that found in the Synoptic gospels? What are the distinctive elements of Paul's eschatology? Revelation is more about the situation of its first-century readers than it is about the future.

Discuss. Compare and contrast the consistent, realized, and inaugurated eschatological models.

3.3 – The Return of Jesus Christ

Key Terms parousia, the day of the Lord, epiphany, preterist, Olivet Discourse

Key Points Christ will come again as judge and King to finally and completely establish his kingdom. There is probably no prediction of the second coming in the Old Testament. Texts often taken to

refer to such events rather describe the Maccabean crisis or the vindication of God's people after

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persecution. In the Gospels, “the coming of the Son of Man” refers primarily to the destruction of Jerusalem

in AD 70. However, this does not mean that all of Scripture's eschatological hopes were fulfilled in the first century. There are still many prophecies of Jesus’ return, even with a preterist reading of the Olivet Discourse.

In light of Jesus’ return, Christians are to evangelize, endure, and encourage each other.

Chapter SummaryThe end of the biblical story is that Jesus will return to establish his kingdom permanently: he

will become by might what he is by right. The gospel announces how this King who comes to judge is also our Saviour. The New Testament uses several words to describe Jesus’ return: parousia, which refers to his presence after a period of absence; epiphaneia, which means “manifestation” or “appearing”; apokalypsis, which means “revelation” or “unveiling”; and the day of the Lord, which links Christ's advent with the concept of judgment.

The second coming is probably not mentioned at all in the Old Testament because of the progressive nature of revelation. The visions in Daniel likely refer to the Maccabean crisis in the second century BC, rather than the return of Christ. Daniel 7 likely describes the vindication of God's people after a period of oppression, and Daniel 9 the desecration of the temple by Antiochus Epiphanes IV. Following this reading, it is likely that Jesus’ references to the parousia of the Son of Man refer not to his own second advent, but to the destruction of the temple in AD 70. Jesus pronounces judgment on Israel and its leaders, who have been unfaithful towards God. The Olivet Discourse is to be read in the context of Jesus’ statement about the destruction of the temple (Mark 13:1-5). There are objections to such a reading as this. However, such a preterist reading does not mean that all eschatological hopes have been fulfilled by AD. 70. Matthew and Luke both conflate the material about the destruction of Jerusalem with predictions of Jesus' return. The destruction of Jerusalem is the beginning of the divine judgment that will one day involve the whole world. It is clear from John's gospel that Jesus spoke of his return and that this was still relevant after Jerusalem was destroyed (John 14:3; cf. Acts 1:11).

Jesus’ return will be personal, bodily, and thus unmistakeable. He will come with angels, and trumpet blasts signify his kingship. Around the time Jesus returns, Israel will turn to him in large numbers. The parousia will involve the resurrection of believers, and Jesus will conquer and judge his enemies. Heaven and earth will be permanently joined, and God will reign with his people forever.

The Lord's Supper, the meal given to celebrate Christ's death and resurrection, is also to look forward to his return. The Christian life is to be marked by waiting and praying for the second coming. In light of this, Christians are to evangelize, endure the hardship of this age, and encourage each other.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss whether they find a preterist reading of the Gospels convincing. Have students debate a preterist vs. non-preterist interpretation of Scripture. Have students discuss the practical application of the doctrine of the second coming.

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate a preterist reading of biblical eschatology. Is the second coming of Jesus mentioned in the Old Testament?

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3.4 – Millennium and Tribulation

Key Terms millennium, tribulation, consummation, parousia, Messianic interregnum, chiliast, postmillennialism, amillennialism, historical (classical) premillennialism, dispensational premillennialism, pretribulationism, posttribulationism, rapture

Key Points The millennium and tribulation are events that will take place before the consummation.

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The millennial perspectives are postmillennialism, amillennialism, dispensational premillennialism and historical premillennialism. Of these, historical premillennialism is probably the most biblical position.

The tribulation will take place before the return of Christ and there will be no rapture.

Chapter SummaryThe new creation is said to be preceded by the tribulation and the millennium, but the form

these events will take is debated. Belief in the millennium is derived from Rev 20:4-8, which describes Christ reigning on earth for a thousand years. Scholars differ in whether the thousand years should be taken literally or metaphorically, and what they actually signify. There are four positions on this issue: postmillennialism, amillennialism, historical premillennialism and dispensational premillennialism.

Postmillennials believe that Christ will return after the millennium, an extended period of peace and righteousness. The advance of the gospel into the world will increase so that a large proportion of the world will be saved, and bring about a golden age that is religious, political, and social. Christ's authority (described in the Great Commission) will extend over the world, and he will reign in the hearts of the saved. The parables of growth are invoked to support this position, and advocates usually appeal to the spread of the gospel and multiplication of converts as evidence of its truth. However, these parables do not say how widespread the kingdom will become before the consummation, only that they will grow. Furthermore, the amount of persecution and hostility the church faces shows that the world is not becoming more Christian. This view also ignores teaching on the tribulation to come before Christ's return. This millennial position is the easiest to set aside.

Amillennialism regards the millennium as a present reality with a future consummation. In this view, the millennium is identical with the church age, where Christ reigns over his people. The parousia, final resurrection and final judgment will occur at the same time, and the Old Testament promises of earthly harmony describe the new creation rather than the millennium. An amillennial reading of Revelation 20 sees the binding of Satan as part of Jesus’ ministry (cf. Luke 10:18; 11:1-26), and that the first resurrection describes either regeneration or the souls of martyred believers entering heaven. It reads Revelation 20 as being symbolic, as the rest of the book would suggest. The main problem with this reading is the two resurrections; it appears that those who participate in the first do not participate in the second, and indicates that both resurrections are of the same type.

Premillennialism teaches that Christ will return before the millennium. Dispensational premillennialism believes in a pretribulation rapture and a sharp distinction between Israel and the church. Historical premillennialism holds to a posttribulation return of Christ. It teaches that Christ's second coming will begin a reign of Christ on the earth for a thousand years (or a long period of time) before the final consummation. The millennium allows humanity to fulfill its mandate of ruling over the earth. Many passages in the Old Testament that speak of God's people or a Messianic figure can be interpreted as referring to the millennium. Paul may also indicate a millennium in 1 Cor 15:23-27. And the premillennial reading of Revelation 20 is certainly the most straight-forward. It functions as a reversal, where the martyrs will reign with Christ over their oppressors. This may explain why millennialism became less common after Constantine. There are objections to this scheme, but it seems the most cogent of the four options.

The tribulation is the doctrine that before the consummation, things will get worse for the church rather than better. The New Testament sees the advance of the kingdom as occuring at the same time as various tribulations. Scripture prophesies a great tribulation immediately preceding the consummation. Dispensational premillennialism believes that the church will not participate in the final tribulation, but will be raptured away with Christ (pretribulationism). The rapture is the belief that the church will be taken away to be with the Lord when he comes in the clouds. They will thus escape the tribulation. However, the biblical passages used to support this view more likely refer to Christians rising into the clouds to accompany Christ as he comes to earth. The pretribulation view makes too

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little of the promises that Christians will suffer; the wrath that Jesus delivers us from is his wrath in judgment. There is likewise no basis for breaking up Jesus’ return into a secret coming followed by a public one. The posttribulation view holds that Christ will return after the tribulation, which the church will participate in. This is the more biblical position.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students debate the various millennial positions.

Suggested Essay Questions Will there be a literal millennial reign of Christ on the earth? What purpose does the millennium serve in relation to wider biblical theology? Critique the theology of the Left Behind novels. What problems does a dispensational eschatology present? What does the Bible teach about the tribulation?

3.5 – The Final Judgment

Key Terms judgment, final judgment, hell, retributive justice, restorative justice, punitive, vindication

Key Points Judgment is facing God without the cross. All people and angels will be judged, but Christians

face God with Christ having born God's wrath against their sin and with the Holy Spirit having worked within them to produce good works.

Judgment is the vindication of Christ and his people. Judgment is both restorative and retributive. Judgment is the triumph of God's glory and grace.

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Chapter SummaryJesus is appointed both as Saviour and Judge. Judgment is the consequence for rejecting the

gospel; hence, salvation is a deliverance from judgment. On the cross, God meted out his wrath against human evil and Jesus experienced separation from God, the essence of hell. Judgment, then, is facing God without the cross having absorbed the penalty for sin. Believers have already been through judgment in Christ who is their representative.

Final judgment will be judicial and impartial, dispensing justice to all. Believers will be judged as well as unbelievers. The good works that the Spirit works in believers will demonstrate the genuineness of their faith. God will also reward believers based on how they have cooperated with his renewing grace. Finally, angels will be judged. Those angels that rejected or disobeyed God will receive their punishment.

The final judgment will be everlasting, transhistorical, and universal, unlike specific events of God's judgment in Biblical history. Judgment can be seen as the vindication of Christ and his people; it will prove that Christ was who he claimed to be, and his people were correct in following him. The final judgment will see justice meted out against evil. It will reveal the true status of believers and establish that Christians are of the light while the world is in darkness.

It is common to insist that God's justice must be restorative rather than retributive. Some believe that warnings of judgment against the wicked are metaphors for exclusion from God's presence. Though these views help us in escaping a purely contractual view of divine-human relationships, the relational covenants God made with humanity are also legally binding. God's justice will transform the world, but that will mean purging the world of evil. God's judgment is about vindication, not vindictiveness. God vindicates those who suffer, and holds those who cause evil and suffering responsible for their actions. At his essence, God is love and mercy rather than wrath. Even God's wrath can be seen as an expression of his grace, because he prevents evil from perpetuating in its earthly state, and demonstrates the error of rebellion. Judgment glorifies God because it disempowers the oppressors and gives justice to those who perpetuated injustice. God's glory comes through redemption and renewal, which means putting the world to right and giving evil what it deserves. God's victory at the cross is put into effect at the final judgment. Once sin, death and evil have been destroyed, the new creation will come, and God's people will reign with him in the new Eden. The church is meant to showcase this new creation in miniature in the present.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss how the church can showcase or advertise the new creation (section

3.5.6). Have students brainstorm events or situations in the world that make the doctrine of God's

judgment a comforting rather than confronting idea. What evil is there in the world that they long to see judged?

Judgment is an unpopular idea in today's world and church. Have students discuss how they would defend or explain the doctrine in an apologetic context.

Spend time in prayer, thanking Jesus for bearing judgment on the cross in our place.

Suggested Essay Questions In Scripture, justice is primarily restorative rather than retributive. Discuss. Divine judgment is an act of grace. Discuss. What role do works play in the final judgment?

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3.6 – The Intermediate State: What Happens When You Die?

Key Terms individual eschatology, intermediate state, new creation, Platonism, soul sleep, purgatory, venial sins, mortal sins, Sheol/Hades, paradise, hell, heaven, consummation

Key Points Individual eschatology describes what happens to people, in the context of God's wider

purposes for the world. Soul sleep and purgatory have been suggested as options to explain what happens to people

when they die. The best explanation is that believers go to heaven, a disembodied but conscious state.

Chapter SummaryThis chapter is about personal eschatology, which describes the fate and future of the individual

person. The gospel promises eternal life because it tells of Christ's victory over death. The Christian story tells that sin and death were intrusions into God's good creation. They threaten both physical death and spiritual death, or separation from God. However, God's gift to those under the reign of death is a full, bodily participation in the new creation. Though everyone participates in death because of Adam, our representative, Christians participate in God's grace and life through Jesus.

We know that believers will eventually reign with Christ in the new creation, but this still leaves the question of what happens after a person dies before the consummation. The immortality of the soul is a Greek idea, and is affirmed by Christians. However, the Bible does not teach the disembodied eternity of souls in heaven; the future for Christians is bodily. Soul sleep is the belief that the soul is unconscious between death and resurrection. This belief rests on the fact that the Bible uses “sleep” to describe death, and the assumption that the body and soul cannot exist apart from each other. However, there is ample biblical evidence that the departed are conscious and joyous in their post-mortem state (2 Cor 5:8; Phil 1:23). The Roman Catholic doctrine of purgatory teaches that upon death, saints are transported to heaven, whereas others must experience purgatory's purification before they enter heaven. So purgatory is a place where people who will eventually go to heaven work off the venial sins they have not yet been purified of. This doctrine arises from a passage in the apocrypha. However, Scripture clearly teaches that purification from sin comes through the work of Jesus, which is appropriated by faith.

Scripture uses the terms Sheol and Hades for the place of the dead (as distinct from hell). Resurrection was God bringing a person out of this place, and only God had the power to do this. In Jewish thought, the righteous were separate from the wicked in Sheol, reflecting the final judgment. Jesus told the thief on the cross that “today you will be with me in paradise,” probably indicating the intermediate state (Hades). Paul's eschatology does not focus on the intermediate state, but mentions it in passing (Phil 1:20-23; 2 Cor 5:1-10). He indicates a period between his present existence and the future resurrection, which he describes as an eternal house, a heavenly dwelling, which is away from the body and at home with the Lord. In Revelation, John mentions martyrs who exist in a heavenly dimension, yet still long for God to enact justice in the world. Prior to his ascension, all who died went to Hades, but at Christ's ascension he took the righteous from Hades into heaven. Hence, believers who die go to heaven to await the final judgment, whereas non-believers await judgment in Hades. We see that hell and Hades are not the same thing in Revelation, because “death and Hades” are thrown into the lake of fire. The contents of Hades will be emptied into hell at the final judgment.

Pedagogical Suggestions

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Ask students to consider how they would answer an eight-year-old who asked them, “what happens when you die?”

Suggested Essay Questions Are people conscious after they die? Evaluate the case for purgatory. Examine the historical development of the doctrine of purgatory.

3.7 – The Final State: Heaven, Hell, and New Creation

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Key Terms new creation, heaven, hell, annihilationism, intermediate state, consummation, Sheol/Hades, New Jerusalem, New Eden, final judgment

Key Points Heaven is the cosmological world above and beyond earth. At the consummation, God will

remake heaven and earth and join them together. Hell is the place of God's judgment, where a fitting recompense for evil will be given.

Chapter SummaryGod's kingdom is everlasting, and he calls the church to reign with him in the new creation.

The new creation will have continuity as well as discontinuity with this world, and what we do in this life will carry over into the future. Heaven refers to the cosmological world above and beyond earth. Heavenly realities have earthly anticipations now, and are best seen as the hidden dimension of ordinary life. At the consummation, God intends to remake heaven and earth, and join them together. This is the ultimate destination of God's people and heaven, as it presently is, is the intermediate waiting place. Revelation uses the images of a new covenant, new temple, new Israel, new Jerusalem, and new creation to describe it. God dwells with his people, and they worship him. The new creation is also the eschatological goal of the garden of Eden. The glorified humanity will have bodies, but ones that transcend those we presently have.

Hell is the final place of judgment. The New Testament references to the place are filled with warnings to repent. Hell is described using a number of images, such as fire, the abyss, and a lake of burning sulphur. The Bible suggests that hell is both a reality and a metaphor, describing the full force of divine justice. It is the place where evil is shown for what it is and fitting recompenses are given. It is about justice, not torture, and will quarantine evil from the rest of creation. It is possible that those in hell may cease to bear God's image in any meaningful sense and so cease to be human. Many have attempted to soften the Bible's teaching on hell. Annihilationism teaches that those who are not saved will be eliminated, and cease to exist. Hence, God's punishment against sin will not be eternal. However, this suggestion overlooks the descriptions of hell as being an eternal punishment. In fact, the doctrine of hell shows God's justice and intent to punish evil as it deserves.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss whether their churches and evangelism mention hell much. How should

we approach and teach on the topic? How can we mention the topic without turning the gospel into “fire insurance”?

Have students consider whether the new creation plays much of a role in their daily lives, or in the life and teaching of their church. How can we give this topic more prominence in our thinking?

Suggested Essay Questions Hell is essentially separation from God. Discuss. Evaluate the case for an annihilationist view of hell. What is wrong with the statement, “Christians will live in heaven forever?”

4.1 – The Gospel of God’s Son

Key Terms

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Christology; Christocentric; Zeitgeist

Key Points Jesus the Messiah is the centerpiece of the gospel By focusing on the person of Jesus Christ, theologians can avoid the liberal extreme of accom-

modating the gospel to pluralism and the conservative extreme of venerating the Bible above Christ

Chapter SummaryJesus Christ is the centerpiece of the gospel, and there can be no gospel without him. His

identity and the redemptive significance of his death and resurrection, set against the backdrop of God’s kingdom and salvation-history, constitute the core of the gospel (Rom 1:3-4; 1 Cor 15:3-5; 2 Tim 2:8). The gospel, then, sets forth both the person and work of Christ, and thus a gospel-driven Christology entails studying both aspects.

Christology, as the study of the story of Jesus in the gospel, must be set against the wider narrative of the story of God. While atonement theology is certainly included in the gospel, it also delineates God’s plan to save the world through Israel’s deliverer. The gospel has a triune architecture and its proclamation is supported by the story of Israel’s Messiah, the Father who sends, and the promised Holy Spirit. Hence, Christology cannot be abstracted from the context of God’s mission, purposes, and indeed, the very definition and nature of “God” (see Phil 2:5-11).

Moreover, the centrality of Christ can be tied to every other area of theology. For example, it is through the mediatorship of Christ that humanity gets a glimpse into the Trinity. The doctrine of creation details how God made the universe in, through, and for Jesus Christ. Revelation is made possible because Jesus Christ unveils the mystery of God. Eschatology is the study of the last things, including the appearance of all humanity before the judgment seat of Christ and the consummation of all of God’s purposes by Christ. Jesus Christ is the bearer of the Holy Spirit, and the church is the community commissioned by Jesus to witness and represent him before the world. Other examples could be offered, but this suffices to demonstrate the centrality of Christ in evangelical theology.

Care must be taken, therefore, to avoid two extreme and opposite errors. First, the supremacy and glory of Christ is diminished by liberal theology which attempts to accommodate theology to the pluralistic Zeitgeist of the day. Second, the conservative danger is to venerate Scripture above Christ. Scripture, while the inspired and infallible authoritative testimony to Christ, cannot overshadow the centrality of Jesus Christ. Thus, the inadequate Christocentric nature of either liberal or (some) conservative theology can be combated by focusing on what the gospel itself makes central: the person and achievement of Jesus Christ, crucified and risen, Son of Man and Son of God.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss the danger of isolating the study of the person and/or work of Christ in

isolation from the wider narrative of Scripture. Have students discuss whether they have observed the extreme conservative error of allowing

Scripture to eclipse the person of Christ.

Suggested Essay Questions “If anything in theology does not lead to Christ, it is not worthy of the name ‘Christian theo-

logy.’” Discuss.4.2 – Christological Method

Key TermsChristology from Below; Christology from Above; historical Jesus; Synoptic Gospels; New Quest;

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Jesus Seminar; Q; Gospel of Thomas; Third Quest; Ebionism; Docetism; Adolf von Harnack; Albert Schweitzer; Ernst Käsemann; Wolfhart Pannenberg; Martin Hengel

Key Points “Christology from below” begins with the historical Jesus and favors the Synoptic Gospels “Christology from above” begins with the church’s confession of Jesus and favors the Gospel of

John The best christological method is neither from “above” nor from “below,” but integrates both

into a holistic way of analyzing the history of Jesus and what the believing community con-fesses about him

Chapter SummaryThe method of undertaking Christology is heavily disputed. Issues include whether one starts

with the person or the work of Christ, the Gospels or the epistles, a developed Nicene Christology or a focus on the historical Jesus, a titular approach or one that focuses on his miracles and teachings. The debate is often posed in terms of whether one employs a “Christology from Below” or “Christology from Above.”

The various quests for the “historical Jesus” are examples of the Christology from Below approach. They were attempts to peer behind ecclesiastical dogma and church tradition that had supposedly accreted over the true, historical Jesus. Adolf von Harnack, for example, removed all eschatological and apocalyptic elements from Jesus’ proclamation and summarized his teaching as being concerned with the love of God and the brotherhood of man. However, this first quest of the early 20th century was exposed early on by scholars like Albert Schweitzer and George Tyrrell as an attempt to domesticate Jesus. Though the first quest largely failed, questions and issues that would occupy scholars for the next century were set in place.

The aftermath of this failed quest saw some scholars retreat from the historical task, some even declaring the endeavor as illegitimate. For Rudolf Bultmann, the quest was methodologically impossible since it was believed that the Evangelists were only concerned with the Christ of faith rather than the Jesus of history. For Karl Barth, a search for the historical Jesus compromised the supremacy of God’s revelation by requiring faith to be anchored in historical evidence.

Ernst Käsemann provided the impetus for the New Quest in the mid-20th century, by arguing that the Easter event did not eradicate the continuity between history and theology for the early church. This contention led to a new wave of research, using new form-critical tools. However, the skepticism concerning the authenticity of gospel traditions persisted, meaning that the quest did not significantly advance scholarly understanding of Jesus. Even the relative revival brought about by the Jesus Seminar, who sought to consider a wider range of sources as legitimate for the study of Jesus (including Q and the Gospel of Thomas) did not alter the state of things.

The Third Quest, advanced by scholars such as Ben F. Myers and E. P. Sanders in the late 70s and early 80s, sought to situate Jesus in his proper first-century Judaic context and set his proclamation against Jewish eschatological hopes. This renewed appreciation for the sources surrounding Jesus and his historical context, coupled with new insights from archaeology, philology, and sociology led to a more fruitful quest.

Christology from Below is perhaps best articulated by Wolfhart Pannenberg whose approach enables theologians to critically distinguish between essential content and secondary features added by the early church. This approach analyzes how the historical Jesus impacted the origins and shape of the early church, and then traces the development of the church’s doctrine from the early centuries into the contemporary period. One great advantage of Christology from Below, when undertaken from a standpoint of faith, is that it takes seriously the notion of God’s revelation in history, the historicity of Jesus, and the resurrection as a historical event. The perennial problem for this approach, however, is

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that the historical Jesus constructed will purely be a scholarly construct rather than an article of faith. Moreover, the risk is that the historical Jesus mined from the variety of sources will be more authentic and thus more “canonical” than the Christ of the church’s confession. Though the historical Jesus is important, as indeed Christians affirm the historicity of the one whom they follow, it cannot exhaust the riches of the risen and exalted Lord.

Christology from Above, in contrast, begins not with a purported Jesus of history but with the church’s declaration of Jesus’ identity. As noted earlier, Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann espoused this methodology. A number of factors seem to favor this approach. First, the Fourth Gospel begins with an affirmation of Jesus’ pre-existence and moves on to his redemptive mission. Second, the Nicene Creed’s formulation of Christ’s identity sidelines the historical question in favor of affirming “one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father.” Several problems, however, arise as well. The nature of the Gospels tells against a purely high Christological approach, since they are genuinely concerned with matters of history (Luke 1:1-4; John 20:31). Moreover, the problem facing Christology from Above is the distinction between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith, a dichotomy which this approach perpetuates. Finally, it may also be noted that Christology from Above potentially bypasses redemptive history and thus severs the link between Jesus’ message of the kingdom and the church’s message of the cross. This leads to the popular level theology where God’s relationship and dealings with Israel are irrelevant to the individual relationship with Christ.

In agreement with Martin Hengel, however, one is not forced to choose between these approaches when pressed. The dichotomy is eliminated when remembering, first, the narrative unity between Jesus of Nazareth and the risen Lord, and second, the early church’s identification of Jesus with the God of Israel. The gospel itself, moreover, cannot be categorized simply into either approach, since it presupposes the action of a mediator who acts between heaven and earth in order to achieve God’s purposes. Note, for example, how Matthew’s presentation of Jesus as “Immanuel” (Matt 1:22) and John’s identification of Jesus as “Lord and God” (John 20:28) occur in the context of the historical mission of Israel’s redemption. Hence, Christology is not from-top down or bottom-up, but rather from behind, below, above, and before, as the theologian considers the Old Testament’s witness to Christ, the historical questions, the church’s proclamation, and the confession’s affirmations.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss the implications of determining a key event in the gospel (e.g., resurrec-

tion) as inauthentic and unhistorical. Ask students which Gospel they prefer and why. Discuss whether this reflects their Christolo-

gical method.

Suggested Essay Questions Analyze the contributions of the quests for the historical Jesus. What are the limitations of Christology from Below? Does Christology from Above necessitate a rift between the “historical Jesus” and the “Christ of

faith”? Why/why not? Evaluate Karl Barth’s contention that historical study of Jesus diminishes the importance of

faith and trust in God’s revelation.

4.3 – The Life of Jesus

Key TermsC. H. Dodd; prophecy typology; Christophany; allegory; prospective Christology; retrospective Christology; Christotelic; triplex munus Christi/threefold office of Christ; virgin birth/conception; mamzer; Theotokos; Christotokos; incarnation; restoration of Israel; Nazareth Manifesto; Sermon on

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the Mount/Plain; Pharisees; Herodians

Key Points The Old Testament points to Jesus prophetically, typologically, Christophanically, and even al-

legorically The primary contribution of the Old Testament to Christology is to intimate the nature of

Christ’s threefold office The virgin conception demonstrates that Jesus is the special Son of God, the seed of Abraham,

descended from David, with a historical mission to the lost sheep of the house of Israel The unity between Jesus’ kingdom message and his vicarious death is his messianic vocation to

inaugurate the new exodus for the salvation of God’s people

Chapter SummaryEvangelical theology generally does not give a prominent place to the life of Jesus. The

emphasis usually falls on the death and resurrection, with only a mention of Jesus’ sinless birth. However, this lacuna is not unique to contemporary evangelical theology, as it can be also noted in Christian confessions as ancient as the Apostles’ Creed and as recent as the Lausanne Covenant. The importance of studying the life of Jesus can be demonstrated by considering the fact that the New Testament canon begins with four books called “Gospels,” by noting the mention of Jesus’ life in apostolic preaching (e.g., Acts 10:34-43), and by realizing that the Apostolic Fathers and apologists quoted more often from the Gospels than any other book. Study of the life of Jesus can be divided into three areas: Jesus and the Old Testament, the birth of Jesus, and the ministry of Jesus.

Basic to the gospel message is the affirmation that the events surrounding Jesus of Nazareth occurred “according to the Scriptures.” This is both explicitly stated in apostolic preaching and implicitly affirmed in the Gospels’ employment of Old Testament quotes and imagery. Though a myriad of related issues may be discussed, four manners in which Christ is presented in the Old Testament may be presented. First, the Old Testament testifies to Christ prophetically. In other words, the Old Testament explicitly foretells the coming of Christ. While not every prophecy is messianic, clear examples of messianic prophecy include the promise of the seed of Eve (Gen 3:15), the seed of Abraham (Gen 15:3-4), the ruler from the tribe of Judah (Gen 49:10), the future prophet (Deut 18:5), the new Davidic leader (2 Sam 7:11-14), and the Suffering Servant (Isa 52-53). Second, the Old Testament is a typological witness to Christ. Persons and events in the Old Testament set a prototype or pattern for future persons and events. Jesus’ own life and work rehearse several patterns from the Old Testament, such as recapitulating the role of Adam (e.g., Rom 5:12-21) and the role of Israel as the Son of God called out from Egypt (Matt 2:15). Third, Jesus can be found in the Old Testament in the various Christophanies (pre-incarnate appearances). Examples include the “angels of the LORD” (e.g., Gen 16:7-13; Exod 3:2-6; Judg 2:1), who speaks with immediate divine authority. The belief in the pre-existence of Jesus and his presence in creation and the history of Israel can be traced back to the New Testament authors (1 Cor 8:4-6; Phil 2:6-8; Col 1:1-17; Heb 1:1-3). Fourth, the Old Testament allegorically points forward to Christ. While allegory is often reviled by exegetes due to abuse, it can be a legitimate vehicle of interpretation when tempered by a proper hermeneutic. When framed within the redemptive-historical storyline, allegory allows a canonical imagination that identifies Christ in new places and enabled creative outlets for expressing Christ’s rehearsal, recapitulation, and interpretation of the Old Testament. What must be remembered, however, is that much of the Old Testament material is retrospectively Christological, meaning that Christ can only be detected in its pages from the vantage point of New Testament faith. What is crucial here is not exegesis but illumination (Luke 24:45; John 3:5-10; 14:6; 2 Cor 3:12-18). When viewed through the hermeneutical lens of the New Testament, it is clear that the story of Jesus completes the story of Israel. Thus, perhaps the chief contribution of the Old Testament toward Christology is the intimation of Christ’s threefold

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office of prophet, priest, and king, a framework which enables expression of how Christ fulfils the Old Testament.

The birth of Jesus is a key part of Matthew and Luke’s narrative and it is enshrined in early creeds and confessions. However, its historicity and significance have been debated. First, the biblical testimony must be set in order. Outside of the explicit reference to it in Matthew and Luke’s infancy narratives, implicit references to Jesus’ special or enigmatic birth may be found. Paul makes a reference to Jesus’ being “born of a woman” (Gal 4:4), which may echo the tradition of Jesus’ birth. Moreover, in Mark 6:3 Jesus is called “Mary’s son,” which may reflect the attitudes toward his unknown paternal origins. The notion that Jesus was illegitimate was a well-known Jewish polemic and this accusation presupposes suspicious or unusual circumstances surrounding his birth. Despite their differences in detail, Matthew and Luke both testify to several key facts, including the miraculous conception of Jesus by the Holy Spirit, Jesus’ Davidic descent through Joseph, and the divine bestowing of his name.

Objections to the historicity of the virgin birth may be answered as follows. First, to the accusation that the virgin birth is fabricated based on an illegitimate reading of Isaiah 7:14, one may say that early Christian theology did not use Old Testament material to create traditions but used material to interpret existing traditions. Moreover, the discrepancy in the historical referent (since the original prophecy referred to a child born in the time of Isaiah) can be offset by noting that an exact correspondence is not required. For Matthew, the birth of the child in Isaiah 7 prefigures and sets a pattern that is fulfilled by the birth of Jesus. Second, to the charge that the virgin birth is based on ancient pagan myths of divine conceptions, one may counter with the fact that parallel does not mean dependence. The Christian story of Jesus’ birth is clearly set in a Jewish context and exhibits thoroughly Jewish features. Third, the absence of explicit references to the virgin birth in other New Testament writings does in no way negate the historicity of the event.

The significance of the virgin birth may summarily be stated as follows. First, it demonstrates the humanity of Jesus. He is not simply a man who was later honored with divine status, nor a divine figure disconnected from the history and hopes of Israel. The infancy story is inseparably linked with God’s mission to save the world through Israel. Second, the virgin birth is a foretaste of the new creation; God’s new world, long promised in the Scriptures, was at last becoming a reality. Third, the political overtones of the virgin birth (set as it is in the context of Herod’s reign), especially in Revelation 12, demonstrate that the virgin birth is the beginning of the overturning of tyranny and oppression.

The ministry of Jesus cannot be ignored or sidelined in Christology, since it is an indispensable act in the drama of redemption. Key events such as Jesus’ baptism, his choosing of the twelve disciples, preaching and ministry to the crowds, and parables all announced and effected the coming of God’s kingdom. His key message was that Israel should understand the nature of its own restoration and avoid the coming judgment. The life of Jesus has a threefold contribution to theology. First, Jesus himself is the primary theologian of the early church. Key questions such as “Who is God?” and “What does he require of his people?” must have the teachings of Jesus as part of their answer. All later theologizing by the early church used the buildings blocks set in place by Jesus himself. Second, Israel’s hopes and the church’s faith are linked together by the life and ministry of Jesus. Salvation can never be abstracted from the redemptive story of Israel which finds its fulfilment in Jesus. Third, studying the life of Jesus precludes any notion of a docetic Jesus, whether explicit Docetism or a moderate one which denies that Jesus addressed earthly issues. Jesus, as fully human in a historical context, addressed real-life issues and experienced all the aspects of humanity’s existence.

In light of the above, then, it is clear that the life of Jesus is of the utmost theological significance. The fact that God took on human flesh at a particular juncture of human history with a particular mission affects every area of theology.

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Pedagogical Suggestions Read Luke 1:46-55, 66-79, and 2:29-32 to the class. Have students discuss the significance and point of the Sermon on the Mount.

Suggested Essay Questions In what ways is the Old Testament prospectively and retrospectively Christological? Why was it necessary for Jesus to be born of a virgin? What is the link between Jesus’ message of the kingdom and his crucifixion? What is the significance of the life of Jesus for theology?

4.4 – The Death of Jesus

Key Termscrucicentric; cruciformity; recapitulation; ransom; Christus Victor; satisfaction; moral influence; exemplary; government; penal substitution; hilastērion; expiation; propitiation; limited atonement; universal atonement; TULIP; Amyraldian; Moyse Amyraut; Peter Abelard; Anselm; Hugo Grotius

Key Points

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The primary models for the atonement are: recapitulation, ransom, Christus Victor, satisfaction, moral influence, exemplary, governmental, and penal substitution

Christus Victor is arguable the central image of the atonement, the model which can integrate the cross and victory, sin and salvation, subjective and objective, and individual and cosmic ele-ments

The three views for the extent of the atonement are: limited (particular), universal, and Amyral-dian

The Amyraldian view of the extent of the atonement best accounts for the particularistic and universal aspects of the atonement

Chapter SummaryFor good reasons, the evangelical gospel is crucicentric. Jesus himself saw his death as the

means of inaugurating God’s kingdom (e.g., Mark 9:1; 14:22-25), and the preaching of early Christian emphasized the cross as a key article of faith, determinative for salvation, and part of God’s plan for renewal (Acts 3:18-21; 13:24-30; Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:3-5; 2 Cor 5:15; 1 Thess 4:14). Consequently, centuries of theologians have pondered, interpreted, and expounded the significance of the death of Jesus. From the early Epistle to Diognetus, which very much reflects a Pauline emphasis on the cross, to the centrality of the cross in Reformation theology, or the revival in cross-centered theology in Neoorthodox circles, the death of Jesus has occupied a prime place in theology. Modern evangelicalism itself, moreover, has seen the publication of several significant works detailing the importance of a crucicentric theology. This emphasis has been consistent through the centuries of Christian theology and is necessitated by the significance of the cross in the Christian story. At the cross, God deals with the problem of sin, Satan, and humanity’s separation from him. “Atonement” is the word traditionally used to described this redemptive action, yet various models have been proposed in order to express what exactly the cross achieved.

An early model that gained influenced was “recapitulation.” This model identified the story of Christ as a rehearsal of the roles of Adam and Israel in the scriptural narrative. Where Adam and Israel were disobedient, Jesus Christ was successfully and perfectly obedient to God (e.g., Matt 4:1-11). The identification of Jesus as the new Adam (Rom 5:12-21; 1 Cor 15:45-49) and new Israel (Matt 2:15) lends credence to this model. However, while the recapitulation model neatly demonstrates how the story of the cross fits into the narrative of Adam and Israel, its weakness is ambiguity toward the necessity of the cross as the means of reversing the disobedience of Adam and Israel.

Another model popular in the early church was the “ransom” theory. References to Jesus’ death and blood as possessing redemptive significance (e.g., Mark 10:45; Rom 3:24; 8:23; Gal 3:13-14; 1 Cor 1:30; etc.) were combined with an innovative proposal that Satan had dominion and ownership of the human race. Consequently, Jesus’ death is a ransom paid to Satan that frees humanity from his grip and relinquishes him of ownership. Origen was the first clear advocate of this model and he was followed by Gregory of Nyssa and Augustine. While it is a noble attempt to integrate the ransom imagery of Scripture with Christ’s victory over the devil, two problems still beset this model. First, it is not clear in Scripture that Satan had ownership over humanity after the Fall. While the power and persuasion of the devil over humanity is affirmed, nowhere is explicit ownership stated. Second, as traditionally presented, the ransom model involves God deceiving Satan into accepting the humanity of Jesus as a sacrifice without being aware that the Son’s divine nature would defeat him.

The “Christus Victor” model emphasizes the cosmic and universal significance of Jesus’ death. Jesus’ death is seen as a victory over death, the devil, and evil, as Christ subdues evil and oppressive cosmic powers. Support for this view is found in both the Gospels and epistles. The Gospels portray the Son of God as locked in combat with the Satan from the very beginning (Matt 4:1-11; Luke 4:1-13). In his ministry, Jesus announces the downfall of Satan (Matt 12:29; Mark 3:27; Luke 10:18), an initial victory which is culminated and actualized in the battle at Golgotha (John 12:31). In the epistles, Paul

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accentuates the cross’ achievement as a cosmic victory (Gal 1:5; 1 Cor 15:54-57; Col 2:13-15). This same perspective is found in the Catholic Epistles and Revelation (Heb 2:14-15; 1 John 3:8; Rev 12:10-11). While this view makes excellent use of Scripture’s own theological emphases, a further explanation is required to explain precisely how this victory is achieved and how it alters the fallen state of humanity. Hence, the Christus Victor model cannot stand alone.

The shortcomings of the ransom view were recognized by Anselm of Canterbury who proposed a “satisfaction” theory as an alternative. In this model, the ransom is paid not to the devil but to God, since all humanity owes God honor—honor which they have failed to bestow. Jesus, then, doesn’t sustain humanity’s punishment but satisfies God with the honor they have failed to give. While this model attempts to conceptualize Scripture’s notion of the cross as the satisfaction of a standard, it ultimately flounders because it is indebted to the medieval feudal system in which Anselm operated. Moreover, it fails to explain why God’s character required such a form of atonement or how exactly believers benefit once satisfaction has been rendered.

While the majority of models proposed for the atonement are concerned to express how humanity’s objective state before God is altered, some have sought to propose models which, in contrast, describe the change in humanity’s subjective state. The “moral influence” view, for example, sees the cross as a demonstration of divine love which kindles a loving response in humanity. When the love of God is beheld in the cross, humanity is inspired to love in return. Several problems beset this view. First, it is impossible to reduce the atonement to a change in humanity’s disposition, as this would mean completely ignoring the need for God to deal with humanity’s sin and evil. Second, the cross of Christ reveals not only God’s love (John 15:13; Rom 5:8) but also his justice (Rom 3:25-26; Rev 16:7), and these concepts are not mutually exclusive. Third, it is hard to imagine how a suicidal martyr demonstrates the concept of love in any meaningful sense.

A more biblical subjective view of the atonement is the “exemplary” model. It is undeniable that one aspect of the atonement is to provide an example for believers to follow. One purpose of the atonement is transformative (Rom 6:6-7; Titus 2:14) and this aspect is reflected in the indicative-imperative approach to biblical ethics. Moreover, Jesus’ example at the cross is to be emulated in fellowship (Phil 2:5), endurance (Heb 12:3-4) and marriage (Eph 5:25-26). Abuse of this model in the ancient church was exemplified by Pelagius, who reduce the meaning of the atonement simply to an exemplary one. Adam was a bad role model and so Christ came to provide a better one. Thus, the exemplary view must be coupled with a model which takes seriously the impact of Adam’s sin on humanity’s state.

A response to the moral influence view was made by the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius, who proposed a “governmental” model. While humanity did indeed deserve punishment, this punishment was meted out on Christ as a public display of justice and deterrent toward sin. However, the punishment received by Christ is not correspondent with humanity’s offence. Thus, the governmental view is not entirely penal or substitutionary, but it is rather concerned with a general, public display of God’s displeasure against sin. The most devastating criticism of this model is that if humanity’s sin is not actually paid for, one can hardly speak of a proper atonement.

The model favored by evangelicals is “penal substitution,” and this view expresses the atonement in terms of a propitiation of God’s wrath against sin (penal) and as Jesus’ standing in our place (substitution). Scriptural support for this view is abundant. The sacrificial system of Leviticus, for example, prefigures the vicarious and substitutionary nature of Jesus’ death (Lev 4:15; 16:21). Moreover, Jesus’ death is explicitly described in imagery reminiscent of Old Testament sacrifices (e.g., Matt 26:28; Rom 3:25; Eph 2:13; Heb 9:14; 1 Pet 1:2, 9; 1 John 5:6; Rev 1:7). The Suffering Servant (Isa 52-53) had enormous influence on the development and expression of the significant of Jesus’ death. This is evident in the Gospels (e.g., Mark 14:24) and in the epistles (e.g., 1 Pet 2:22-25). Three texts from the epistles, furthermore, establish the validity of this model beyond a doubt. First, Romans 8:3 clearly expresses the death of Jesus as being for sin. Second, Galatians 3:13 testifies to the purpose

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of the crucifixion being for the removal of sin’s curse. Third, 1 Pet 2:24 explicitly references the substitutionary nature of Jesus’ death.

A bitter division continues over the precise mechanics of the atonement. Focusing on the rare word hilatērion in Romans 3:25, commentators argued whether “expiation” (the removal of sin) or “propitiation” (the appeasement of wrath) is intended. It is clear, however, that these ideas are not mutually contradictory and can easily be integrated; when sin is expiated, God’s wrath is propitiated.

Two objections may be leveled at this model. First, it has sometimes been asserted that the penal substitution model is not significant because it appeared only late in the theological expression of the church. This is demonstrably false, however, as both the New Testament texts and the Apostolic Fathers demonstrate. Second, this view can lead to the abstraction of the atonement from the Scriptural storyline and thus the danger is of a de-historicized system of salvation. This danger is offset, however, when penal substitution is located within a comprehensive biblical theology and in integration with other models of the atonement.

Identifying a center for the atonement is difficult, since most of the proposed models garner scriptural support and find adherents throughout church history. Several considerations, however, lead to the tentative conclusion that Christus Victor is the central model which adequately integrates the multivalent aspects of the atonement. First, the shape of the canon itself points to the victory of Christ over evil as the central achievement of the cross in the purposes of God (Gen 3:15; Rev 12:11). Second, the overwhelming popularity of this view in church history deserves serious consideration. Third, Christus Victor provides a way of uniting the themes of the kingdom of God and the cross of Christ. As in Isaiah, the reign of God and its accompanying salvation is brought about by the suffering of the Servant (Isa 52-53; cf. Pss 20-22). The Christus Victor model rightly expresses the victory of God in the suffering, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Fourth, Paul himself, though concerned with the centrality of the cross, climaxes two of the greatest chapters in Scripture with references to the victory of God in Christ (Rom 8:35-39; 1 Cor 15:54-58).

One final contended issue regarding Jesus’ death is the extent of the atonement. Expressed simply, the question is whether Jesus’ death is efficacious for all people or if it was intended for the elect only. The “limited atonement” view, which presents Jesus’ death as intended and efficacious only for God’s elect, is a consistent outworking of the doctrine of predestination and attempts to do justice to the genuine efficacy of Christ’s death. Scriptural support is sought in various references which may imply a limited design (e.g., Matt 1:21; Mark 10:45; John 17:9; Eph 5:25). However, this view does not adequately account for the universality of God’s love and forces an unnatural interpretation upon the respective texts. Conversely, the “universal atonement” view intends to emphasize the universality of God’s intent to save and the availability of salvation, but is beset by a weakening of the divine purpose and potentially leads to universalism. A solution may be found in the Amyraldian view, which integrates the universality of the atonement with the particularity of God’s purposes. In this view, the death of Jesus is efficient for the salvation of the elect, but remains sufficient for the whole world; it is purposed for the salvation of the elect but it creates the possibility of the salvation of everyone.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have the class sing Isaac Watts’ “When I Survey the Wondrous Cross.” Ask students what the cross signifies for them and how they understand its achievement.

Suggested Essay Questions Examine the “recapitulation” model of the atonement and discuss its strengths and shortcom-

ings. What is the significance of the “exemplary” model of the atonement?

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Analyze the “Christus Victor” model of the atonement and evaluate its potential to integrate victory and cross, objective and subjective, cosmic and individual elements.

Evaluate the three views on the extent of the atonement.

4.5 – The Resurrection of Jesus

Key Termsresurrection; new creation; anastasity

Key Points The resurrection of Jesus rests on a bedrock of historical evidence The resurrection of Jesus is indelibly connected to the cross and marks the beginning of the new

age bursting into our current world

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Chapter SummaryIn light of the crucicentric nature of evangelicalism, the resurrection has often been reduced to a

confirmation of the redemptive power of the cross and a powerful demonstration of life after death. While the resurrection certainly is all of these things, the gospel is impoverished if the true significance of the resurrection is not expounded. It must be remembered, moreover, that cross and resurrection are ultimately indivisible. Without the resurrection, the cross is simply martyrdom, a tragic end to a great career. Without the cross, the resurrection is an incomprehensible mystery and intrusion in the natural order of things. Together, however, they are the turning point in God’s plan to redeem and restore the world.

Prior to engaging in an exposition of the significance of the resurrection, it is necessary to comment on the historicity and reality of Jesus’ bodily resurrection, since it is frequently contested or reinterpreted. Several historical facts establish the probability of the resurrection over against any reasonable doubt or alternative hypothesis. First, Jesus was buried by Joseph of Arimathea (Matt 27:57-61; Mark 15:42-47; Luke 23:50-55; John 19:38-42), a sympathetic member of the Sanhedrin. Early and varied attestation to this fact preclude the notion that this is an invention, as is the added difficulty of presenting a member of the Jewish opposition acting generously towards the early Christians. Second, Jesus’ tomb was found empty. That the tomb was found empty is a common element in all four Gospel accounts (Matt 28:1-8; Mark 16:1-8; Luke 24:1-10; John 20:1-2). Adding to the veracity of this claim is the fact that the earliest witnesses were women, whose legal testimony was almost dismissible, and the presupposition of the empty tomb in early Jewish polemic against the resurrection (cf. Matt 28:13). Third, Jesus was seen alive after his death. Paul reports that both individuals and groups had seen Jesus, including followers, skeptics, unbelievers, and enemies (1 Cor 5:3-8). The nature of the resurrection appearances rules out illusion or hallucination as an explanation and points to a real, physical appearance of the risen Jesus. Fourth, the Christian movement grew explosively and extended widely. This massive growth is best explained by the resurrection of Jesus as the cause for the origin and shape of the Christian movement.

With regard to the significance of the resurrection, five aspects may be delineated. First, the resurrection is a revelation, confirmation, and vindication of Jesus’ identity and it marks the beginning of the future age. Jewish eschatology held to a resurrection of the dead at the final day (Dan 12:1-2; cf. John 11:24), but in the resurrection of Jesus, that day is brought forward into the present as a foretaste of what is to come. Further, the resurrection authenticates Jesus as the one with all authority (Matt 28:18), vindicates him from false accusations (1 Tim 3:16), marks him out as God’s Son (Rom 1:4), designates him as heir of all things (Heb 1:2), and installs him as Messiah and Lord (Acts 2:36).

Second, the resurrection constitutes the inauguration of the new creation. The raising of Jesus Christ certifies the restoration of all creation in the future. The story that God has created a good world, that this world has gone bad and that God intends to renew it through a cosmic resurrection finds its turning point in the resurrection of Jesus (Rom 8:18-22). The presence of the new creation is demonstrated in the deposit of the Holy Spirit (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15; Col 3:10), who transforms God’s people into the new humanity who will reign in the new creation. This aspect enables a Christian ecological ethic, since it is in taking care of the planet that humans demonstrate their stewardship as custodians of creation (Gen 1:28) and prove their worth as the tenants of the new creation.

Third, the resurrection is the objective ground of salvation, not simply the proof for the redemptive value of the cross. Believers are saved in and through the resurrection of Jesus (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:17). This soteriological dimension complements the affirmation that it is the cross of Christ that provides justification and forgiveness (Rom 3:24-25; 5:9; Eph 1:7). At the cross, God executes a verdict of condemnation against sin, while the resurrection displays his verdict of justification and acquittal. As representative acts, the cross and resurrection constitute the Messiah undergoing condemnation and justification on behalf of his people, and it is by union with Christ that believers acquire the benefits of justification and new life. This perspective also finds support in 1 Peter (1 Pet

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1:3; 3:21). Moreover, resurrection is an indicator of the Trinitarian nature of salvation. The Father sends the Son to the cross, who is then raised from the dead by the Father through the Spirit. The Spirit, in turn, is dispensed by the Son to believers.

Fourth, the resurrection is an integral part of discipleship. Discipleship entails what may be termed “anastasity,” or an experience of the power of the resurrection in the Christian life. While the cross indeed sets a paradigm for discipleship (Mark 8:34; Phil 2:5-11), the resurrection also provides the pattern and the power for Christian living. The power of the resurrection is experienced in the spiritual renewal which has already occurred in the Christian (Rom 6:4; Eph 2:4-5; 2 Cor 4:16), and the challenge is to live a life which radiates this new life. Moreover, the resurrection provides hope (Rom 8:24-25), enables the adoption of a kingdom perspective (Col 3:1-2), and constitutes the goal of Christian discipleship (Phil 3:10-12).

Fifth, inspiration for kingdom ministry is derived from the resurrection. As “children of the resurrection” (Luke 20:36), Christians demonstrate the suitability of this name when reflecting the life-giving power of the resurrection in commitment to those around them. Significantly, the resurrection intimates the continuity between effort in the present age and the consummation in the age to come. The ultimate application of the resurrection is practical: commitment to Christian service in the present knowing that one’s labour is not in vain (1 Cor 15:58). In light of the preceding elements, it is evident that if theology is to be gospel-driven, the resurrection should permeate and transform every aspect of Christian thought.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss whether the cross or the resurrection is more central to salvation Have students compose a poem or song describing the benefits of the resurrection of Jesus

Suggested Essay Questions Defend the historicity and reality of the resurrection. What is the necessity of the resurrection for salvation? Discuss the implications of the resurrection in constructing a Christian ecological ethic. What is the connection between resurrection and discipleship?

4.6 – The Ascension and Session of Jesus

Key Termsascension; session; intercession; Farewell Discourse; Melchizedek; parousia

Key Points The ascension marks the enthronement of Jesus and the beginning of his heavenly session

Chapter SummaryThe ascension has been neglected to a greater extent in evangelicalism than the resurrection,

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even though it is a crucial aspect of the work of Christ. It is arguably the real fulfilment of the psalms looking forward to the enthronement of God (e.g, Pss 24; 47; 68; 110) and it finds expression both in creeds found in the New Testament (1 Tim 3:16) and in the later confessions of the church. The ascension is recorded in two portions of Scripture (Luke 24:49-53; Acts 1:9-11), even if mystery surrounds the precise nature of the occurrence. It is safe to say that the point of the ascension story is not to demonstrate Jesus flying up to heaven. Rather, through a mixture of marvel, metaphor, and mystery, the ascension narrates the exaltation and enthronement of Jesus in such a way that it was clear to the onlookers that he had been taken up into heaven where God is. There is a sevenfold significance to the ascension and session of Jesus Christ.

First, Jesus’ ascension to heaven enables the sending of the Holy Spirit. In Jesus’ “Farewell Discourse” in John, there is a strong emphasis on Jesus’ departure which enables the coming of the Spirit (John 14:16-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7). This perspective emerges in Luke-Acts also (Luke 9:51; Acts 1:2), and the empowering nature of the Holy Spirit for the apostles’ ministry is also emphasized (Luke 12:12; 24:49; Acts 1:8). In Peter’s Pentecost speech, the giving of the Spirit is equated with the promised outpouring of the Spirit in Joel (Acts 2:17; cf. Joel 2:28) and proof of the dawning of the “last days.” Christology, eschatology, and pneumatology merged together in the ascension.

Second, the ascension leads to a worship of Jesus and a witness to him. The beginning of Trinitarian worship is seen as the disciples worship the Lord Jesus and God the Father in the Spirit after the ascension. The nature of the ascension demonstrates that Jesus was not simply assumed to heaven like Enoch or Elijah, but that he had been bestowed with divine authority and enthroned beside God. This explains the subsequent worship of Jesus (Luke 24:52) and the miracles done in his name (Acts 2:38; 3:6, 16; 4:18, 30; 5:40; 8:12, 16). In Luke’s Gospel, moreover, the ascension narrates how the disciples had become witnesses and were empowered to testify to Jesus Christ (Luke 24:46-48).

Third, Jesus’ ascension means that he is exalted to God’s right hand and invested with divine authority. The ascension is the fulfilment of Psalm 110, the most frequently cited portion of Scripture in the New Testament. Judaism interpreted Psalm 110 in two ways, either envisaging a figure which combines priestly and royal roles or expecting an eschatological deliverer (Isa 52; Dan 7; 1 Enoch). Both senses appear in the teaching of Jesus (Matt 22:44-45; 26:64). In early Christian usage, Psalm 110 was used to demonstrate the exaltation of Jesus to a state of lordship (Acts 2:34-36; 1 Cor 15:25; Heb 1:3).

Fourth, the ascension demonstrates that God has placed a human being as vice-regent of the universe. Humanity’s mandate in Genesis 1:28 is to rule over creation, a task picked up in Psalm 8. However, due to the Fall, this task was compromised. The enthronement of Jesus at God’s right hand constitutes the restoration of humanity’s mandate, since Jesus retains his glorified human body in his exalted state.

Fifth, the ascension represents humanity’s proleptic share in the reign of Christ. Scripture attests to the democratization of the idea of a messianic rule. In Daniel 7, the enthronement of the “Son of Man” entails the saints receiving a kingdom forever and ever (Dan 7:13-14, 18). Moreover, in the teaching of Jesus, the disciples were promised a place of authority and rule over Israel (Matt 19:28) and this theme of reigning with Christ finds its development in the epistles and Revelation (2 Tim 2:12; Rev 2:26-27; 3:21; 5:10; 20:6; 22:5). The ascension of Jesus, however, means that already God’s people are raised up with Christ and seated in the heavenly realms (Eph 2:6; cf. Col 3:1). This reign is not consummated, however, and thus a triumphalistic attitude should not be cultivated, but rather humility and godly desire to live up to the royal calling (cf. Col 3:2).

Sixth, Jesus’ ascension commences his heavenly session, where his work of intercession continues. While Jesus’ mediation between humanity and God is shown supremely in his atoning death, it is not limited to it. The risen Jesus continues to intercede for the saints and provide access to God (Rom 8:34; Heb 7:25). This constant intercession is the grounds of confidence and boldness in our access to God (Eph 3:12; Heb 10:19-23; 1 John 5:14).

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Finally, the ascension guarantees that Jesus will return in the same manner that he left. Following the ascension, the angels declared to the disciples, “This same Jesus, who has been taken from you into heaven, will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11). Not only will Jesus return in the same way, but it will be the same Jesus returning, which demonstrates continuity between Christ’s ascent and his return on the final day. Given the above elements, the significance of the ascension is evident, and the church would benefit from reincorporating a celebration of Ascension Day in its liturgical calendar.

Pedagogical Suggestions Begin the class by reading Psalm 110. Have the students discuss how Jesus’ present intercession affects their confidence before God in

prayer.

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate the interpretation of Psalm 110 in Jewish and early Christian texts. Discuss the implications of the ascension for the mandate of humanity to rule. In what ways are believers “raised with Christ and seated in the heavenly realms”? Analyze Jesus’ role as intercessor subsequent to the ascension.

4.7 – The Story of Jesus and the Identity of God

Key TermsNicene Creed; preexistence; Adam-Christology; kenotic Christology; “divine identity;” Arius; Arianism; Athanasius; Apollinarianism; Nestorianism; Monophysitism; Eutyches; Chalcedon; hypostatic union; homoousia; homoiousia

Key Points Jesus is part of the identity of God and is equal to God in authority, majesty, and substance Prior to his human existence, Jesus had a personal and conscious existence The humanity of Jesus was necessary for his redemptive task Hypostatic union means that Jesus combines two natures in one person

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Chapter SummaryThe notion that Jesus is a divine person, coequal with the Father in being from all eternity and

sharing in one divine substance—the position of Christian orthodoxy—is nowhere explicitly found in the gospel preaching of the New Testament. What is clear in the gospel, however, is that the very identify of God must be redefined in light of the mission of the messianic Son. The necessity of affirming Jesus’ deity is not drawn from the titles used to describe him, but from the climax of the gospel narrative itself. Christian exegesis and tradition testifies to the fact that Jesus Christ is fully God and fully human. The Fourth Gospel, for example, anchors the story of Jesus in the eternal existence of the Word (John 1:1) and describes the movement to his human existence (John 1:14). John’s theological perspective is not an innovation, but rather the culmination of the New Testament tradition of investing Jesus with divine attributes and even worship. The dual belief in Jesus’ humanity and deity carried over into the early second-century church and found its way into creedal statements such as the Nicene Creed.

Incarnation and redemption, moreover, are intrinsically linked both in the creedal affirmations and in Scripture. This is evident in the statement in the Nicene Creed, “For us and for our salvation, he came down from heaven” and the in the link between Jesus’ birth and salvation in Matthew 1:21. An awareness of the link between incarnation and redemption continued in the church fathers, as seen in the work of Irenaeus, for example. Redemption requires incarnation because the mediator must share the characteristics of both parties. This was the driving force between affirming both Jesus’ humanity and deity, and it continued through medieval theology and into the Reformation.

It is not theological speculation that incited inquiry into and expression of Jesus’ humanity and deity. Jesus’ relationship to the Father and his agency in creation and redemption must be explained because of two axioms of biblical Christology. First, there was an early identification of Jesus of Nazareth as the exalted Lord (e.g., Acts 2:36). Second, the exalted Jesus was identified as the Lord of Israel, as demonstrated by the ascription of Old Testament language reserved for Yahweh to Jesus (e.g., 1 Cor 8:6; Phil 2:5-11). Thus, the theological necessity of exploring Jesus’ nature, status, and relationship to the Father is evident. However, it remains a contested issue whether the incarnation must be explained in contemporary gospel proclamation. The reality is that the earliest Christians did not have the theological precision of later creeds, and the classic summaries of the gospel (Rom 1:3-4; 1 Cor 15:2-4; 2 Tim 2:8) are focused on Jesus’ messianic office rather than ontology. Thus, it could be argued that incarnation is the presupposition of the gospel but not its content, save when dealing with groups of people where the incarnation is specifically a contested issue (e.g., Muslims, Jehovah’s Witnesses).

Jesus’ preexistence is affirmed in confessional statements because it is believed to be present in biblical materials. Though doubted or denied by some theologians, an examination of the relevant biblical date undermines rejection of Christ’s preexistence. Philippians 2:6-11, widely regarded as a pre-Pauline hymn and thus part of the earliest data, intimates three states of Christ, including preexistence, humiliation, and exaltation. However, the full theological force of the passage is lessened by scholars who insist on identifying an “Adam-Christology,” or by theologians who posit a “kenotic Christology.” The parallels between Adam and Christ, however, are not convincing in this passage from Philippians. Moreover, the hymn is not about the emptying (kenōsis) of the Son’s divine properties, but of the fully divine Son lowering himself to a state of humiliation by adopting human form. Thus the straightforward reading of the passage, with its affirmation of Christ’s preexistence, is to be preferred. Colossians 1:15-20, furthermore, is also explicit in identifying Jesus’ preexistence, as it is based on a Christological reading of Genesis 1 and describes Jesus’ role in creation. The affirmation that Jesus is the “firstborn” does not indicate he is a created being or inferior to God, but rather points to Jesus’ primacy in rule, pre-eminence in role, and priority in rank. Numerous other texts could also be adduced to support the preexistence of Christ (e.g., 1 Cor 10:4, 9; 1 Pet 1:20; Jude 5). Thus, it is safe to

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conclude that Jesus had a personal and conscious preexistence as the Son of God. Two significant corollaries follow. First, as mentioned previously, incarnation and redemption are wed together; Jesus became a human being specifically to redeem his people. Second, the act of incarnation was a voluntary act of the Son.

That the very identity of “God” is to be redefined in light of the Son’s status and mission is evident from several strands in biblical material. First, the Gospels make clear that Jesus was a monotheist adhering to the standard Israelite confession, the Shema (Mark 12:29-30; cf. Deut 6:4-5). Yet, he exhibited an unmediated divine authority that led to controversy and questions (e.g., Mark 11:27-33). Jesus’ unique authority is evident in his teaching (Mark 1:22, 27), particularly in his reconfiguring of the divine commandments (Matt 5:21-22, 27-28, 33-34, 38-39, 43-44). The Johannine witness to Jesus culminates in the equation of Jesus and God (John 5:18; 10:30; 14:7-9). Second, the application of Old Testament texts to Jesus by the Evangelists and apostles demonstrate a redefinition of the concept of “God.” The life, death, resurrection, exaltation, and worship of Jesus redefine the identity and revelation of the God of Israel (e.g., Luke 1:76 = Mal 3:1; John 1:23 = Isa 40:3; I Cor 8:5-6 = Deut 6:4; Phil 2:9-11 = Isa 45:23; Heb 1:10-21 = Ps 102:25-27). This redefinition of identity can be expressed by the acronym HANDS. Jesus shares the honors (e.g., John 5:23), attributes (e.g., Heb 1:3), names (e.g., John 20:28), deeds (e.g., John 1:10), and seat (e.g., Eph 1:20-21) of God.

There is however, a sense of functional subordination of Jesus to God. While equal with God in authority and majesty, the Son willingly subordinates himself to the Father (1 Cor 15:28; cf. John 14:28). Some theologians of the early church emphasized this subordination to the point of distortion. The Ebionites, for example, identified Jesus as a human being who was adopted by God at either his baptism or resurrection.

The debate over the divinity and humanity of Jesus continued in the early church for centuries, culminating in the Arian controversy. Arius, an Alexandrian preacher, believed that while Jesus was preexistent, he was not eternal or coequal with the Father, and thus was a semidivine created being. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, was the most vocal opponent of Arianism. He recognized that the Arians divorced the person of God from the work of Christ, and thus developed a simple argument against Arius. If Jesus was indeed a creature, then it followed that he could not redeem humanity because he would be part of the created order in need of redemption. Moreover, it would then be idolatrous to worship him. By maintaining unity in the person of God and his actions in creation and redemption, Athanasius retained and defended orthodoxy.

It is equally important, however, to affirm the full humanity of Christ. Paul’s soteriology depends on the historical reality of Jesus as human being (Rom 5:15), as only a human being can bring God’s grace to fallen humanity. The controversies with those who denied the humanity of Jesus can be felt most acutely in the Johannine letters, where affirmation of Jesus’ coming in the flesh is a test of orthodoxy (e.g., 1 John 4:2). The significance of the humanity of Jesus can be summarized as follows. First, Jesus renders representative obedience to God, in contrast to Adam, as our federal head. As a human being, Jesus faithfully executes humanity’s role and undoes the transgression of Adam. Second, Jesus is the human substitute sacrifice. Jesus had to become a human being in order that God could “condemn sin in the flesh” (Rom 8:3). Third, Jesus is the mediator between God and humanity (1 Tim 2:5). He perfectly connects both parties as fully human and fully divine. Fourth, Jesus fulfils humanity’s original mandate to rule over creation. Jesus’ exaltation is the installment of Jesus in a place of authority and rule and he carries out this role as a human being (cf. Matt 28:18; Eph 1:22; Rev 3:21). Fifth, Jesus provides an example and pattern of human life. He is not only the means of salvation but also the paradigm for discipleship, particularly his faithfulness unto death, willingness to go the cross, life of prayer, compassion, and preparedness to suffer (cf. Phil 2:5; 1 John 2:6). Sixth, Jesus provides a pattern for humanity’s redeemed bodies. As the first fruits of the resurrection, Jesus demonstrates the reality and nature of the resurrection body and provides the certainty of hope (cf. Rom 8:11). Seventh, Jesus sympathizes with humanity as its faithful high priest. The great pastoral

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significant of Jesus’ humanity is that in Christ, God has experienced human life and suffering. This demonstrates that God is not distant or disinterested but intimately involved in the messy affairs of humanity.

Having established the full divinity and humanity of Christ, the early church was left with the question of expressing the interaction and coexistence of these two natures. Several stages in the theological expression of Jesus’ two natures can be delineated. The Council of Nicaea (325) affirmed the full divinity of Christ, against the Arians. The Council of Constantinople (381) affirmed the full humanity of Christ, against the Apollinarians who claimed that Jesus’ Logos, or divine nature, replaced his human soul and mind. The Council of Ephesus (431) affirmed that Christ was one person, against the Nestorians who divided Christ into two persons. The Council of Chalcedon (451) provided a statement on the union of Christ’s natures so as to affirm they are united “without confusion, without change, without division, or without separation.” The Chalcedonian definition combated Eutychians and Monophysites, who regarded Jesus as having only one hybrid nature. Finally, the council of Constantinople (680) affirmed the two wills of Christ against the Monothelites, who asserted that Jesus Christ only had one single will.

The orthodox position on the human and divine nature of Christ is called the hypostatic union, the affirmation that Jesus has two natures (ousia) in one person (hypostasis). The two natures are distinct but coinherent in the one person of Christ. The debates over Christ’s natures once again played out during the Reformation, with Lutheran theologians insisting on the communication of divine attributes to Jesus’ humanity, and Zwinglian theologians equally and adamantly insisting that Jesus’ humanity cannot bear the full weight of divine attributes.

As a final note, it is significant that Jesus’ humanity is permanent. He did not revert to the heavenly and incorporeal form as the preexistent Son of God. Jesus carries out the office of prophet, priest, and king as the God-man who continues to intercede and mediate for humanity.

Pedagogical Suggestions Read Philippians 2:5-11 and Colossians 1:15-20 to the class. Have students discuss whether the precise theological details of the incarnation should be a part

of the gospel message.

Suggested Essay Questions How does the person and work of Christ redefine the meaning of “God”? Does the New Testament teach an adoptionist Christology? Why is the humanity of Jesus necessary for redemption? Evaluate the precision and value of the Chalcedonian definition.

5.1 – Saved by the Gospel

Key Termssoteriology; salvation; judgment; distributive justice; saving justice; covenant

Key Points The gospel is a declaration that the salvation of God is revealed in Jesus Christ and received by

faith and repentance. Salvation in the Bible is holistic and includes deliverance from many things, including enemies,

physical danger, death, disability, demonic powers, illness, poverty, injustice, social exclusion, false accusation, shame, and, of course, sin and its consequences at the final judgment.

Chapter SummaryThe gospel’s good news can only be understood against the background of the bad news it

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presupposes. The story of the world is one of rebellion, disobedience, and defiance, with the tragic consequence that humanity as a whole, following Adam’s original mutiny, is separated from God and stands under his judgment. Yet this rebellion is manifested not simply as an inherited guilt that results from belonging to humanity’s representative, Adam (Rom 5:12-21), but it is manifested also in acts and attitudes which prove humankind’s family resemblance to Adam and his sin. Moral evil perpetrated against other human beings and the inherent idolatrous nature of humanity both avoid giving God his due worship (Rom 1:18-32).

Consequently, humanity has demonstrated its inhumanity—its degeneration from a glorious, image-bearing creation with a mandate to rule to a state which resembles the other irrational and impulsive beasts. Both Testaments testify profusely to the fundamentally corrupt nature of humanity following the Fall (e.g., Jer 17:9; Ezek 18:20; John 3:19; Rom 3:23) and their destiny to be judged under God’s righteous wrath (e.g., Heb 9:27). This is the sad state of affairs which undergirds the gospel’s announcement of good news, of God’s redemptive and restorative purposes.

However, although God’s justice is demonstrated in judgment against wickedness and sin (e.g., Eccl 3:17; Isa 11:4; 57:21), it is also exhibited in his commitment to save and put the world to right through the covenants. God’s faithfulness to his promises to Noah, Abraham, Israel, David, and the New Israel assures his people that God will be both just and justifier of the wicked (Rom 3:26). The promises encapsulated a pledge that evil and sin will be dealt with, yet in such a way that judgment will not befall God’s people. The climax of the covenants arrives in Jesus Christ, and through his death and resurrection evil is dealt with, the tragic consequences of sin are reversed, and God’s new world is launched amidst the old one.

The gospel is an announcement of that salvation, a recounting of God’s rescue plan through Jesus and an invitation to be included in that plan. For this reason, “gospel” and “salvation” are often found together in Scripture, from Isaiah’s declaration of the good news that God’s demonstration of kingly power will result in deliverance from exile (Isa 52:7) to the apostle Paul’s numerous references which declare salvation through the gospel (e.g., Rom 1:16; 1 Cor 15:2; Eph 1:13; 2 Tim 1:10). As a result, one’s entry point into salvation must pass through Jesus Christ and the gospel that communicates his saving work. The repeated affirmation of the New Testament is that salvation is only found in Jesus Christ, proclaimed in the gospel, and appropriated by faith.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss what it means to be “saved.” Have students discuss the implications of downplaying or denying the bad news that the gospel

addresses.

Suggested Essay Questions Analyse the relationship between “gospel” and “salvation” in Scripture.

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5.2 – Redemptive History: The Plan for the Gospel

Key Termscovenant of grace; redemptive history; salvation history; historia salutis; Abrahamic

covenant; Sinai covenant; Davidic king; Servant of the Lord; Son of Man; consummation

Key Points The outworking of God’s covenantal plan is called “redemptive history.” Redemptive history consists of five acts: Creation and Fall, Patriarchs and Israel, Jesus, Church,

and Consummation.

Chapter SummaryThe gospel does not burst on the scene without preparation or precedent. God’s covenanting

activity culminates in the gospel. It is indelibly connected with God’s activity in the world and his eternal plans. God’s plan is to bring people into the new creation through the incarnate Logos, and the outworking of this plan is called “redemptive history.” The story of Jesus narrated in the gospel transpires “according to the Scriptures,” meaning that it can be located in the flow of the narrative of Scripture. The gospel is both the goal of redemptive history and a part of its overall unity, demonstrated by the evangelic promises to Adam (Gen 3:15), Abraham (Gen 12:1-3), David (2 Sam 7:12-16), and the Babylonian exiles (Isa 52:7), among others. Moreover, the salvation announced by the gospel must be understood in the context of redemptive history which discloses God’s plan. If redemptive history is likened to a drama, five acts can be distinguished: creation and fall, patriarchs and Israel, Jesus, the church, and the consummation.

Act 1 commences with the creation of the world and the establishment of God as king over it. It also narrates the creation of humans as the pinnacle of God’s activity. They are divinely blessed and given dominion over the world, with the mandate to obediently rule creation. Tragedy ensues, however, when, at the behest of the malevolent serpent, humanity disobeys and forfeits its privileges. Sin and death mar the creator’s beautiful creation and humanity is expelled from paradise. As the narrative continues, the situation only becomes worse, with an increase in rebellion, transgression, disobedience, and immorality. Judgment prevails in this period of history, as exemplified by the flood intended to wipe out corruption and the scattering of the Babel-builders curtailing human pride. However, glimmers of hope and grace are also present, from the promise that the seed of the woman will defeat the serpent’s seed (Gen 3:15), to the salvation of Noah’s family in the ark (Gen 6-8), and the introduction of Abram (Gen 11:27-32). The tragedy that has befallen the world does not have the final word, and humanity’s original disobedience in the Garden of Eden will be undone by another man in another garden.

Act 2 begins with the call of Abram, who becomes a recipient of God’s promises and the catalyst for a new stage in redemptive history (Gen 12:1-3). The promises of seed, land, and blessing encapsulate God’s intention to redeem the world through the particular nation arising from Abraham. Moreover, these promises point forward to their fulfilment in the true seed, Jesus the Messiah (Rom 9:4; Gal 3:16). Inheritance, descendants, and blessing find their completion and eschatological intensification in the new covenant. Historically, Abraham’s descendants do become a multitude in Egypt, and they experience redemption and rescue. The nation of Israel subsequently enters into a closer relationship with God through the Sinai covenant. The Torah cocoons God’s promises around Israel and enables them to project his holiness to the surrounding nations. Tragically, however, sin and disobedience have indelibly affected the people’s ability and desire to obey. Israel’s history is largely a tapestry of disobedience, rebellion, hardheartedness, and idolatry. The way ahead is proclaimed by the prophets, who promise pardon (Jer 31:18-20), a new exodus (Isa 40-55), unification (Isa 11:11-16; Ezek 37:15-23), the capacity for obedience (Jer 31:31-34), and restored worship at a new temple in a

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new Jerusalem (Isa 54; Ezek 40-43)—in short, a new covenant. A threefold agency will bring this promise to reality and it is these elements which particularly point to their fulfilment in the gospel. First, a new Davidic king would establish an eternal and unshakeable kingdom (e.g., 2 Sam 7:12-16; Isa 11:1-5). Second, Israel’s restoration and pardon would be effected by the “Servant of the Lord,” who fulfils Israel’s mandate to be a light to the nations and acts as an expiatory sacrifice (Isa 42:6; 49:6; 52:13-53:12). Third, the enigmatic “Son of Man” will receive authority, glory and dominion (Dan 7:18, 27) and thus fulfil the original Adamic position (Gen 1:28). Salvation in the Old Testament can be summarized as the entrance into God’s promises, consisting of enjoying God’s blessing, presence, and reign in a specially prepared place.

Jesus’ life, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension constitute Act 3, and this story stands in organic unity with the narrative of Israel. Jesus is the Messiah who brings sinners in the family of Abraham (Luke 19:9-10), he is the Word made flesh who adopts believers into God’s family (John 1:1-14), and he is the redeemer who nullifies the curse of the law (Gal 4:4-5). Jesus’ arrival and his redemptive death and resurrection signal the fulfilment of God’s promises and the realization of Israel’s hopes (Acts 13:32-33). The long-awaited kingdom of God comes near in the presence of the Spirit-anointed king, who evokes the response of repentance and faith.

The events manifested in Jesus and the Spirit redefine and transform the people of God and thus set the stage for Act 4, the church. The goal of Israel’s election and the ideal of a renewed humanity are represented by the church, who is the beneficiary of the new covenant. As a part of the new covenant, the people of God receive a new scope (the inclusion of both Jews and Gentiles in God’s salvific plan), a new mission (the centrifugal reaching out to the world), and a new resource (the Holy Spirit poured out in a qualitatively new way).

Redemptive history concludes with Act 5, the consummation of all of God’s promises climaxing in the establishment of a new heavens and new earth (Isa 66; Rev 21-22). This stage of redemptive history will begin with the return of the Lord at an unknown time and will mark the commencement of God’s kingdom on earth. After the resurrection and final judgment, God’s Trinitarian nature will no longer be a mystery but an experiential blessing. Creation will be restored and humanity will be placed in its proper position, while enjoying God’s presence perfectly and eternally.

An understanding of redemptive history is crucial in order to adequately comprehend the scope and nature of salvation. Without redemptive history as the backdrop, salvation is reduced to individual escapism. To preach the gospel is to announce the culmination of the redemptive drama of God’s rescue of humanity in Christ and through the Spirit.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss how they would divide the different periods of redemptive history. Have students discuss why it is important to know the Old Testament and its narrative.

Suggested Essay Questions Trace and discuss the pattern of sin-judgment-grace in Genesis 1-11. Analyze the significance of the Abrahamic promises (Gen 12:1-3) for redemptive history. What is the relation between the Abrahamic covenant and the Sinai covenant? How does the new covenant affect the definition and task of the people of God?

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5.3 – Order of Salvation: The Logical Working of the Gospel

Key Termsordo salutis; predestination; election; reprobation; foreknowledge; Pelagius; Augustine;

infralapsarianism; supralapsarianism; sublapsarianism; Calvinism; Arminianism; TULIP; DOGOD; calling; regeneration; faith; repentance; justification; transformation; sanctification; glorification

Key Points The order of salvation (ordo salutis) concern the sequence for the application of reconciliation

to the individual, including predestination, calling, regeneration, faith and repentance, justifica-tion, transformation, and glorification.

Chapter SummaryHaving seen the outworking of God’s covenantal plan in redemptive history, the mechanics of

how salvation is applied to the individual believer can be explored. The ordo salutis describes the process of salvation from God’s decision in eternity past all the way to the believer’s eschatological participation in the new creation. The basis of an ordo salutis is found in Romans 8:29-30, where Paul traces the process from God’s foreknowledge to glorification. Building upon this Pauline foundation, various theologians have outlined an expanded ordo salutis, which includes predestination, calling, regeneration, faith and repentance, justification, transformation, and glorification. The value of identifying an ordo salutis is that it allows a logical sequence of events to be discerned in God’s application of salvation to the believer.

One of the most heated areas of theological debate concerns the very beginning of the ordo salutis: predestination. This concept concerns God’s foreordaining of all events that come to pass. Soteriologically speaking, it concerns the election of some to salvation and the reprobation of others for punishment. While all theologians generally agree that God elects, the basis of election is heavily contested. The question is whether God elects some to salvation based on his knowledge that they would freely choose him or whether God’s election is based in his free and inscrutable decision. Ample references to God’s foreordaining of events can be found in Scripture, from the days of the believer (Ps 139:16), to the death and resurrection of the Messiah (Acts 4:28), and even the appointment of peoples and nations (Acts 17:26). References to God’s appointment for salvations are also present, from the choosing of Israel (Deut 4:37; 7:6-8; 10:15; 14:2) to those who would follow Jesus (John 6:37; 44; Acts 13:48). The Pauline corpus abounds with predestinarian language, seen to especially great effect in the lavish and exquisite exposition of God’s gracious salvation in Ephesians (Eph 1:1-14). The primary arena for contention, however, is Romans, and two references in particular are of note. First, Romans 8:28-30 refers to God’s “foreknowledge,” and this evidently means an intimate knowledge of persons rather than simply actions (cf. Amos 3:2; 1 Cor 8:3). Second, the impassioned discussion in Romans 9-11 over the status of ethnic Israel vis-à-vis God’s promises reveals not only a corporate and ethnic election, but also a personal and individual appointment for mercy or wrath (cf. Rom 9:10-13; 11:1-5 and 9:17-18).

Historically, the doctrine of predestination has seen several developments. It came to prominence in the debates between Pelagius and Augustine. Pelagius, on the one hand, denied the effects of original sin on the human race and maintained that humanity has free will to choose to do good. Thus, predestination and foreknowledge refers to God’s prior knowledge of a person’s moral quality. On the other hand, Augustine emphasized the devastating effect of Adam’s sin and the inability of humanity to choose God. God’s sovereign grace restores humanity to freedom, and it is God’s choice in eternity that effects that freedom. The Augustinian view of predestination prevailed, and Pelagius was condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, semi-Pelagianism was the

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dominant view of the church for long thereafter, a synergism between human and divine wills. Though the Middle Ages saw some defenders of predestination, including Gottschalk and Thomas Aquinas, until the Reformation the general theological trend was a drift into semi-Pelagianism. The Reformers reacted against the moralistic optimism of medieval theology, with both Luther and Calvin writing works on the Bondage (and Liberation) of the Will. The most developed scheme of predestination is found in Calvin’s works, who affirmed that election is an expression of God’s sovereign purposes, and that it is efficacious, unconditional and immutable. This view was hardly unequivocal, however, with theologians like Jacob Arminius proposing alternative schemes and becoming quite influential. Though condemned at the Synod of Dort in 1618-19, Arminian theology attempted to balance God’s sovereignty with God’s love. The debate was invigorated in the twentieth century by Karl Barth, who rejected the traditional Reformed view and proposed a Christocentric doctrine of election in which Christ is the “elected Savior” and all people are elect in him. While such a view does justice to the evidently Christocentric nature of election seen in passages like Ephesians 1, it too easily opens up the danger of universalism and is impossible to exegetically or historically defend.

Popular evangelicalism in the Western world has known a variety of views on predestination, from Calvinism all the way to Pelagianism. However, it is safe to say that Calvinism and Arminianism are the two most prominent choices in evangelical theology. Other aspects of Calvinism aside, its model of predestination is more plausible theologically and exegetically. The Arminian view misunderstands the nature of God’s foreknowledge and proposes a scheme of “prevenient grace” that is difficult to justify. The Calvinistic scheme does not annul any notion of God’s love for the non-elect, but it is to be distinguished from his special affection for the elect. Moreover, evangelism should not be stifled by the doctrine of predestination, but rather energized by the assurance that God’s word will not fail and return fruitless.

The next link in the chain of the ordo salutis is calling, the implementation of God’s foreknowledge and predestination. This is not the general invitation of the gospel for all people to believe (e.g., Matt 11:28; John 3:16; Rev 22:17), but the efficacious drawing of the Holy Spirit which brings the sinner to conversion (cf. Acts 16:14). The close link between “gospel” and “call” can be seen particularly in the Pauline letters (e.g., 2 Thess 2:14). This call is the decisive event which shifts persons between realms (Col 1:13; 1 Pet 2:9), and it is indelibly connected with the execution of God’s saving purposes from election through glorification (Rom 8:29-30; 1 Pet 5:10). Moreover, there is a Triune nature to the call, as the Father is the “caller,” Christ is the “object of the calling,” and the Holy Spirit is the “effecter of the call.”

The divine perspective of calling is matched by the individual perspective of regeneration. Regeneration refers to the new birth wrought by the Holy Spirit which restores and recreates a person from spiritual death to life (John 1:13; 1 John 5:1; 1 Pet 1:3; cf. Titus 3:5; Eph 2:5; Col 2:13). Regeneration, moreover, represents the fulfilment of the Old Testament promises regarding the circumcision of the heart and the change of the heart from stone to flesh (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 31:33; Ezek 11:19; 36:25-27). One question arises, however: Does regeneration precede faith or vice versa? The causal relationship between these two events is not explicitly shown in Scripture, but it may be inferred that regeneration is necessary for faith to arise. The language of slavery to sin and deadness in transgression would seem to preclude that a person’s faith can precede regeneration (cf. John 8:34; Rom 7:14, 25; Eph 2:1). Moreover, the fact that not only faith, but the entire process of salvation, is a gift strengthens this conclusion (see Rom 10:17; Eph 2:8; Phil 1:29). A final issue regarding regeneration concerns the experience of Old Testament saints. While some theologians argue that the newness of the experience of the Holy Spirit in the new covenant included regeneration (with the implication that God’s people in the Old Testament did not experience regeneration), it seems more plausible to relegate the qualitatively new experience of the Spirit in terms of indwelling rather than regeneration. Thus, there is continuity between the Testaments in the sense that God’s people experienced regeneration in both eras.

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While predestination, calling, and regeneration expound objective aspects of God’s application of salvation to the believer, faith and repentance are concepts which express the subjective response of the believer. Faith and repentance as the proper response to the gospel is a common element in early proclamation (Mark 1:15; Acts 20:21) and they are instruments of salvation (e.g., Gen 15:6; Jer 39:18; Hab 2:4; Luke 7:50; Acts 16:31; Rom 5:1; 10:10; 1 Cor 1:21; Eph 2:8; Heb 10:39; 11:7; Jas 2:14; 1 Pet 1:9). The semantic range of the biblical words for “faith” includes “steadfastness,” “trustworthiness,” and “faithfulness,” in addition to “belief,” making a strict English translation difficult. In light of the Abrahamic narrative, which presents Abraham as a paradigm of trust and steadfastness (Gen 15-22; cf. Neh 9:7-8; Jas 2:21-23; Rom 4:9-21), the placement of faith as a cardinal Christian virtue (1 Cor 13:13; 1 Thess 1:3), and the reference to “faith” as cognitive content to be believed (1 Cor 16:13; Gal 1:23; Jude 3, 20), faith can be defined as the entrustment of oneself to the faithfulness of God. Repentance is the consequent action to faith, representing not only sorrow for sin but also a change of verdict and turning oneself around to God (Acts 3:19; 26:20). It finds its roots in the covenantal language of the Old Testament, as repentance would undo the curses for disobedience (Deut 4:15-28; Ezra 9:7; Dan 9:11-14). It is notable that the Christian life is one of continual repentance, as one expresses continual reorientation toward God and his purposes (2 Cor 7:9-10; 12:21; Rev 2:5, 16; 3:3, 19; cf. Luke 17:3-4).

Justification is broad enough to be an image encompassing the entire complex of salvation. In terms of the objective dimension between God and the human subject, however, justification is equivalent with reconciliation and salvation (Rom 5:9-10; 10:10), and it describes the change in state and relationship between God and humanity.

The inward and subjective change in the believer effected by reconciliation is expressed by transformation, or what other theologies call sanctification. Sanctification denotes both the positional and definitive setting apart of the believer for God (Acts 20:32; Rom 1:7; Eph 1:1; 2 Tim 2:21; 1 Pet 1:2) and the progressive, gradual growth in godliness and conformity to Christ. Transformation, however, is specifically concerned with the latter process. Conformity to Christ is beset by Luther’s trinity of world, flesh, and devil, and so the Holy Spirit’s power is required to manifest an increasing godliness in the believer. The motif of imitation is prominent in transformation, whether the subject imitated is God (e.g., Lev 19:2; Eph 5:1), Christ (e.g., 1 Cor 11:1; Phil 2:5-11), or Christian leaders (e.g., 1 Cor 4:16-17; Phil 3:17). It is important to remember that the divine indicative precedes the imperative, meaning that ethics and behavior is the result of God’s prior action in salvation (see e.g., Rom 6:1-2; 8:12; 12:1-2). While paradigms of holiness tend to see God’s people negatively, as sinners saved by grace, perhaps it is more appropriate to shift the imagery to something positive. Scripture is affirmative that the status and identity of God’s people has definitively changed. The cleansed, redeemed, renewed, and restored status of God’s people may perhaps be more adequately expressed in the terminology of “saints who sometimes sin.”

The final aspect of salvation to be analyzed is glorification, and this goal is expressed as the final, eschatological conformity to the image and glory of Christ (Rom 8:30; Phil 3:21; 1 Cor 15:49). The path to glory is patterned after the path of the Messiah; shame and suffering precede honor and glory (e.g., Rom 8:17; Col 3:4). Interestingly, however, glorification has proleptically begun in believers as they behold the glory of the Lord in the present time (2 Cor 3:18) through the ministry of the Holy Spirit. While the penalty of sin is annulled by justification, and the power of sin is gradually removed through transformation, the presence of sin will finally be done away with at glorification.

Two caveats are important to consider, however, on the topic of the ordo salutis. While a logical order of salvation is useful in many ways, it must not be forgotten that eschatology is the key to salvation, and the temporal dimension of salvation is complex, encompassing past, present, and future (cf. 1 Cor 1:4-6, 7-8, and 10). Second, the importance of union with Christ and the indwelling of the Spirit must be appreciated when understanding salvation. Being “in Christ” is determinative for salvation, as all blessings are only received in him. Thus, the logical nature of the ordo salutis must be balanced by the eschatological and mystical dimensions of salvation.

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Pedagogical Suggestions Read Romans 8:28-30 to the class. Have students discuss whether “sinners saved by grace” accurately describes the present state of

a believer.

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate and compare the Calvinistic and Arminian models of predestination. Does regeneration precede faith or vice versa? Outline the doctrine of sanctification. Is the ordo salutis a logical or temporal order?

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5.4 – Images of Salvation: The Result of the Gospel

Key Termsforgiveness; redemption; rescue; reconciliation; justification; active obedience; passive

obedience; imputed righteousness; incorporated righteousness; New Perspective on Paul; covenantal nomism; peace; shalom; adoption; eternal life; theosis

Key Points The kaleidoscope of biblical images for salvation includes forgiveness, redemption, rescue, re-

conciliation, justification, peace, adoption, eternal life, and theosis. The center of salvation consists of communion with God, union with Christ, and life in the

Spirit.

Chapter SummarySalvation is not a monolithic concept, but encompasses multiple dimensions, perspectives, and

aspects. Ultimately, however, it is important to note that salvation primarily deals with humanity’s relationship before God. The horizontal consequences of sin (Rom 1:24-31) are symptomatic of the deeper problem of vertical estrangement (Rom 1:18-23). The unifying element of salvation is the narrative dimension of the Triune God who rescues people in order to bring them into the new creation. The multivalent imagery used for salvation deserves closer attention.

Foremost in a discussion of salvation is the imagery of forgiveness. Prevalent both in creedal material and in the scriptural witness, forgiveness is one of the chief blessings of the new covenant (cf. Jer 31:34). The Old Testament consistently portrays the gracious offer of forgiveness from God (Isa 33:24; Jer 33:8; Dan 9:9) and the urgency of accepting it—with dire consequences awaiting rejection (Josh 24:19; 2 Kings 24:4; Jer 5:7). The New Testament continues the focus on forgiveness, from the story of the Messiah (e.g., Matt 1:21; Mark 2:5-12; Matt 26:28) to the apostolic preaching of the early church (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 8:22; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18). Forgiveness is possible because of Jesus’ blood (Matt 26:28; Eph 1:7; Heb 9:22), because his sacrificial death enables the cancelling of debt. One practical corollary of this imagery is its currency for the Christian life, one of imitating the gracious forgiveness already experienced (Col 3:13).

Another prominent picture of salvation is that of redemption. Rooted in the covenantal concepts of the Old Testament, particularly the great rescue from slavery in Egypt (e.g., Exod 6:6; Deut 7:8), redemption evokes the hopes of a greater deliverance from sin and exile in the prophets (e.g., Isa 43:1-8; 48:20; 51:10-11; Jer 16:14-15; Mic 4:10; Zech 10:8). In the Greco-Roman context, redemption referenced the manumission of slaves and this enforces the aspect of liberation and freedom achieved in salvation. Redemption is linked to forgiveness (Eph 1:7; Col 1:14), righteousness (1 Cor 1:30), effects adoption (Gal 4:5), and, importantly, occurs through Christ’s sacrifice (Rom 3:24-25). While it is true that Christ pays the price, it is also true that this is done by taking humanity’s place (Gal 3:13). Redemption occurs through substitution. A neglected aspect of redemption is that God’s people are set free in order to live for another: from slavery to sin to freedom for God (Rom 6;6; cf. Titus 2:14). Finally, one issue that occurs in the discussion of redemption is to whom the ransom price was paid. While one view of the atonement proposes the ransom is paid to Satan, the receiver of the payment is never explicated in Scripture. It may more generally be said, then, that redemption shows the costliness of human salvation.

A broader image of salvation is rescue, which encapsulates preservation and deliverance from danger. The deliverance of Yahweh is celebrated in the Old Testament in terms of being removed from one place to another (Exod 6:6; 13:13), being rescued from danger (Exod 3:8; 14:30), having an advocate for oppressed Israel (Exod 13:15; 15:13), and being led into the land of promise (Exod 3:17).

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This is subsumed under the language of salvation (cf. Isa 63:1). Such a rescue has an apocalyptic dimension in Paul, who sees salvation as a rescue from the present evil age (Gal 1:4). In sum, the rescue may be expressed as God’s gracious reaching down into the human condition and lifting humanity up to divine glory. Salvation is both from evil, death, sin, and judgment and for good deeds and holy living. This is not a stagnant transaction, but an ongoing relationship between the rescuer and the rescued.

Reconciliation is another image for salvation, taken from the world of relationships and expressing the restoration of a broken bond between God and humanity. This is such a significant concept that theologians have proposed it is the center of Pauline theology. This concept also appears in Jewish works, including Josephus and 2 Maccabees, forming the background for Paul’s exposition of the theme (Rom 5:1-11; 2 Cor 5:14-21). Significantly, reconciliation in Scripture begins with God graciously reaching out to the offending party. Furthermore, reconciliation is placed in a cosmic and universal scope as the entire creation is brought back to God (2 Cor 5:18-19). The personal and cosmic aspects of reconciliation are wonderfully brought together at the cross (Col 1:20-22). Further, reconciliation with God results in unity between Jews and Gentiles (Eph 2:16), who themselves reach out to the world with the message of reconciliation.

Crucial for understanding how humanity’s condition and status is reversed by God is the image of justification. Through Christ’s death and resurrection, God’s verdict of condemnation against humanity is transformed to vindication and righteousness. Paradoxically, God justifies the wicked, not because his justice has been compromised but because it has been satisfied. Historically, the Roman Catholic Church has defined justification as the infusion of grace into a person through the sacraments so that they attain just behavior. Justification as a process stands in stark contrast with the Reformers’ insistence that justification is a once-for-all declaration of righteousness. In Reformed Theology, justification occurs when Christ’s righteousness is imputed to the believer by grace alone through faith alone. While the Reformed scheme correctly understands justification as a declaration and maintains on the reception of an alien righteousness, its concept of imputation needs qualification. First, the insistence on Jesus’ acquisition of merits which are then transposed to the believer does not adequately remit the entire Catholic scheme of merits. More accurately, it can be said that Jesus perfectly fulfils the mandate to be the new Adam and new Israel, and believers participate in his vindication. Second, scriptural warrant for imputation is lacking, as the Reformed understanding of imputation is never explicitly stated. One finds, rather, an emphasis on union with Christ as the means of righteousness (Gal 2:17; 2 Cor 5:21; Phil 3:9). Perhaps the notion of incorporated righteousness better describes the biblical witness, abolishing the scheme of merits and emphasizing union with Christ.

Though many alternative perspectives on justification could be analyzed, one that deserves attention is the New Perspective on Paul. This movement challenged the long-held position that Judaism was a legalistic religion steeped in works-righteousness. Some proponents of the NPP argue that ethnocentrism, rather than legalism, was the problem Paul battled in his epistles. The NPP attempts to present a more balanced and holistic view of justification which adequately incorporates the first-century Jewish context the doctrine developed in. In light of this, five aspects of the biblical doctrine of justification may be outlined. First, justification is forensic, by affecting one’s status rather than moral state. Second, it is eschatological, in that the verdict of the future is brought into the present. Third, justification is covenantal since it confirms the promises of the Abrahamic covenant and is concerned with the identity of Jews and Gentiles as members of God’s people. Fourth, it is effective, because justification, while conceptually distinct from moral transformation, cannot be wholly separated from it. Finally, justification is Trinitarian, as God the Father justifies in the sphere of union with Christ and that justification is appropriated by means of the faith supplied by the Holy Spirit. In sum, justification may be defined as the act whereby the Triune God creates a new people, with a new status, in a new covenant, as a foretaste of the new age.

One image of salvation which comprehensively expresses the ending of enmity between

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humanity and God and the restoration of order to creation is peace (shalom). From Gideon’s declaration that Yahweh is peace (Judg 6:24) to the actions of the Davidic deliverer known as the “Prince of Peace” (Isa 9:6-7), the gospel announces that peace is one of the greatest blessings to be enjoyed in the new covenant. Importantly, the peace envisioned is not the subjective tranquil state of mind (though that, too, is provided) but the objective absence of hostility and ill will between creator and creation.

Another powerful picture of salvation is that of adoption, which describes the attainting of sonship in God’s family. This aspect is drawn both from the Old Testament’s conception of Israel as God’s “son” (Exod 4:22; Hos 11:1) and the Roman legal process of adopting a new member of a household or family. Adoption is linked closely with predestination (Eph 1:5) and with Jesus’ accomplishment (Gal 4:5). Eschatologically, adoption is both a present reality and future hope (Rom 8:23; Gal 4:4-5) and it is, as are other aspect of salvation, enjoyed and experienced in the Messiah, the Son of God.

The concept of eternal life is perhaps the most basic and easily understood dimension of salvation. This image harks back to the Eden narrative and the fact that Adam and Eve were created for life (Gen 1:30; 2:7; Job 33:4). Moreover, the preservation and prolonging of life were core promises of the covenant (e.g., Deut 6:2; 22:7; Ps 21:4; 61:6; Prov 4:10). Naturally, this developed into the concept of resurrection and immortality, the ability to enjoy life and relationship with God forever (e.g., Ps 23:6; 71:20; Dan 12:2-3). This perspective is continued and intensified in the New Testament, particularly in the Johannine corpus (e.g., John 3:15-16; 5:21, 26; 1 John 1:2; 2:24-25; 3:14; 5:11-13). Thus, the gospel announces the good news that believers are able to participate in the life of God and enjoy eternal fellowship with him through Christ who “brought life and immortality to light” (2 Tim 1:10).

A final image of salvation to be considered, particularly prominent in Eastern Orthodoxy is that of theosis or deification. This concept describes the idea of becoming like God and sharing in his divine life. Orthodox theologians are careful to distinguish between God’s essence (which believers do not and cannot share) and God’s energies (in which believers participate through theosis). Scriptural warrant comes primarily from 2 Peter’s description of participating “in the divine nature” (2 Pet 1:4), with hints of sharing the divine glory drawn from elsewhere (Rom 8:30; 2 Cor 3:18). Theosis was popular in the church fathers, who eloquently expressed and celebrated the ability to share in divinity because the Son shared in humanity. However, the concept is rather hard to define and runs the danger of obscuring the distinction between creator and creature. While union with Christ necessarily results in union with God, participation and transformation are more appropriate terms which safely and accurately denote the kind of relationship believers enjoy with the divine.

Finally, it may be pondered what image of salvation can claim primacy over the others, and which picture captures the essence of salvation. While redemption, rescue, and reconciliation are serious contenders due to their wide scope and solid biblical support, it is doubtful whether any one image can encapsulate the complexity of salvation. Rather than any particular image, the center of salvation may be seen in communion with God, union with Christ, and life in the Spirit.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss which image of salvation they naturally gravitate towards. Read Psalm 103 to the class. Have students discuss how many perspectives on salvation are

presented by the psalmist.

Suggested Essay Questions How central is reconciliation to the biblical conception of salvation? Does imputed righteousness accurately convey the mechanics of justification? Evaluate the New Perspective on Paul and its contribution toward understanding justification.

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Evaluate the concept of union with God in the Church Fathers.

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5.5 – Scope and Security: How Wide and How Certain a Salvation?

Key Termsuniversalism; Origen; apokatastasis; anonymous Christian; exclusivism; inclusivism; age of

accountability; eternal security; hypothetical view; phenomenological view; apostasy view; community view; ecclesia mixta;

Key Points The uniform teaching of the biblical authors is that there will be a final judgment, the outcome

of which will be justification for some and condemnation for others; there is no indication that these outcomes are anything other than final.

Christian can have complete and full assurance in the God who redeems them because of God’s unwavering faithfulness toward those who remain faithful to him.

Chapter SummaryThe promise of salvation in the gospel is in many ways conditional upon believing (e.g., Mark

1:15) and continuing in that faith (e.g., Col 1:22-23). The issues confronting theologians, then, are the scope and security of salvation. Who will be saved, and what is the fate of those who do not respond to the gospel? Is it possible to lose one’s salvation? These are the questions that are to be examined.

The dominant view throughout church history regarding the scope of salvation has been that not everyone will be saved. This conclusion arose not out of a desire to limit the scope of salvation but out of convincing evidence in Scripture. However, some theologians have conjectured whether eternal punishment is indeed God’s final plan for the lost, or whether there are alternative ways to be saved apart from faith in Christ, perhaps post-mortem. These suggestions must be evaluated in the light of Scripture and Christian tradition. A related issue is that of the fate of those who never have a chance to respond to the gospel: tribes and civilizations with no access to the gospel, children who die in infancy, and the mentally handicapped.

Universalism is the proposed theological scheme that expresses an unlimited scope to salvation. It is the view that in the end all human beings will be saved, whether faith in Christ is present or not. Potential for universalism arises in some Church Fathers, such as Irenaeus, who proposes a doctrine of recapitulation in which humanity’s condition is rehearsed and redeemed in the incarnation. Moreover, Origen believed in a final restoration of all things to unity with God. His doctrine of apokatastasis was condemned because of its universalist implications. While universalists appear throughout the Middle Ages and in the post-Reformation era, the twentieth century saw the appearance of influential universalists such as Karl Rahner and Jürgen Moltmann. Rahner’s concept of the “anonymous Christian” and Moltmann’s “theology of hope” have gained some currency in theological thought as expressions of universalism.

For several reasons, universalism is biblically inadequate and theologically unsound. First, the scriptural witness to a final judgment and eternal separation from God is clear. From Jesus’ warnings about the dangers of hell (e.g., Matt 7:13; 10:15; 18:6; Mark 9:47-48; 10:28) to the epistles’ descriptions of judgment (e.g., Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27-28; 1 Pet 4:7), the notion of eternal punishment is clear. Second, the biblical justification for universalism is misunderstood and misrepresented. Verses describing God’s desire for all people to be saved (e.g., 1 Tim 2:4; 2 Pet 3:9) support universalism only on the dubious assumption that God’s will is identical with God’s eternal decree. The Pauline contrast between Adam and Christ (Rom 5:18; 1 Cor 15:22), in context, only indicates the consequences of solidarity with each representative head. It is clear from Paul’s argument that faith in Christ is necessary in order to belong to him and thus attain salvation (e.g., Rom 5:17; 1 Cor 15:2). Third, the universalist scheme of salvation emphasizes the objective dimension at the

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expense of the subjective perspective. While salvation is indeed sovereignly accomplished, it must be applied by faith in the Lord Jesus (e.g., Acts 16:31; 1 Cor 1:21; Heb 11:6). Fourth, as a consequence of the above, the universalist scheme of salvation presents an unbiblical view of monergism. The tension between divine sovereignty and human responsibility is jettisoned in order to sustain a universal salvation. Fifth, universalism perverts divine justice in that it leads to the conclusion that the same fate awaits the martyr and the murderer. While universalism is attractive initially, the testimony of Scripture and the witness of Christian tradition to the character and justice of God tell against its legitimacy. Moreover, it may be said that adopting universalism leads to the abolishment of mission.

Scripture is clear that salvation is only found in Christ (John 14:6; Acts 4:12) and is only appropriated by faith (Eph 2:8-9; cf. Rom 10:17). The question remains as to what the fate is of those who never hear and those without the ability to respond. While early Christian authors rhetorically claimed that the gospel had gone out into the entire world, this only included the world known at the time. The fate of the nations without access to the gospel remains debated. Some scholars posit that the content of natural revelation, the universal work of the Holy Spirit, and the limited light in other religions are sufficient to maintain a positive attitude toward the fate of the unreached. Inclusivism thus states that, while salvation is not achieved apart from the cross, it can be attained without faith specifically in Christ. While Old Testament saints may be given as an example of this, it is more likely that they are the exception, since they stood in the line of covenantal promises and believed in the same God. Moreover, humanity does not respond to general revelation properly, distorting and suppressing the knowledge of God in order to justify idolatrous behavior (Rom 1:19-20). Thus, while it is theoretically possible that God may choose to save apart from explicit faith in Christ, he has only promised to save those who call on the name of Jesus. The issue of children and the mentally handicapped lacks a clear biblical answer, but several things may be said as an inference. Jesus held a special place for children in his ministry (e.g., Mark 10:14-16), and there are hints of the fate of children dying in infancy in the Old Testament (2 Sam 12:23). Theologians sometimes argue that original sin does not apply to infants until an age of accountability. That may perhaps be the case, but the ultimate answer to these issues lies in the character of God, who is rich in mercy (Eph 2:4) and a judge who acts righteously (Gen 18:25). The fate of those without the ability to respond may be left to his mercy and justice.

The perseverance of the believer and the security which they can enjoy is another debated issue in soteriology. Traditionally, Calvinistic schemes have offered the slogan “Once saved always saved” as an expression of the security of salvation, while Arminian theology retorts with “No eternal security until securely in eternity” as a way of affirming the possibility of losing one’s salvation. The Calvinist model of eternal security is rooted in the eternal purposes of God, as the logical outcome of predestination and God’s effectual calling. The Arminian position, by contrast, emphasizes the freedom of the will and the consequent conditional nature of salvation. Turning to Scripture, one finds a delicate tension between God’s faithfulness to the believer and the believer’s obligation to persevere (e.g., John 15:5-6; Col 1:23; Jude 1, 21, 24). However, passages promising absolute assurance and demonstrating the security of God’s faithfulness in salvation also abound (e.g., John 10:27-29; Rom 8:38-39; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Eph 1:4-6; Phil 1:6; 2:13). Prima facie, Scripture would seem to support the Calvinistic understanding of eternal security. However, the severity of the warning passages in Hebrews (Heb 2:1-4; 3:7—4:13; 5:11—6:12; 10:19-39; 12:1-29) has convinced many theologians otherwise, and so they must be analyzed closely. While various view abound, including that the warnings are hypothetical, the warnings are not addressed to believers, and that the warnings are real indicators of the ability to lose one’s salvation, the rhetorical and theological context of the epistle paves the way to a solution. First, the warnings are addressed to a community composed of believers at various stages who are in danger of forfeiting and abandoning the race. The warnings, then, function corporately to encourage perseverance (Heb 12:15). The church has always been an ecclesia mixta, a mixture of genuine Christians, struggling believers, and unregenerate members. The warnings spur the community to the

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finish line in order to demonstrate the genuineness of their faith. Second, salvation in Hebrews is essentially a future reality (cf. Heb 1:14; 7:25; 9:28; 10:36), meaning that one cannot lose what one does not have. The author is concerned to ensure the safe arrival of his audience into the heavenly kingdom by keeping their eyes on Christ and persevering to the end (Heb 12:2), expressing confidence in their ability to do so (Heb 6:9; 10:39). Thus, the Reformed position on eternal security is preferable, particularly when remembering the covenantal promises (e.g., Jer 30:22), God’s faithfulness, and his eternal purposes (Rom 8:30).

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss whether the will of God to save all people will become a reality. Have students discuss the implications of “backslidden Christians.”

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate universalism. How inclusive is the exclusivity of the gospel? Is it possible for believers to lose their salvation?

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6.1 – God’s Spirit: The Breath of the Gospel

Key Termspneumatology; Holy Spirit; Pentecostalism

Key Points The gift of the Holy Spirit is part of the promise of the gospel and also the power for gospel

proclamation.

Chapter SummaryAs the third member of the Triune Godhead, the Holy Spirit is often regarded as the

personification of the love between the Father and the Son. Operatively, the Spirit’s work is seen in creation, revelation, redemption, and renewal. He acts as the mediator between Christ and the believer, applying the work of the Son to the individual. Moreover, in its mission the church follows the lead of the Spirit, and discipleship could aptly be described as keeping in step with the Spirit.

Despite the evident significance of the Spirit, however, he is often neglected in many evangelical circles. Christology often overshadows pneumatology, with emphasis placed on the person and work of Christ at the expense of meditating on the riches of the Holy Spirit. Another reason for avoiding the Spirit arises from a fear of the excesses evident in the Pentecostal and charismatic movements. Added to all this is the mysterious nature of the Spirit, whose coming and going is as unpredictable as the wind (cf. John 3:8).

The Pentecostal and charismatic movements have, however, drawn attention particularly to the experiential benefits of the Holy Spirit, with the reminder that worship must truly be Trinitarian. Doctrinal adherence must be coupled with lively, Spirit-driven affections. It should be noted, though, that in addition to these experiential elements, the person and work of the Holy Spirit constitute key parts of historic Christian confession, as evident, for example in the Nicene Creed. As the one who imparts life and applies the work of salvation, and as the one who empowers prophets and inspires Scripture, the Spirit is to be glorified and worshiped together with the Father and the Son.

Studying the Holy Spirit pays rich dividends for several reasons. First, this doctrine intersects with numerous other areas of Christian theology, including soteriology, ecclesiology, and bibliology. Second, the Spirit is the one who applies the work of Christ and thus enables humanity to personally encounter God. Moreover, the Spirit is the agent through which God works in the church’s prayers, worship, and ministry, and empowers it for mission, testimony, and proclamation. Third, discussion regarding the Holy Spirit has taken on renewed importance due to the controversies brought on by the Pentecostal and charismatic movements.

Due to the close link between Spirit and gospel, pneumatology should have a prominent place in an evangelical theology. The Spirit acts in gospel preaching, executes God’s purposes in the lives of his people, and imparts spiritual life. From this, several corollaries follow. First, the Holy Spirit is the promise of the gospel. The glorification of Jesus had as its effect the outpouring of the Holy Spirit (see e.g., John 7:39; 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7). The promise of the Spirit was a common element in apostolic preaching (e.g., Acts 2:38), and had its roots deep in Old Testament theology (cf. Joel 2:28-29). Second, the Spirit is the liberator of humanity. The freedom of God’s people is expressed dramatically in the Old Testament as the liberation from exile through the Spirit-anointed Servant (Isa 61:1) and in the New Testament as deliverance from the law of sin and death (Rom 8:2). Finally, the Spirit is the empowerer of the gospel. It is the Spirit who energizes and makes effective the preaching of the early church (John 20:21-22; Acts 1:8) and he acts as the director of the church in its mission (Acts 4:8, 31; 6:10; 7:55; 11:24; 13:9). In short, the work of the gospel is achieved through the work of the Spirit. The Holy Spirit both acts as the magnetic force keeping God’s people together in gathering and the propulsive force which enables and empowers mission and proclamation.

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Pedagogical Suggestions Read the Nicene Creed, focusing particularly on the section related to the Holy Spirit. Have the class discuss how aware they are of the Holy Spirit’s person and work in their daily

life and worship.

Suggested Essay Questions How central should the person and work of the Holy Spirit be in an evangelical theology? Evaluate the Pentecostal/charismatic movement and its contribution to pneumatology.

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6.2 – Person of the Holy Spirit

Key TermsFriedrich Schleiermacher; Jürgen Moltmann; Clark Pinnock; personhood; parakletos; Arius;

Modalism; Macedonius; Council of Constantinople; Clement of Rome; Basil of Caesarea; On the Holy Spirit; filioque; Irenaean view; Augustinian view; Pope Benedict VIII

Key Points The Holy Spirit is a personal being, not an impersonal force or energy from God. The Holy Spirit is equal in deity and majesty with the Father and the Son.

Chapter SummaryUnfortunately, for many Christians the Holy Spirit is not an actual person, the fully divine third

member of the Trinity, but an impersonal vibe or force from God. Churches, however, must return to the affirmation of the church’s confessional heritage, which affirmed the Holy Spirit’s full divinity and majesty.

Theological debate over the Holy Spirit’s personhood has seen numerous and varying definitions from theologians both liberal and conservative. Compounding the problem is the fact that the New Testament occasionally uses impersonal imagery for the Holy Spirit’s activity, including “power” (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8), “rushing wind” (Acts 2:1-4), first-fruits (Rom 8:23), seal (Eph 1:13), and deposit (Eph 1:14). While the definition of personhood itself is a complex matter, it can be delineated as the quality of a being possessing life, self-awareness, capability of cognition, relatability to other beings, and recognizable character traits. The presence of a distinguishable “I” is an indicator of personhood.

Judging by this criteria, then, the New Testament presents ample evidence of the Spirit’s personhood. The Spirit speaks in the first person on one occasion (Acts 13:2), and undertakes roles and activities pointing to a distinct personhood. The personal agency of the Spirit is implied by the reference to an “Advocate” or “Helper” (parakletos) in John 14:16 and 15:26-27 who will continue Jesus’ ministry. This parakletos will witness, convict, guide, hear, speak, glorify, and declare (John 16:8-15). Similar activities are attributed to the Spirit by Paul, who affirms the Spirit’s leading, witnessing, and assisting the prayer of the Christian (Rom 8:14, 16, 26). Moreover, the Spirit can be insulted (Heb 10:29), blasphemed (Matt 12:31-32), and grieved (Eph 4:30; cf. Isa 63:10). Capping this evidence is the Trinitarian benediction of 2 Corinthians 13:14, which would make little sense in an Arian or Modalist sense and points not only to the Spirit’s personhood but also to full divinity.

Based on references in Scripture alone, it is harder to establish the divinity of the Spirit. Yet the presence of such references, coupled with the inner logic of the gospel which points to God the Spirit applying God the Father’s plan of salvation, makes the divinity of the Holy Spirit demonstrable. It should also be noted that in patristic theology, the divinity of the Spirit was fully affirmed, albeit more slowly due to the preoccupation with Christological controversies.

To begin with, Scripture refers interchangeably between “God” and “Spirit” (e.g., Acts 5:3-4; cf. “temple of God/Holy Spirit in 1 Cor 3:16-17 and 6:19-20), and attributes activities to the Spirit that are elsewhere undertaken by God (e.g., raising Jesus from the dead [Acts 2:24; Rom 8:11]). Moreover, the Spirit is said to possess the qualities and attributes of God, including divine comprehension (1 Cor 2:10-11), divine power (Luke 1:35), eternity (Heb 9:14), agency in creation (Gen 1:2; Job 26:13), and omnipresence (Ps 139:7-10).

Patristic affirmation of the Holy Spirit’s divinity emerged through a series of clashes and controversies. Arius regarded the Holy Spirit as something created by the Son (who was himself created), thus establishing a hierarchy of authority. Bishop Macedonius likewise believed the Spirit was

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a creature, subordinate to the Son. When the Church Fathers defended the divinity of the Spirit, they were not only justified by Scripture but also by the inner logic of the gospel itself. If the Spirit is to mediate the presence of the Father and the Son and apply the benefits of salvation, he must himself be fully divine or else there is incongruence between God’s action and its application. A semi-divine or created being cannot act as the mediator and applier of the salvation executed by the Father and accomplished by the Son. To explicate this Trinitarian relationship, Basil of Caesarea identified the Father as the “original cause,” the Son as the “creative cause,” and the Spirit as the “perfecting cause.” Each member of the Godhead is involved in creation, redemption, and sanctification.

Pedagogical Suggestions Read John 14:16 and 15:26-27. Have the class discuss whether it is appropriate to pray to the Holy Spirit.

Suggested Essay Questions Is the personhood and divinity of the Holy Spirit sufficiently demonstrated in Scripture? How should awareness of the personhood and divinity of the Holy Spirit affect Christian life

and worship? Trace the debate and controversy regarding the personhood and divinity of the Holy Spirit in

the patristic period. Evaluate the addition of the filioque clause and its significance for understanding the person of

the Holy Spirit.

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6.3 – Work of the Holy Spirit

Key Termspneuma; ruakh; spiritus; spiritual gifts; glossolalia; baptism in the Spirit; filling with the

Spirit; inspiration; illumination; theopneustos; intuition theory; dictation theory; dynamic theory; verbal theory; infallible; inerrancy; veracity; clarity

Key Points The work of the Holy Spirit includes creating, vivifying, empowering, sanctifying, revealing,

and unifying. Baptism in the Holy Spirit happens at conversion, though filling with the Holy Spirit is a repeat-

able experience throughout the Christian life. The Holy Spirit inspires Scripture through a synthesis of divine and human minds to create

God’s Word in written from. Scripture is authoritative because the Holy Spirit speaks within it, and Scripture is true because

of God’s own faithfulness to his Word.

Chapter SummaryThe work of the Holy Spirit is a significant aspect of theology because it is the Spirit who

actualizes life, love, and hope (the promises of the gospel). Moreover, it is the Holy Spirit who draws the believer into the life of God by applying the work of Christ to the believer. The Spirit’s activity in creation, redemption, and revelation deserves close study.

The Holy Spirit was active in the original creation, responsible especially for giving humanity “breath” (Gen 1:1-2; Job 26:12-13; 33:4; Ps 104:30-32; Isa 40:12-13). The Holy Spirit acts as God’s creative self, funnelling a creative, personal energy that stems from the fellowship between Father and Son. The Holy Spirit also connects the original creation with the eschatological new creation (Rom 8:23), and this is evident in the Spirit’s involvement in resurrection and the inward regeneration of God’s people.

The Holy Spirit, moreover, was also active in the history of Israel. The Spirit empowered Israel’s leaders (e.g., Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14-15; 1 Sam 16:13) and enabled deliverance and victory. Additionally, the Spirit brought the divine word to Israel and impelled the word of God in the prophets (e.g., Mic 3:8; Ezek 11:1, 5-14; Zech 7:12). Finally, the Spirit plays a key role in the eschatological hope of Israel, as the fixation on a messianic deliverer is accompanied by an increasing focus on the Spirit’s activity through that deliverer (Isa 11:2; 42:1; 61:1-4). Furthermore, the Spirit effects the political resuscitation of Israel (Ezek 37:7-10) and is said to be the gift dispensed in the coming age (Joel 2:28-32). In the Gospels, the Messiah is the bearer and the dispenser of the Holy Spirit. For this reason, Jesus’ ministry is intimately tied up with the activity of the Spirit, from birth (Luke 1:35; Matt 1:18, 20) to baptism (Matt 3:13-17) and his itinerant ministry (Luke 4:14). The work of Messiah and Spirit express the arrival of the kingdom of God (Matt 12:28).

The messianic community experiences the continuing presence and empowerment of the Holy Spirit. First, as the one “who gives life,” the Spirit is responsible for vivifying the messianic community and bringing it into being through the new birth (Matt 19:20; John 3:3, 5-7; Titus 3:5). Second, the Holy Spirit empowers the church for its ministry and mission (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8) by energizing its proclamation and providing spiritual gifts for the edification of God’s people (cf. Rom 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:8-10, 28-30; Eph 4:11). Third, the Holy Spirit sanctifies God’s people, from the initial washing of rebirth (1 Cor 6:11; Titus 3:5), to the continual putting to death of the sinful nature (Rom 8:13) and cultivation of the fruits of the Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). Fourth, the Holy Spirit acts to reveal and illuminate, acting as the source, preserver, and authority of God’s revelation. Finally, the Spirit acts as

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the unifying force between all of God’s people, drawing together all of Christ’s followers regardless of race, gender, or status. The Holy Spirit is the one who holds the church together in spiritual fellowship (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:4-5).

One issue that has come to the forefront of debate since the rise of Pentecostalism is the topic of baptism in the Holy Spirit. The classic Pentecostal definition is that spirit baptism is an experience subsequent to conversion which is evidenced by glossolalia and results in a triumphant Christian life. However, this perspective is contestable for several reasons. First, the Johannine Pentecost (John 20:22) cannot be played off against the account in Acts to justify a post-conversion dispensing of the Spirit since it is likely John presents a symbolic giving of the Spirit. Second, “baptism” is an initiation metaphor and so it is unlikely that “spirit baptism” can refer to an experience following conversion. Third, Paul refers to the Corinthians’ conversion in the language of spirit baptism (1 Cor 12:13) and this is particularly significant since not all of the Corinthians spoke in tongues (1 Cor 12:30). Fourth, the accounts of conversion and Spirit reception in Acts cannot be used to establish a normative pattern for contemporary Christians, since not only does the narrative of Acts occur at a unique period of salvation-history but it also presents no set template for the reception of the Spirit. Baptism in the Holy Spirit, therefore, can be seen as coterminus with conversion. Having said this, however, it is important not to diminish the experience known as “filling with the Spirit” which occurs post-conversion, is repeatable, and entails a renewed empowerment for proclamation and awareness of God’s presence (cf. Eph 5:18).

Since the Holy Spirit is the one who inspired the authors to write Scripture, the doctrine of Scripture rightly belongs as a subset of the work of the Holy Spirit. Inspiration and veracity are two attributes of Scripture which relate how the human words of the Bible are also God’s words, and to what extent they are true. Considering Scripture’s own testimony to its inspiration, there is an affirmation that God himself spoke through human agents in order to produce the revelation in Scripture (e.g., 2 Pet 1:20-21; 2 Tim 3:16-17). Inquiry into the precise mechanics of inspiration has yielded several theories or models of inspiration. The intuition theory, common among liberal theologians, sees Scripture not as divinely authoritative but “inspiring” in the sense of producing a heightened sense of religious experience. This model can be rejected because it does not do justice to the source and authority Scripture claims for itself. The dictation theory, prominent in the seventeenth century, proposes that God dictated exactly what was to be said in Scripture to authors who were little more than passive receptacles. Dictation theory, however, does not adequately account for the personality, style, and historical contingency of each author. Dynamic theory sees a combination of divine and human elements in the writing of Scripture. In this view, the Spirit directed the writer’s thoughts and concepts while allowing for expression of style and personality in the choice of words and expression. Inspiration happens primarily at the conceptual level. Verbal theory goes beyond this and claims that inspiration extends to every word used. Difficulties arise, however, for the verbal theory when considering the use of non-canonical and even pagan sources in Scripture (e.g., Jude 9, 14-15; Acts 17:28), the forgetfulness occasionally expressed by authors (1 Cor 1:15-16), the inexactness of quotations of Scripture, and the rare but significant errors in grammar and syntax (e.g., the Greek in Revelation). When considering the phenomenon of Scripture and its didactic witness to itself, the dynamic theory best explains the mode of inspiration of Scripture.

While the historic affirmation of Christianity has been that the Bible is “true,” the issue remains as to how and to what extent the Scriptures are true. Once again, considering the Bible’s witness to itself, absolute truthfulness is claimed (e.g., Ps 12:6; 19:7; 33:4; John 10:34; Rev 21:5; 22:6). The Christian tradition has expressed this affirmation by claiming Scripture is “infallible,” a word which encapsulates the absolute truthfulness of Scripture and the necessary historical, cultural, and linguistic accommodation. In North America, however, the fundamentalist debates sparked by liberalism saw the incorporation of the word “inerrant” to describe the authority and reliability of the Bible. While affirmation of inerrancy in no uncertain terms captures the truthfulness of Scripture, there is danger in

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describing the truthfulness of the Bible in terms that are so culturally conditioned and historically narrow. Thus, it may perhaps be best to express Scripture’s truthfulness in terms of “veracity,” a word which reflects the Bible’s own emphasis on God’s reliability and faithfulness to his own Word (cf. Rev 3:14; 19:9; 21:5; 22:6). A final issue to be explored is the matter of the basis for belief in the Bible’s authority, inspiration, and veracity. While appeal may be made to the church which approves and canonizes Scripture, or to a modernist rational inquiry into the scientific and historical accuracy of Scripture, it is perhaps best to once more rest one’s belief on God’s own character—specifically, his fidelity and integrity. The primary authentication of Scripture is not ecclesial or scientific but rather internal, through the work of the Holy Spirit. The Bible’s authority derives not from itself as such, but from the fact that the Holy Spirit speaks through Scripture.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss what it means to be “led by the Holy Spirit.” Have students discuss why they think the Bible is true.

Suggested Essay Questions What is the extent of the Holy Spirit’s activity in the old covenant? What is “baptism in the Holy Spirit?” How should the inspiration of Scripture be assessed and expressed? How should the veracity of Scripture be assessed and expressed?

7.1 – Sons and Daughters of the King

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Key Terms anthropology, human condition, humanism, Urzeit, Endzeit, special creationism, progressive creationism, theistic evolution

Key Points An atheist or humanist understanding of humanity can hold no ultimate purpose for existence. In the Christian story, humans were created as God's viceregents, to rule over creation in glory. This glory was damaged by the fall, but God's aim is to restore it through Christ.

Chapter SummaryIf humans are viewed as purely material beings, they have no purpose. The cruel irony of the

human condition is that humans have evolved to the point to realize that their existence is meaningless. Christians believe that humanity is complex because God made it as the pinnacle of creation. Humans were created as God's viceregents and are called to have dominion over the rest of creation. Humanity was created to glorify God and the gospel is the story of humanity regaining its stake in divine glory. Salvation restores people to true humanity, bringing the new self to life. Due to the fall, the glory that humanity once possessed has been tarnished. God's goal is to return humanity to the glory they had in the garden of Eden by uniting creation with Christ.

The doctrine of humanity raises the question of whether there was a literal Adam and Eve. This question is answered differently by special creationists, progressive creationists, and theistic evolutionists. In a progressive creation framework, it is still necessary to maintain a literal Adam and Eve. Genesis 1 is primarily about refuting pagan creation narratives, not the theory of evolution. However, it is still a historically grounded account of the beginning of humanity, and necessary to maintain Paul's Adam Christology.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students formulate a statement about the purpose of humanity's existence. Collect statements about humanity, the human condition, and the purpose of existence from

various worldviews. Compare these to the Christian view.

Suggested Essay Questions What does it mean to be human? It is only in Christ that persons become authentically human. Discuss. Was there a literal Adam and Eve?

7.2 – Image of God

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Key Terms anthropology, image of God (imago dei), substantive view, relational view, functional view, royal view, ontology, icon

Key Points Humans are made in the image of God. This image is variously described as being substantive,

relational, functional, or royal. The image is marred through the fall, which is why God sent Jesus, the perfect human being, to

redeem humanity.

Chapter SummaryThe fact that humans are created in the image of God is central to the doctrine of humanity.

This divine image is restored in Christ, and even defined by his humanity. This idea originates in Genesis 1. However, the nature of the image is debated. The substantive view holds that the image is some physical, psychological, or spiritual characteristic that is shared by God and humans. For Augustine, the image was marred at the fall, while the Cappadocian Fathers saw the image as being completely erasedpreserved though the likeness was lost. The relational view holds that the image of God is the human capacity for relationships. Human relationships reflect intra-Trinitarian relationships. The functional view believes that humans bear the image of God in their role of exercizing dominion over creation. This reflects God's rule over the universe. Finally, the royal view modifies the functional view and holds that humanity is royal and created to rule. This fits best with the Ancient Near East context, and means that humanity is the means through which God expresses his sovereignty and presence in the world.

Because of the fall, humans fail to bear God's image as they should. Jesus is the perfect image or icon of God, representing God to the world in a way that Adam and Eve failed to do. He also calls other humans or icons into relationship with him. Salvation means being conformed to the image of God's Son, the perfect human being.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students brainstorm what they believe the image of God means. Have students discuss how the royal view of the image of God leads us to preserve and promote

life. What are some practical ways we can do this?

Suggested Essay Questions What does the image of God consist of? In what way is Jesus Christ the perfect human being?

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7.3 – What is Humanity? The Human Constitution

Key Terms anthropology, body, soul, spirit, dualism, anthropological dichotomism, anthropological trichotomism, anthropological monism, intermediate state, psychosomatic unity

Key Points There are three ways to describe the composition of the human being: anthropological

dichotomism (soul/spirit and body), trichotomism (spirit, soul and body) and monism (body). Anthropological dichotomism is the most biblical of these options.

A union between body and soul is intrinsic to being human; this is known as a psychosomatic unity.

Chapter SummaryChristians have generally maintained that people are made up of material and immaterial

elements. There are three main ways to explain the composition of human nature. Anthropological dichotomism holds that humanity is made up of a body and an immaterial part, interchangeably called a spirit and a soul. Historically, this is the most common position, as it explains why “spirit” and “soul” occur in synonymous parallelism, and that the soul survives after death. Anthropological trichotomism attributes a body (physical), soul (psychological) and spirit (spiritual) to humans. This position makes too much distinction between the soul and spirit; the texts that use both are likely emphatic. Anthropological monism regards humans as an indivisible unity. This position believes that humans cannot exist without a body, and that references to the soul are metaphorical. Green argues that neuroscience indicates that neurological functions are physical, thus indicating the unity of the human composition. However, the monist view flounders when we approach the passages that teach a conscious intermediate state. Hence, the dichotomist view is the most plausible. Humans consist of bodies animated by God-given, immaterial “life.” The body and soul are united in a psychosomatic unity; their union is intrinsic to our being.

Pedagogical Suggestions Begin the class by asking students what they believe about the composition of human beings,

and what they have been taught in their churches. Ask them to think about the scriptural warrant for these views.

Suggested Essay Questions Do humans have a soul? What does the soul consist of? A trichotomistic view of the human constitution owes more to Greek philosophy than Scripture.

Discuss.

7.4 – What Is the Problem With Humanity?

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Key Terms sin, hamartiology, lawlessness, transgression, rebellion, perversion, missing the mark, total depravity, free will, Pelagianism, Semi-Pelagianism, original sin, concupiscence

Key Points The Bible uses a variety of images to describe sin, which is the problem to which the gospel

announces the solution. Sin has a variety of consequences, the most powerful of which is death. Humans are totally depraved; all of their thoughts and actions are infected with sin. They cannot

overcome their sinful nature except by God's grace. Sin entered the world through Adam, and humans inherit both a corrupted nature and guilt for

Adam's sin.

Chapter SummaryThe gospel assumes that something has gone wrong in the divine-human relationship. Humans

are estranged, trapped, defiled, enslaved, condemned and dead, left this way by sin. The Bible gives many images for sin, including violating God's law, crossing a boundary, and missing the mark. The New Testament assumes that humanity is inherently sinful, that sin is humanity's rebellious attitude towards God's will, and that salvation grants remission of sins and reconciliation with God. Sin is despising God and any attempt to dethrone God.

Sin's most powerful consequence is death. This occurs physically, spiritually, and eternally. However, through the gospel Jesus atones for sin and declares victory over death. Sin has several other consequences: it causes guilt and estrangement from God; it causes degeneration to individuals and groups, making people less human; it enslaves people to their sins and hardens the heart, causing those who are enslaved to it to deny their sin and its consequences; it causes and furthers the self-centeredness that is at the heart of sin. Humans are totally depraved, which means not that they have no propensity for good, but that every aspect of their being is permeated by sin. The question of how free humans are to choose God over sin has been long debated. Pelagius taught that God commands things because humans have the ability to obey them; “ought” means “can.” Augustine believed that human free will is incapacitated by sin, so that divine grace is needed to restore it. Though Pelagianism was rejected, semi-Pelagianism remained, the view that humans cooperate with divine grace to receive salvation. During the Reformation, Luther and Calvin both argued that the will is only free to do what it desires most. Sin works in the will so that a person desires self-gratification rather than pleasing God. We are dead to sin, and if we are to choose God, we need his grace to change our will and set us free from our sinful desires.

Sin entered the world through Adam, and from there spread throughout humanity. This raises the questions of what effect Adam's sin had on the rest of humanity and whether later humans are also culpable for Adam's sin? The term “original sin” describes humanity's inherited corruption and guilt that they received from Adam. According to Pelagius, humanity inherited a bad example from Adam. Semi-Pelagians believe that we receive a corrupted nature with a disposition towards sinning from him. Finally, Augustine argued that we receive both a corrupted nature from Adam, and his guilt imputed to us. The main passage that addresses this topic is Romans 5:12-21, where Paul shows how the law did not redeem fallen humanity, but only prompted desire and affirmed sin's consequences. Humans are “in Adam,” meaning that we inherit his sinful nature. Blocher believes that humans are viewed through the legal identity of Adam, and Adam's sin efficaciously secures the condemnation of all because they are represented by him. By being born into a world filled with corruption and death, we sin, and our sin can be reckoned as originating in Adam. This solution balances the corporate and individual aspects of the discussion. We are not guilty for Adam's sin, but we are guilty in Adam. This illustrates that a doctrine

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of original sin is scriptural.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss Bird's suggestion that “evil” communicates the idea of sin to a

postmodern audience much more clearly than the word “sin” does (p 670). Read Psalm 51 to the class and say a general prayer of confession to make the teaching on sin

more personal. Close with thanksgiving and an assurance of forgiveness.

Suggested Essay Questions Sin makes people less human. Discuss. Do humans inherit guilt from Adam?

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7.5 – The Odyssey of Theodicy

Key Terms evil, apologetics, natural/physical evil, moral evil, social evil, metaphysical evil, supernatural evil, the Satan, omnipotence, omnibenevolence, theodicy, Gnosticism, demiurge, free will defence, open theism

Key Points Theodicy, the task of explaining why a perfectly good and all-powerful God allows suffering, is

an important apologetic task. To declare something evil requires an acceptance of moral absolutes. There are many attempts to solve the problem of evil, such as Gnosticism, free will defence, and

open theism. The ultimate answer to the problem of evil is the gospel: God is sovereign over evil, and

defeated evil at the cross.

Chapter SummaryThe world is infected by evil, which leads many to wonder why God doesn't stop it. Christianity

takes evil more seriously than other worldviews, and announces the end of evil in the gospel. The way an evangelical faith addresses evil is an important part of apologetics. There are various types of evil in the world. Natural or physical evil refers to natural events, such as famine or natural disasters, which cause pain. Moral evil is the harm that humans cause each other, and social evil is harm that is perpetuated indirectly through social structures. Metaphysical evils are the limitations that prevent creatures from reaching their ideal state. Supernatural evil is the evil perpetrated by the Satan, which centers around deception, temptation, and destruction.

The problem of evil is the question of how a perfectly good and powerful God can permit evil to exist, and theodicy is the task of answering this question. The Bible does not minimize suffering, but includes the voices of those who have suffered greatly, and proclaims that God is the only one who can overcome it. However, the question presupposes what it intends to refute. Calling something “evil” requires an absolute standard by which evil may be judged. If there is no objective truth or absolute morality, statements about evil become statements of opinion and preference.

Christians have wrestled with the problem of evil for centuries. Gnosticism aimed to separate the Christian god from evil by claiming that the earth was made by a wicked demiurge. A popular response to the problem of evil is the free will defence. Evil is caused because God gave humans free will, because creating free creatures who will always choose good is a paradox. This is related to God's middle knowledge; Christians argue that God knew all possible worlds and chose to create the one with the most human freedom and the least suffering. The Bible often attributes evil to the actions of sinful people. However, it is not the ultimate cause of suffering. God's answer to Job's questioning is essentially “I am sovereign and work in ways you cannot understand.” This does not mean that God is the author of evil, but that he is sovereign over it and restrains it according to his good purpose. In contrast to this perspective, open theists argue that God shares in the suffering of his creation, and does not determine or even know the future. This does not describe the God of Job; our God is not merely omni-competent or doing his best, he is sovereign. The gospel is the ultimate answer to the problem of evil. Evil is an intrusion into God's good world, and he has made a way to rid the world of it through the cross and resurrection. Jesus shares in our humanity, pain and grief, enduring the brunt of evil and ridding it of its power.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students form small groups and share about a time when they had to trust God despite

pain, or have seen his faithfulness when he brought good out of evil.

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Have students discuss how the cross is the ultimate answer to the problem of evil. Have students research various evils in our world, such as totalitarian governments, persecution,

slave labour, etc. Have students share with the class, and spend time praying against these evils and for God's justice.

Suggested Essay Questions How is the cross the ultimate answer to the problem of evil? If God is sovereign, does that make him the author of evil? Evaluate the case for open theism.

8.1 – The Evangelical Church

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Key Terms ecclesiology, church, church triumphant, church militant, denomination, invisible church, visible church, catholic, kingdom, two kingdoms

Key Points The gospel and the church are inseparable. Evangelicalism is a theological ethos, not a denomination, and as such, many different forms of

ecclesiology may be termed “evangelical.” A light ecclesiology leads evangelicals towards the dangers of minimizing the importance of

physical unity, ignoring the traditions of the church, and hyper-individualism. A high Christology demands a high ecclesiology. The kingdom of God is not the same of the church, but it is present wherever God's Spirit works

among his people.

Chapter SummaryEvangelical churches have the gospel as their center, both in their proclamation and their

practice. As the gospel spreads into the world, so too should the church. Christians have always confessed that the church has a place in God's redemptive project. The Apostle's Creed identifies the church as a common union of believers, who are united through their love of God, fellowship with Christ, and life in the Spirit. Evangelicalism is an interdenominational movement based on theological similarities rather than a denominational entity. Hence, there is no determining evangelical ecclesiology; evangelicals are found in denominations with varying ecclesiologies. Evangelicals have traditionally paid little attention to the doctrine of ecclesiology, partially because minimal ecclesiology grants freedom to minister in a variety of contexts. However, they also tend to emphasize spiritual unity rather than visible unity. Evangelicals also tend to be anti-catholic and skeptical towards the history and traditions of the church. Evangelical ecclesiology can also give way to a hyper-individualism; though an individual response to the gospel is laudable, this view ignores the importance of the community of God's people. A high Christology should lead to a high ecclesiology, as the church is Christ's body. The church does not save, but is the mother of the saved, and nurtures her children on the gospel. The goal of the church is to be a community that oozes the gospel. The church is the company of the gospel, acting out the Christian story in their communal life. The church is the public face of the gospel, the place where non-Christians encounter God. The church interprets and explains the gospel as its members live according to the gospel. An evangelical ecclesiology mandates that the church be driven by the gospel.

Ecclesiology in Contention #1: Kingdom of God and the Church of GodHow does the kingdom relate to the church? The kingdom is the redemptive reign of God over

the world, inaugurated by Jesus, and to be consummated at the end of the age. The church is the union of God's people in the new age, who live according to the teachings, symbols and stories of Jesus. Some people identify the kingdom with the visible church, a popular understanding wherever the church has political influence and power. However, this view does not take the kingdom's future element into account, and can lead to triumphalism and a lack of self-criticism. Reformed and Lutheran theology has posited two kingdoms, one secular and one sacred. This helpfully separates the church from state power, and promotes religious freedom. However, it also compartmentalizes the sacred from the secular and does not consistently affirm Christ's universal lordship. A better suggestion is to say that wherever God's people gather and where the Spirit is working, the reign of God is manifested. The church is not the kingdom, and we do not build the kingdom, but we do build for the kingdom. The kingdom creates the church, and the church is the embassy for the kingdom on earth. The church witnesses to the kingdom, and builds towards the kingdom.

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Pedagogical Suggestions At the beginning of class, ask the students to define the church and its purpose. Encourage

them to think about what role ecclesiology plays in their theology, and how important it is to them.

Have the class discuss whether ecclesiology is a blind spot in evangelicalism? Have the class discuss the suggestions for the direction of an evangelical ecclesiology listed on

p 703.

Suggested Essay Questions Is there such thing as an evangelical ecclesiology? An evangelical ecclesiology lacks catholicism. Discuss. How does the kingdom relate to the church? Trace the history of thought surrounding how the church relates to the kingdom.

8.2 – Biblical Images of the Church

Key Terms ecclesiology, church, people of God, elect, flock, priesthood, remnant, body of Christ, temple of God,

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new creation, supercessionism, dispensationalism, covenant

Key Points The church is the community of people called by God into covenant with himself. Terms that are used in both testaments to describe the community of believers are the people of

God, the elect, the flock, the priesthood, and the remnant. Images for the church that are unique to the New Testament are the body of Christ, temple of

God, and new creation. There are many ways of understanding the relationship between Christ and the church, such as

dispensationalism and supercessionism. The best way of understanding the relationship is to see Christ as the fulfillment of Israel, who brings Israel's salvation to the Gentiles.

Chapter SummaryThe church is not a human institution, but a people called by God into covenant relationship as

the consequence of the purpose of the Triune God. As the new covenant is the fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant, the church began in the Old Testament. There are several images of the church which occur in both testaments. The church is the people of God, which describes the believing community who are organized around God's covenantal call. “Elect” describes a people chosen by God, who are special objects of his covenant and love. The authors of Scripture describe God as the great shepherd who cares for his flock. Israel was called to be a holy priesthood, meaning that they were to worship God and live in holiness, as a witness to the nations. Despite Israel's disobedience to God, God preserved a remnant who would form a new nation purified by judgment.

There are also several images for the church that are unique to the New Testament. The body of Christ describes the church's organic unity with Christ and the other members, and that Christ is the head of the church. Though the church is not an extension of the incarnation, they are the physical and visible locus of Jesus’ work in the world. Secondly, the church is the temple of God, as believers are corporately and individually indwelt by the Holy Spirit. This temple is constructed with Christ as the foundation. Thirdly, the members of the church are regarded as new creations. The glory that was defaced by the fall is restored, and believers are the first installment of the eschatological restoration. To summarize these images, we can say that the church is a living chapel of the gospel. In evangelism, believers draw people into the new covenantal life of the believing community. We see that salvation requires identifying oneself with the saved, being part of the church.

Ecclesiology in Contention #2: The Church and IsraelThe question of how the church relates to Israel has long been controversial. Christianity began

as a renewal movement within Judaism, but after AD 70 it parted ways from its parent institution. Marcion aimed to de-Judaize Christianity in the second century. Years later, Reformed theology's emphasis on covenants led to supercessionism, where the church is seen as replacing Israel in God's plan. Dispensational theology typically makes a distinction between the church and Israel, and sees that the promises made to Israel will be fulfilled in Israel and not in the church. Some Pauline scholars believe that Jesus is the Saviour of Gentiles only, and that the Jews will be saved in their own special way.

The first way to move past these suggestions is to consider that the early church used “Israel” as an honorific title, indicating a people with a special relationship with God. Israelite identity seemed fluid, and Paul considers Israel's history to be the ancestry of both Jews and Gentiles. Furthermore, we must understand Jesus’ ministry within the context of Jewish restoration eschatology. Jesus’ ministry inaugurated the kingdom, which allowed Israel to be the means through which salvation would reach the world. Jesus is the embodiment of Israel, fulfilling the roles God gave to the nation. Hence, it is impossible to view the church apart from the history and identity of Israel. The story of Jesus is the

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fulfillment of the promises God made throughout Israel's history. At the Jerusalem Council, James describes the incorporation of the Gentiles as fulfilling prophecies of restoration (cf. Amos 9:11). Most of Paul's references to Israel describe his unbelieving fellow-Jews, but he does use “Israel of God” to describe the church (Gal 6:16). He also uses terms such as “circumcision” to denote Christians. The Catholic Letters see the election of Israel as including the church. In conclusion, the church does not replace Israel, but is the representative of Israel in the messianic age. The church must be Israel, because there is no salvation outside of Israel. The church's story continues the story of Israel. The unity of God's people secures the unity of God's plan. There is hope for Israel to respond to the gospel—the church's inheritance of Israel's promises does not mean that God has written Israel off.

Pedagogical Suggestions At the start of the lesson, have students compile a list of Biblical images for God's people. Ask

them if they think any one image to be primary. Have students discuss what they would say to someone who believed that it is possible to be a

Christian without belonging to a church.

Suggested Essay Questions Evaluate a supercessionist reading of Scripture. What is the connection between the church and Israel?

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8.3 – The Shape of the Church

Key Terms ecclesiology, marks of the church, eschatological community, Trinitarian community, diaconal community, fellowshipping community, holistic community, visible church, invisible church, mysticism, sacraments

Key Points The church is to be an eschatological, Trinitarian, diaconal, fellowshipping, and holistic

community. An evangelical ecclesiology needs to balance its emphasis on the visible and invisible church.

Chapter SummaryThis chapter explores certain characteristics of the church. Firstly, the church is an

eschatological community; it marks the beginning of the new age through its testimony to the resurrection and the presence of the Spirit. What the church is to be is determined by what it is to become. Hence, the church is to await the Lord's return in purity and holiness, and spreading the testimony of Christ in the world. Secondly, the church is a Trinitarian community. Human relationships imitate the perfect union in the Godhead, and the three-in-oneness of God is the model for the unity-in-diversity of the church. Thirdly, the church is to serve others, both those in and outside the church community. The church's service is to involve both practical assistance and in proclaiming the gospel. Fourthly, the church is characterized by fellowship. This is deeper than friendship, and indicates mutual participation, partnership and generosity. The fellowship we have with each other is the outworking of the fellowship we have with each other, celebrated in the Eucharist. Finally, the church is to be a holistic community nurtured on Spirit, Word, and sacrament.

Eschatology in Contention #3: The Visible and Invisible ChurchThe relationship between the visible and invisible church is contentious. The visible church is

the group of people who can be witnessed going to church on Sunday, the people identified with the institution of the church in the world. The invisible church is the body of the regenerate and is undetectable to the naked eye. Popular evangelicalism tends to prefer the invisible church over the visible church. However, while not identical, the visible and invisible church are inseparable; the true church is the invisible church becoming visible.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students discuss how their churches display their Trinitarian theology. Have them list

songs, liturgical prayers, creeds, and sermons they have heard that mention the Trinity, and have them brainstorm how more Trinitarianism can be incorporated into the church's life.

Suggested Essay Questions What is the place of practical service in a gospel-focused ecclesiology and missiology? What are the dangers of an imbalance between the visible and invisible church?

8.4 – The Marks of the Church

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Key Terms ecclesiology, church, marks, one, holy, catholic, apostolic, sacraments, church discipline

Key Points The Nicene Creed describes the church as being “one, holy, catholic and apostolic.” The Reformers described the church as being characterized by right preaching of the Word and

right administration of the sacraments. Unity is essential for God's church.

Chapter SummaryThe marks of the church are those identifying and authenticating features by which the church

can be distinguished. Traditionally, the marks of the church have been seen as “one, holy, catholic and apostolic.” The Reformers described the true church as being characterized by the proper preaching of the Word and right administration of the sacraments. The oneness of the church derives from God's election; he calls one people to form the body of his Son. This does not mean that believers are to be uniform, but that they are to manifest a unity-in-diversity. The Spirit that unites believers is far stronger than anything that might divide them. Holiness is both a God-given status and an ethical standard to live up to. Holiness ensures the distinction between the church and the world, which is essential to the church's mission. Catholicity describes the universal church, spread across many regions, with Christ as its head. Hence catholicity is an expression of the church's oneness. The final mark of the church is apostolicity. Roman Catholics understand the church's apostolicity as expressed in a continuous line of bishops from the first apostles to the present day. Protestants prefer to describe apostolicity in terms of faithfulness to the apostolic message.

During the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church used these marks to criticize the Reformers as being schismatic. The Reformers answered that the true church is found where there is right preaching of the word and administration of the sacraments (some also added the application of church discipline). Thus, the marks of the church are an expression of the apostolic gospel. In this way, the Reformers’ marks of the church are consistent with the traditional marks of the church.

Ecclesiology in Contention #4: The Unity of the ChurchSadly, disunity has long been an element of the church. Unity is God's intention for the church

and should be a sign of the unity of the Godhead and his love for believers. Christian unity is precious to God, and is not a negotiable part of our churches. Unity is crucial to Christian witness in the world, and fosters growth in the church. Despite the plethora of denominations and Christian groups in the world, there are genuine expressions of unity in the church today.

Pedagogical Suggestions Ask students how they see the marks of the church expressed in their churches. Have students discuss the section “Ecclesiology in Contention #4.” How do they see the

problem of disunity manifesting itself in the church? What can be done to foster unity?

Suggested Essay Questions Evangelical churches lack catholicism. Discuss. By what criteria should the apostolicity of a church be judged? Is the nature of the true church better encapsulated in the marks of the Reformers or the marks

of the Nicene Creed?8.5 – Governance of the Church

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Key Terms ecclesiology, church, episcopal, presbyterian, congregationalist, bishop, diocese, parish, priest, session, teaching elders, ruling elders, presbytery, synod/ general assembly, deacon, elder, pastor

Key Points There are three main models of church governance: episcopal, presbyterian, and

congregationalist. Episcopal church government focuses on the bishop, who oversees a diocese of parishes run by

priests. Presbyterian church governments elect a session of elders to rule each congregation, and these

sessions are combined to form a presbytery, which rules over all the churches in that area. Congregational churches elect all the leadership positions democratically, and each church

congregation is an independent entity in terms of governance. Ultimately, the health of a church depends more upon the godliness of its leaders than the way

its authority is structured. The purpose of the church is mission, making disciples, administering the sacraments, kingdom

work, and worship.

Chapter SummaryThere are many different models for how authority and accountability in a church should be

structured, which can be categorized as episcopal, presbyterian and congregationalist. Episcopalian church governance, which focuses on the role of bishops, is found in Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran churches. The church is structured into regional dioceses, over which one or more bishops have responsibility, and which consist of parishes led by priests. Catholics and Anglo-Catholics argue that the twelve apostles were the prototype for the college of bishops. Certainly, James functioned as the center of apostolic authority in Jerusalem, and the Jerusalem church had authority over other regions. This was the model that developed in the early church, as the regional bishop was regarded as a source of unity and right teaching. The episcopal system is defined by the continued succession of overseers and ministers through formal ordination and consecration. However, several criticisms can be raised against this model: the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal primacy lacks scriptural support; the New Testament uses the words episkopos and presbyteros synonymously; in the early church the overseer acted more like a senior pastor than a bishop; and this form of church government can be the hardest to reform.

Presbyterianism, the form of church government favored by Presbyterian and Reformed churches, is organized around the “session,” the group of elders who run a congregation. The group is divided into “teaching elders,” or pastors, and “ruling elders,” who are lay people leading the congregation and make administrative decisions. Teaching and ruling elders from each congregation combine to form a presbytery, which has governance over all the churches in a particular region. Representatives from each presbytery then combine to form a synod or general assembly, which has authority over the entire denominational body. The office of elder is found in both Testaments of Scripture, and New Testament churches were characterized by the leadership of a plurality of elders. The system draws much warrant from Scripture and ensures that both clergy and lay people have authority over the church. However, the division between teaching and ruling elders seems artificial; the presbyterian system requires many courts and institutions that are not described in Scripture; and proponents of this system need to wrestle with the emergence of the monoepiscopacy that emerged as the church developed.

Congregationalist churches are governed by democratic rule of the congregation, who appoint officers such as deacons, elders and pastors. Each church is independent and autonomous, though different congregations may join associations or alliances. Most commonly, these churches either have

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one elder, a body of deacons, and a congregation; or a plurality of elders, deacons, and a congregation. This form of church governance is common among Baptists, Pentecostals, and Churches of Christ. This model attempts to express the early church's tendency to be visible independent, but spiritually interdependent. Election of leaders and discipline by the people is also seen in the New Testament. Congregationalism also attempts to express the priesthood of all believers in its governing structures. The weaknesses of this model are that it fails to realize that Paul and Barnabas appointed elders, rather than the congregations they served; and that it minimizes the expression of unity and interdependence between the wider body of Christ, as well as minimizing accountability. Finally, the democratic election of leaders is not unique to congregationalists, but is expressed in the other systems as well.

A close examination of Scripture indicates that the early church used many models of governance, and that each of the contemporary models of governance may claim some scriptural warrant. Ultimately, the church exists for the sake of the gospel, and any form of leadership that encourages a congregation to be gospel-focused has scriptural warrant. The godliness of the people in leadership has far more effect on a church than its leadership structure.

Ecclesiology in Contention #5: The Purpose of the ChurchThere are many facets to the church's purpose as it awaits the return of Christ. The gospel is to

be at the heart of the church's ministry, and this is to be expressed in evangelism and mission. Mission is an eschatological event that continues the ministry of Jesus and builds toward the ultimate victory of God over rebellion in this world. Secondly, the goal of mission is not to log conversions, but to make disciples. The role of teachers is to so ground believers in Scripture that they grow up into maturity in Christ. The administration of the sacraments is more of a feature of the church than part of its purpose. However, church leaders need to make room for the sacraments in their services so that the congregation may be spiritual nourished and unified. Fourthly, the church is to engage in kingdom work, bringing salvation, redemption and deliverance to all of creation. Such works of justice, compassion and political engagement are essential if the church is to salt and light in the world. Finally, the church is to be a place of worship, as the body of Christ draws near to their God in celebration, obedience and praise. Authentic Christian worship incorporates both action and adoration, and can be seen as the primary purpose of the church's existence.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have ministers from different denominations come to talk to the class about their denomination. Have students complete a table comparing and contrasting the different styles of church

governance. Have them list the strengths and weaknesses of each style of governance. Have students share their experiences in their various churches. Ask them to evaluate the

different styles of church government they have experienced. Have students debate which style of church governance is most biblical. At the beginning of the lesson, have students brainstorm what they think the purpose of the

church is.

Suggested Essay Questions Which model of church government is the most biblical? Pragmatism is the best means for determining an ecclesiastical structure. Discuss. Trace the development of church government structures throughout the first five centuries of

church history. Which model ended up predominating? Why? What is the purpose of the church? What is worship? What Scriptural principles should guide the practice of worship in our

churches and Christian life? What biblical precedence is there for the practice of ordination?

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It is better to belong to a denomination than an independent church. Discuss.

8.6 – Emblems of the Gospel: Baptism and the Lord's Supper

Key Terms sacrament, ordinance, baptism, Eucharist (Lord's Supper/Communion), paedobaptism, credobaptism, dual baptism, immersion, affusion, baptismal regeneration, elements, transubstantiation, accidents,

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substance, consubstantiation, paedocommunion

Key Points Protestants recognise two sacraments: baptism and the Lord's Supper. There are three positions on who should be baptized: paedobaptism, credobaptism, and dual

baptism. Different churches have different practices regarding the mode of baptism: immersion or

affusion. The Eucharist is the meal that commemorates Christ's death. There are four positions regarding Christ's presence in the Eucharist: Catholic

(transubstantiation), Lutheran (consubstantiation), Reformed (spiritual presence) and Zwinglian (symbolic).

The Eucharist gives a genuine spiritual benefit. Any mature believer may preside over it and churches should practice an open table.

Paedocommunion is the practice of children receiving communion, which is in accordance with covenant theology.

Chapter SummaryProtestants recognise the two sacraments instituted by Christ: baptism and the Lord's Supper. A

sacrament is a means of grace, by which God's divine presence is actualized in the midst of the believing community. Hence the word sacrament is preferable to the word “ordinance,” which indicates a ritual that is symbolic in character. Baptism and the Lord's Supper are clearly symbolic, but their benefit goes beyond this; they also impart grace to the recipients. This grace is rooted in Christ; the sacraments remember, realize and rehearse the central promise of the gospel.

Baptism is the rite of passage that proclaims a person's entry into the church. But there are many questions to address surrounding who should be baptized, how they should be baptized, and what baptism does for the recipient. There are three answers to the question “who should be baptized,” which are termed paedobaptism, credobaptism and dual baptism. Paedobaptism is the baptizing of infants, though adults who are new to the church may also be baptized under this system. Infant baptism initiates children into the new covenant and the visible church. This view is justified by Reformed understanding of covenant, whereby baptism is seen as the new covenant equivalent of circumcision. Just as circumcision was a sign of the promise for children in the covenant family of Israel, so now baptism is the sign of the promise for the children of the covenant family in the church. Jesus’ welcoming of children and the reports of entire households being baptized are used to support this position. Early church practice certainly does not rule out infant baptism, and the system best provides a way of understanding how children fit into the church. Credobaptism is the baptism of persons upon their profession of faith. This view stems not so much from the scriptural absence of infant baptism, but from the belief that the church consists entirely of a regenerate membership. Credobaptists also point to the correlation between conversion and baptism in the New Testament and the inherent symbolism of dying to sin and rising to new life to justify their position. The third position is dual baptism, in which churches allow both views of baptism to be practiced side-by-side. This view allows for the fact that the New Testament appears to show that second-generation Christians were regarded as baptized by the representation of their parents. It allows for the fact that both views of baptism were practiced concurrently until the third century. It acknowledges that there are benefits to both views. Baptism itself is a second-order doctrine, meaning it should not be a source of disunity between Christians. It is important to have a ritual to mark the birth of a child into a Christian family, and one to say that the child has appropriated their parents’ faith for themselves; where one puts the water is of secondary importance.

Another question associated with baptism is how it should be practiced; should people be

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immersed or sprinkled? Baptism by full immersion carries the connotations of dying the death of Christ; they descend into the water in memory of his death, and emerge again to commemorate the resurrection. However, baptism by sprinkling evokes being baptized by the Holy Spirit and cleansing from sin. Both practices should be retained, as both theological understandings are central to baptism's importance. The blessing given in baptism is variously understood. Some see it as a public testimony of the inward reality of conversion. The only benefit is that of obedience. Others believe that baptism is the moment of new birth (baptismal regeneration). In Catholic thought, this regeneration happens regardless of the faith of the participants, though other traditions would disagree. In this view, baptism is regarded as the moment of reception of the Spirit, the instrument of union with Christ, and the source of several salvific blessings. Several scripture passages used to support this position testify that baptism is more than a symbol. The early church believed that grace was given by the Spirit, but also that this grace was inseparably linked with baptism, faith, union with Christ, and the life of the age to come.

The Eucharist commemorates the death of Christ and is a symbol of unity within the church. It is a microcosm of theology, because what we believe about the gospel, salvation, Christ and community is expressed through our practice of it. The Eucharist is the gospel meal for the gospelizing community. However, it has also become a source of contention; questions surround how Jesus is present during the Eucharist, what benefit it gives, who can preside, and who can receive communion.

Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox believe that the Eucharist re-presents the sacrifice of Christ, and that the elements become the body and blood of Christ during the service. Catholics express this through the doctrine of transubstantiation, which involves distinguishing between the accidents, or physical appearance, and substance, which is the true nature of something. The accidents remain as bread and wine, while the substance becomes Christ's body and blood. In this view, the Eucharist facilitates union with Christ, infuses communicants with grace, and is even offered for those who have died. Christ is the head of the Eucharist and presides over it invisibly, and only a validly ordained bishop or priest may stand in his stead to distribute it to the congregation.

The Lutheran view is largely a response to the Catholic view; Lutherans reject transubstantiation, but still believe in the real physical presence of Christ in the elements. The Lutheran view, consubstantiation, teaches that Christ body and blood are “in, with and under” the bread and wine. Christ's presence is not identical with the elements, but is contained within them. The Lord's Supper offers forgiveness of sins, and is efficacious through the union of Word and Eucharist. Only ordained clergy may administer the Eucharist.

Ulrich Zwingli is associated with the view that the Eucharist is symbolic and commemorative. This view draws on the fact that the Passover meal, on which the Supper is based, was a commemorative meal. Many proponents of this view do not regard the Eucharist as solely symbolic, but rather that it celebrates Christ's constant presence with his people. However, Christ is not present in the elements, and the Eucharist's benefit is that it is an aid to faith. Generally, churches that follow this view cite the priesthood of all believers and do not restrict presidency to the clergy.

The view of Calvin and some other Reformers is here referred to as the Reformed view. This view teaches that communicants feed on Christ's spiritual body in the elements, using the motif of a spiritual ascent to heaven. The Reformed view acknowledges the symbolism present in the service, but teaches that it is a sacrament, a sign and seal of the covenant of grace, as well. Thus, it gives spiritual nourishment and grace, creating a bond between the communicants and Christ. Calvin emphasizes the importance of the Holy Spirit, without whom the sacraments do not profit.

On the issue of Christ's presence in the Eucharist, the Catholic view seems to teach that the elements are mutated into Christ. Their Aristotelian physics are unconvincing. The difference between transubstantiation and consubstantiation seems mainly semantic. Paul teaches that the Eucharist remembers Christ until he returns—so Christ's body is in heaven, not present on earth during the Eucharist. Against the Zwinglian view, the Eucharist is certainly a memorial, but also accords the believer fellowship with Jesus. The early church quickly developed a belief in Jesus’ presence during

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communion. Hence, the Reformed view has the most explanatory power when it comes to presence. In terms of profit, the Eucharist is a means of grace. It points ahead to the Messianic feast, recalls Jesus’ death, gives us a genuine spiritual benefit, and unites the body of Christ. And any believer may preside over the Eucharist because of the priesthood of all believers, though they should be spiritually mature. Though many practice closed communion and do not allow believers of other traditions to participate with them, the Scriptures favor an open communion table. The Lord's table should be welcoming, as Christ was welcoming with his table fellowship. Warnings against partaking the supper in an unworthy manner refer to class discriminations in the church, rather than unconfessed sin in the heart. The Eucharist should demonstrate the unity of the church, the gospel meal for all who come to Jesus. Finally, the Eucharist should be practiced “frequently.”

Ecclesiology in Contention #6: PaedocommunionThe issue of whether children should receive communion is generally only an issue in churches

that practice infant baptism. Some covenant theologians have argued that the children of the covenant should participate in the covenant meal. There is also evidence that children participated in communion in the early church, a practice continued in the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Children who understand the significance of the meal should be allowed to participate, though they may not express it in adult terms.

Pedagogical Suggestions Have students debate two different views of baptism or the Lord's Supper. Have students list the strengths and weaknesses of each perspective on who should be baptized,

and what the benefit of the Eucharist is. Have students work in groups to list the ideas that are symbolised in the Baptism and the

Eucharist. Have them share their findings with the class.

Suggested Essay Questions Outline and defend your view of baptism. Outline and defend your view of the Lord's Supper. Who should be baptized? What does baptism give to the receiver? What is the symbolism inherent in the act of baptism? Does the mode of baptism effect this

symbolism? Who can preside over the Eucharist? How is Christ present in the Eucharist? Is the Eucharist a sacrament? Evaluate the case for paedocommunion.

Student Learning Objectives

1.1 – What is Theology?

The students will be able to:

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1. Define theology as an intellectual discipline.2. Identify key historical definitions of theology from theologians both ancient and modern.3. Differentiate theology from other disciplines in two key areas.4. Identify the importance of undertaking theology in a community of faith.5. Describe the concern of evangelical theology.6. Define “gospelizing” and note its importance.7. Express the task of theology using the metaphor of drama.

1.2 – What Do You Have to Say before You Say Anything?

The students will be able to:1. Define prolegomena and state its task.2. Trace the impact of philosophical frameworks on prolegomena.3. Identify key figures in the development of prolegomena and Christian theology.4. Outline the impact of the Reformation on prolegomena and wider intellectual disciplines.5. Recognize the development and impact of the Enlightenment.6. Outline four characteristics of modernity.7. Outline two inadequate responses to modernity from post-Enlightenment theologians.8. Evaluate the contribution of Charles Hodge for prolegomena.9. Evaluate the contribution of Karl Barth for prolegomena.10. Outline key aspects of postmodernity and note responses from significant theologians.11. Defend the necessity of prolegomena for the task of theology.12. Outline eight reasons for the implementation of the gospel as the prolegomena of an evangelical

theology.

1.3 – What Is the Gospel?

The students will be able to:1. Be familiar with the gospel definition of N. T. Wright.2. Recognize that the gospel is the message of the kingdom of God.3. Demonstrate the connection between gospel and kingdom in both the Old Testament and the

New Testament.4. Recognize that the gospel includes the story of Jesus’ life, death, resurrection, and exaltation.5. Recognize that the gospel announces the identity of Jesus as Son of David, Son of God, and

Lord of the world.6. Identify the clash between the Roman empire and the Christian gospel.7. Demonstrate that the gospel is intimated in the Old Testament.8. Recognize key messianic passages in the Old Testament that are evoked by the New Testament.9. Recognize that the gospel calls for repentance and faith.10. Identify salvation as the chief benefit of the gospel.11. Offer a definition of the gospel which incorporates key theological fixtures.12. Identify and respond to two major deviations to the gospel, legalism and the social gospel.

1.4 – The Necessity and Goal of Theology

The students will be able to:

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1. Recognize the challenges often posed to the importance of studying theology.2. Defend the necessity of theology by arguing for the unification of biblical teaching.3. Recognize that only by doing theology can Christians respond to the ever-changing challenges

of contemporary culture.4. Identify theology as an important part of Christian discipleship and witness to the world.5. Acknowledge the necessity of theology in distinguishing between essential and nonessential

elements of the Christian faith.6. Recognize the importance of theology in combating heresy and error.7. Note the value of theology for demonstrating the interconnectedness of various Christian doc-

trines.8. Recognize the significance of theology in recounting the story of God and locating humanity

and its appropriate action in that story.9. Define the goal of theology as a deeper knowledge of God.10. Defend the necessity of theology by noting the importance of devotion to teaching for proper

discipleship and spiritual prosperity.

1.5 – Is Theology Possible?

The students will be able to:1. Recognize the danger of prizing a system of theology above the texts themselves.2. Identify theology as a fallible attempt to methodically present Christian belief.3. Acknowledge that the traditional areas of theology require that biblical material be pressed into

potentially unnatural categories.4. Note the variance among biblical authors, genres, and cultural settings, and recognize the diffi-

culty this poses for systematic theology.5. Recognize that systematic theology is often conditioned by the dominant philosophies of the

age.6. Defend the possibility of theology by identifying the traditional loci as the most useful categor-

ies for attempting to systematically present biblical material.7. Defend the possibility of theology by noting the importance of exegesis and biblical theology in

the construction of a systematic theology.8. Defend the possibility of theology by arguing that an awareness of one’s historical, cultural, and

intellectual location enables a self-critical attitude.

1.6 – Sources for Theology

The students will be able to:1. Identify the debate regarding the number, nature, and usage of sources in theology.2. Recognize that evangelical theology incorporates four sources: Scripture, tradition, nature, and

experience.3. Identify Scripture as the primary source for evangelical theology.4. Understand the various forms of the “Word of God” and defend the inspiration of the inscriptur-

ated Word of God.5. Recognize the danger in isolating theology from tradition.6. Be familiar with the interplay between Scripture and tradition in the early church, particularly in

the process of canonization.7. Define regula fidei and understand its importance in the theological development of the church.

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8. Understand the nature of “believing criticism” toward tradition, and identify tradition as the consultative norm for theology.

9. Navigate the debate regarding “natural theology” and identify natural revelation as the stimulus for theology.

10. Recognize that experience is the validating norm for theology.11. Be familiar with Richard Niebuhr’s five models of Christ and culture.12. Acknowledge the necessity of culture for doing theology and identify culture as the embedded

context for theology.

1.7 – Toward a Gospel-Driven Theological Method

The students will be able to:1. Identify the importance of methodology in constructing a theology.2. Outline the dangers of biblicism.3. Be familiar with the methodology of Wayne Grudem.4. Recognize the importance of incorporating sources other than a Bible and concordance in theo-

logy.5. Acknowledge that the goal of theology is not a list of theological propositions but engagement

and participation in the divine drama.6. Define apologetic theology and identify major proponents.7. Define dialectic theology and identify major proponents.8. Define the Wesleyan Quadrilateral and identify major proponents.9. Identify the five key steps in an evangelical method for theology.10. Recognize that the spiral between theology and practice continues after the construction of a

theology.

2.1 – God and the GospelThe students will be able to:

1. Uunderstand how the Trinity is the essential presupposition for the gospel.2. Uunderstand how the gospel fits within and is central to God's larger plan.

2.2 – Getting an Affinity for the Trinity

The students will be able to:1. Recognize the fundamentality of the doctrine of the Trinity.2. Demonstrate the biblical evidence for the Trinity.3. Understand how the doctrine of the Trinity developed.4. Identify key heretics and describe their views.

2.3 – What is God Like?

The students will be able to:1. Understand the difference between communicable and incommunicable attributes.2. Name, explain, and locate the attributes listed in the chapter in the Bible.3. Understand something of the debate of whether God is impassable or not.

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4. Explain that God transcends gender, but primarily masculine language is used to describe him.

2.4 – The God Who Creates

The students will be able to:1. Understand the continuity of the doctrine of creation from initial creation to new creation, and

the place of the gospel in this story.2. Explain the different elements of creational monotheism.3. Hold God's immanence within creation in tension with his transcendence from creation.4. Describe and critique other creational worldviews, such as Deism, Pantheism, Panentheism,

Henotheism, paganism, and Gnosticism.5. Explain and defend the elements of creation theology which are distinctly Christian, such as the

role of the Trinity in creation and the new creation.6. Explain why creation is intrinsically good, and defend the importance of this doctrine. 7. Explain, defend and explain the importance of the doctrine of creatio ex nihilo.

2.5 – The God Who Reveals Himself

The students will be able to:1. Understand why revelation is necessary if we are to know God.2. Understand that revelation comes in three forms: natural, special, and christological. Students

will be able to explain the differences between these forms of revelation.3. Explain what may be known by natural revelation, and why this knowledge is inadequate for

salvation, because of the hindrance of sin.4. Give an evaluation of the potential of natural theology and summarize the arguments for God's

existence it proposes and give an evaluation of each one. 5. State both the benefits and limitations to natural theology as a discipline of Christian theology.6. Understand the various forms of special revelation. 7. Understand the connection between history and revelation, and Scripture and revelation. 8. Explain how Scripture is both propositional and personal. 9. Understand the difference between revelation and illumination. 10. Understand why christological revelation is the highest and clearest form of revelation. They

will understand why the incarnation is necessary and how it fulfills God's Old Testament promises.

2.6 – God’s Purpose and Plan

The students will be able to:1. Explain what God's purpose is and how he achieves it.2. Explain the Dispensational and Reformed theological systems. They will understand the

strengths and weaknesses of each system.3. Outline a theological system for understanding the Bible as a whole.

3.1 – Gospel and Kingdom

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The students will be able to:1. Understand that eschatology is concerned with more than the end of time and is a theme that

pervades Scripture.2. Understand the necessity of eschatology and its practical application.

3.2 – Apocalypse Now... And Not Yet!

The students will be able to:1. Understand and be able to critique various approaches to biblical eschatology.2. Identify key theologians associated with each approach to biblical eschatology.3. Summarize the biblical teaching on eschatology.

3.3 – The Return of Jesus Christ

The students will be able to:1. Identify and summarize the Biblical passages that speak of Christ's return.2. Understand and be able to evaluate a preterist interpretation of Daniel and the Olivet Discourse.3. Understand how to live in the light of Christ's return.

3.4 – Millennium and Tribulation

The students will be able to:1. Describe each millennial position and explain the evidence for and against each position.2. Describe and evaluate the case for pretribulationism and posttribulationism. 3. Explain why the rapture is not a biblical doctrine.

3.5 – The Final Judgment

The students will be able to:1. Understand that judgment is primarily to be understood as God's vindication of his Son and his

people. 2. Understand that judgment is facing God without the cross and that this topic is closely linked to

soteriology.3. Explain how God's judgment is both restorative and retributive and how it displays God's glory.

3.6 – The Intermediate State: What Happens When You Die?

The students will be able to:1. Understand how personal eschatology fits into the context of the Bible's eschatology.2. Understand and be able to evaluate various perspectives on the intermediate state, such as

purgatory and soul sleep.3. Explain the Bible's teaching on the intermediate state.

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3.7 – The Final State: Heaven, Hell, and New Creation

The students will be able to:1. Explain the differences between heaven and the new creation.2. Explain how the new creation fulfills various scriptural themes.3. Understand the doctrine of hell and explain how it is a fitting expression of God's justice.

4.1 – The Gospel of God’s Son

The student will be able to:1. Identify Jesus Christ as the centerpiece of the gospel.2. Recognize that Christology is the study of both the person and work of Christ.3. Acknowledge that the story of Jesus set forth in the gospel must be seen in the wider narrative

of the story of God.4. Identify the centrality of Christology to other areas of theology.5. Identify the liberal error of accommodating theology to a pluralistic Zeitgeist and therefore di-

minishing the glory and supremacy of Christ.6. Identify the conservative error of venerating Scripture above Christ.7. Identify the solution to these errors as centering on what the gospel itself makes central: the per-

son of Jesus Christ.

4.2 – Christological Method

The students will be able to:1. Identify the challenges and areas of dispute in Christological methodology.2. Identify the first quest for the historical Jesus and note major contributors.3. Identify the impetus for the New Quest and note its characteristics.4. Note the contribution of the Jesus Seminar to historical Jesus research.5. Identify the Third Quest, note its major proponents, and outline the benefits of this quest.6. Define “Christology from Below” and note major proponents.7. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of “Christology from Below.”8. Define “Christology from Above” and note major proponents.9. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of “Christology from Above.”10. Be familiar with Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann’s approaches to Christology.11. Recognize that the gospel cannot be classified purely into one approach.12. Identify the proper approach to Christology as “from behind, below, above, and before” and

define this methodology.

4.2 – Christological Method

1. Analyze the contributions of the quests for the historical Jesus.2. What are the limitations of Christology from Below?3. Does Christology from Above necessitate a rift between the “historical Jesus” and the “Christ of

faith”? Why/why not?

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4. Evaluate Karl Barth’s contention that historical study of Jesus diminishes the importance of faith and trust in God’s revelation.

4.3 – The Life of Jesus

The students will be able to:1. Note the lacuna of the study of the life of Jesus in evangelical theology, ancient and contempor-

ary.2. Identify four ways in which Christ is present in the Old Testament.3. Acknowledge that the Old Testament is both prospectively and retrospectively Christological.4. Identify the main contribution of the Old Testament toward Christology as the provision of a

macrostructure which intimates Christ’s threefold office.5. Identify biblical testimony, explicit and implicit, to the virgin conception of Jesus.6. Defend the reality of the virgin conception.7. Note the significance of the virgin conception.8. Note key events in the life of Jesus and identify how they relate to the drama of redemption.9. Acknowledge that the unity between Jesus’ ministry and his death is found in the messianic vo-

cation to inaugurate the kingdom of God.10. Identify a threefold contribution of the life of Jesus to theology.11. Recognize the significance of Jesus as the connector between the story of Israel and the faith of

the church.12. Note the significance of the birth and life of Jesus for all other areas of theology.

4.4 – The Death of Jesus

The students will be able to:1. Define “recapitulation” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.2. Define “ransom” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.3. Define “Christus Victor” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.4. Define “satisfaction” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.5. Define “moral influence” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.6. Define “exemplary” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.7. Define “government” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.8. Define “penal substitution” as a mode of the atonement and identify major proponents.9. Build a case for the “Christus Victor” as the central image for the atonement.10. Present the arguments for and against the “limited atonement view.”11. Present the arguments for and against the “universal atonement view.”12. Define and defend the Amyraldian view of the extent of the atonement.

4.5 – The Resurrection of Jesus

The students will be able to:1. Acknowledge the deficiency in understanding the resurrection among evangelicals.2. Demonstrate the unity between cross and resurrection in God’s purposes.

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3. Identify the burial of Jesus by Joseph of Arimathea as a key fact in establishing the historicity of the resurrection.

4. Identify the empty tomb as an undeniable factor pointing to the reality of the resurrection.5. Identify the post-resurrection appearances of Jesus as key indicators to the historicity of the re-

surrection.6. Identify the resurrection hypothesis as the best explanation for the origin and shape of the early

Christian movement.7. Note that the resurrection reveals, confirms, and vindicates the identity of Jesus and marks the

beginning of the future age.8. Note that the resurrection is the inauguration of the new creation.9. Note that the resurrection is the objective ground of salvation and understand the dual nature of

salvation: condemnation of sin at the cross and justification in the resurrection.10. Define and identify “anastasity” as a facet of Christian discipleship.11. Acknowledge that inspiration for kingdom ministry derives from the continuity implied by the

resurrection between the present age and the age to come.12. Defend the importance of the resurrection to a gospel-driven theology.

4.6 – The Ascension and Session of Jesus

The students will be able to:1. Note the neglect of the ascension in evangelical theology.2. Identify the two accounts of the ascension in Luke 24:49-53 and Acts 1:9-11.3. Acknowledge the mysterious nature of the ascension.4. Identify the connection between the ascension and the sending of the Holy Spirit.5. Identify worship and witness as consequences of the ascension.6. Note that the ascension signifies the exaltation of Jesus to God’s right hand and his investment

with divine authority.7. Note that the ascension constitutes the placement of a human being in the place of vice-regent

over the universe.8. Identify the connection between the ascension and the messianic reign in which believers share.9. Identify the heavenly session as a consequence of Jesus’ ascension.10. Identify continued confidence in access to God as a consequence of Jesus’ ascension.11. Note that the ascension implies a like-manner return of Jesus.12. Defend the benefit of the church reincorporating a celebration of Ascension Day.

4.7 – The Story of Jesus and the Identity of God

Students will be able to:1. Note that it is the Scriptural material itself that necessitates exploration into Jesus’ divine and

human nature.2. Identify and defend the link between incarnation and redemption.3. Defend the preexistence of Jesus from Scripture.4. Note that the identity of Jesus redefines the definition of “God.”5. Express the relationship between Jesus and God using the HANDS acronym (honors, attributes,

names, deeds, seat).6. Trace the debate regarding Jesus’ deity and humanity in church history.7. Note the importance of Jesus’ humanity in Scripture.

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8. Outline a sevenfold significance to Jesus’ humanity.9. Acknowledge the importance of understanding the relationship between Jesus’ humanity and

deity.10. Identify key Christological heresies and trace the historical development leading to the

Chalcedonian definition.11. Define hypostatic union.12. Recognize the permanence of Jesus’ humanity and its significance.

5.1 – Saved by the Gospel

The student will be able to:1. Recognize that the good news of the gospel only makes sense in light of the bad news it presup-

poses.2. Identify the state of humanity as one of tragic rebellion and sin.3. Provide scriptural evidence for the sinful condition of humanity.4. Define God’s distributive justice as his righteous judgment on sin and wickedness.5. Define God’s saving justice as his restorative and redemptive action which results in the deliv-

erance of the wicked.6. Identify the function of the covenants in the scriptural story of salvation.7. Note the shortcoming in evangelical definitions of “salvation” and provide a more scripturally

holistic definition.

5.2 – Redemptive History: The Plan for the Gospel

The student will be able to:1. Identify and define the covenant of grace.2. Understand what it means for the gospel to transpire “according to the Scriptures.”3. Divide redemptive history into five acts or periods.4. Recognize the movement from bliss to tragedy in the opening act of redemptive history.5. Identify the presence of hope and grace, specifically in the cycle of sin-judgment-grace of Gen-

esis 1-11.6. Identify the Abrahamic promise as seed/descendants, land, and blessing.7. Note the threefold agency of Israel’s restoration in the Old Testament: the Davidic king, the

Servant of the Lord, and the Son of Man.8. Identify the narrative of Jesus as the Messiah as organically connected with Israel’s story and

bringing it to fulfilment.9. Identify the church not as the replacement for Israel, nor as identical to it, but as the trans-

formed and expanded people of God.10. Note the benefits of the new covenant for the church: new scope, new mission, and new re-

source.11. Identify the establishment of the new heavens and new earth as the consummation of redempt-

ive history.12. Understand the importance of redemptive history for a proper comprehension of the message of

salvation.

5.3 – Order of Salvation: The Logical Working of the Gospel

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The student will be able to:1. Define ordo salutis.2. Understand that the basic outline for an ordo salutis is found in Romans 8:29-30.3. Identify the biblical definition of predestination.4. Trace the development of the doctrine of predestination, with particular attention to the Au-

gustinian and Calvinistic debates.5. Understand the nature of calling as the efficacious summons of the Holy Spirit to believe.6. Note that regeneration is the individual perspective to the action of bringing a person to faith.7. Argue for continuity between the experience of God’s people in the Old and New Testaments

on the basis of regeneration, and understand that the newness of the new covenant partly refers to the indwelling of the Spirit.

8. Define faith as the entrustment of oneself to the faithfulness of God.9. Define repentance as expressing sorrow for sin, turning oneself around to God, and changing

one’s mind and verdict.10. Understand the difference between positional sanctification and progressive sanctification,

identifying the latter with the gradual transformation of the believer.11. Identify glorification as the final step in the application of salvation, the eschatological con-

forming of the believer to the image and glory of Christ.12. Understand the limitations of an ordo salutis and note that the nature of salvation requires un-

derstanding the complex temporal references and the centrality of union with Christ.

5.4 – Images of Salvation: The Result of the Gospel

The student will be able to:1. Note that the biblical witness expresses salvation in a variety of ways.2. Identify the significance of forgiveness as an image of salvation.3. Identify the varied background of redemption as an image of salvation.4. Note that rescue is a general picture of salvation which subsumes several concepts under its

banner.5. Define reconciliation and note the significance of this image of salvation.6. Trace the debate over the nature of justification in Roman Catholicism, Reformed Theology,

and the New Perspective on Paul.7. Define justification and take into account the five key biblical categories.8. Understand the nature of peace as an image of salvation.9. Be familiar with the varied background of adoption as an image of salvation.10. Trace the development of life as a covenantal promise in Scripture and its relevance as an image

of salvation.11. Be familiar with the importance of theosis in Eastern Orthodoxy, its definition, its dangers, and

its value for understanding salvation.12. Note that no single image adequately captures the center of salvation, but instead the essence of

salvation may be defined as communion with God, union with Christ, and life in the Spirit.

5.5 – Scope and Security: How Wide and How Certain a Salvation?

The student will be able to:1. Define “universalism.”

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2. Trace the precursors and proponents of universalism in church history.3. Provide a biblical and theological evaluation of universalism that demonstrates its illegitimacy

as an evangelical option.4. Understand the definitions of “exclusivism” and “inclusivism.”5. Respond to inclusivist arguments by appealing to Scripture.6. Understand the nature of salvation experienced by Old Testament saints.7. Traverse the difficult and sensitive territory of discussing the fate of children who die in infancy

and the mentally handicapped.8. Be familiar with Reformed, Arminian, and Catholic schemes of security in salvation.9. Identify the tension between divine sovereignty and human responsibility in the Bible with re-

gard to the security of salvation.10. Understand four common views on the warning passages in Hebrews.11. Defend the Reformed position on eternal security based on a contextual understanding of the

warnings in Hebrews and God’s faithfulness and eternal purposes.

6.1 – God’s Spirit: The Breath of the Gospel

The student will be able to:1. Note the unfortunate neglect of the Holy Spirit in evangelicalism.2. Trace the avoidance of the Spirit to various causes, including the high emphasis on Christology,

the excesses of the Pentecostal movement, and the unpredictability of the Holy Spirit himself.3. Identify the crucial part the Spirit plays in historic Christian confessions.4. Understand the importance of pneumatology and the implications in other areas of Christian life

and study.5. Identify the Spirit as the promise of the gospel, the advocate promised by Jesus and the gift for

repentance and faith.6. Identify the Spirit as the liberator of humanity and recognize both Old and New Testament im-

ages for the liberation effected by the Spirit.7. Identify the Spirit as the empowerer of the gospel and understand the paramount importance the

Spirit has in the church’s worship and mission.

6.2 – Person of the Holy Spirit

The student will be able to:1. Recognize the ignorance regarding the Holy Spirit’s personhood among Christians.2. Outline various definitions that have been proposed for the Holy Spirit by recent theologians.3. Recognize that the New Testament occasionally uses impersonal language for the Spirit’s activ-

ity.4. Define personhood.5. Outline New Testament evidence for the full personhood of the Holy Spirit.6. Recognize that, historically, patristic development of this doctrine developed amid controversy

and debate.7. Outline scriptural reference for the divinity of the Holy Spirit, identifying both explicit refer-

ences to the Spirit as “God” and affirmations of the Spirit’s sharing in divine attributes and qualities.

8. Be familiar with some early theologians who provided inadequate views on the Holy Spirit’s di-vinity.

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9. Identify patristic theologians who defended the full divinity of the Holy Spirit.10. Identify the crucial link between the Holy Spirit’s divinity and the plan of salvation in the gos-

pel.11. Be familiar with the filioque debate that separated the Eastern and Western churches.12. Defend the retention of the filioque clause for understanding the Holy Spirit.

6.3 – Work of the Holy Spirit

The student will be able to:1. Recognize the importance of understanding the work of the Holy Spirit.2. Understand the Holy Spirit’s role in creation.3. Understand the Holy Spirit’s role in the story of Israel and the Messiah.4. Understand the Holy Spirit’s continuing role in the church as the one who vivifies, empowers,

sanctifies, reveals, and unifies.5. Navigate the debate regarding “baptism in the Holy Spirit” and note that it is best identified

with conversion.6. Identify the linguistic and theological considerations when discussing the gender of the Holy

Spirit.7. Understand the nature of “blasphemy against the Holy Spirit.”8. Understand the nature of inspiration and outline the Holy Spirit’s role in inscripturating God’s

revelation.9. Be familiar with four theories of inspiration, offering arguments against the ones which do not

do justice to the biblical testimony.10. Understand key terms such as “infallibility” and “inerrancy” when discussing the doctrine of

Scripture.11. Recognize the limitation of apologetic approaches to establishing the reliability of God’s Word.12. Recognize that the authority of Scripture primarily derives from the Holy Spirit who speaks

through it.

7.1 – Sons and Daughters of the King

The students will be able to:

1. Understand that non-theistic worldviews are unable to posit a purpose for humanity's existence.2. Understand humanity's role as God's viceregents over creation, how this glory was spoiled in

the fall, and how God plans to restore humanity to their former place through the work of Jesus.

7.2 – Image of God

The students will be able to:1. Describe the four views of the nature of the image of God.2. Understand how the image of God is to be understood christologically.

7.3 – What Is Humanity? The Human Constitution

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The students will be able to:1. Understand that the human constitution can be described as dichotomistic, trichotomistic, or

monistic, but that the dichotomistic view is the most scriptural of these positions. 2. Defend and criticize each of these positions.

7.4 – What is the Problem with Humanity?

The students will be able to:1. Describe and distinguish between various scriptural words for sin.2. Describe the effects of sin.3. Understand and critique the various positions regarding total depravity.4. Understand the debate surrounding Romans 5:12-21 and whether guilt is inherited from Adam's

sin. Students will be able to describe and evaluate the different proposals.

7.5 – The Odyssey of Theodicy

The students will be able to:1. Understand and be able to differentiate the various types of evil.2. Understand the depth and importance of the problem of evil and how it relates to the task of

theodicy and apologetics. They will be able to explain the logical fallacy in arguing that evil disproves God's existence.

3. Explain and evaluate various answers to the problem of evil, such as Gnosticism, free will defense, and open theism.

4. Understand how the ultimate answer to the question of evil is the gospel.

8.1 – The Evangelical Church

The students will be able to:1. Understand that evangelicalism is a theological ethos, not a denomination, but that it does have

ecclesiological consequences.2. Critique the ecclesiological practice of evangelicals and learn how to counter these deficiencies. 3. Describe how the church relates to the gospel.4. Describe and critique various positions on how the church relates to the kingdom.

8.2 – Biblical Images of the Church

The students will be able to:1. Describe several images for the church and identify which Testaments they occur in.2. Describe the problem of understanding how the church relates to Israel. They will be able to

describe and critique several answers to this problem.

8.3 – The Shape of the Church

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The students will be able to:1. Describe and explain the characteristics of the church as listed in this chapter.2. Balance their understanding of the place of the visible and invisible church.

8.4 – The Marks of the Church

The students will be able to:1. Explain the four traditional and two Reformed marks of the church.2. Explain how these two categories (traditional and Reformed) relate to each other.3. Appreciate the importance of unity in the church.

8.5 – Governance of the Church

The students will be able to:1. Identify, describe, and evaluate the three major forms of church governance. Students will

understand the arguments for and against each position.2. Understand something of the historical development of the different forms of church

government.3. Identify and describe the purpose of the church.

8.6 – Emblems of the Gospel: Baptism and the Lord's Supper

The students will be able to:1. Understand and evaluate the difference between a sacrament and an ordinance.2. Explain the symbols inherent in the rite of baptism.3. Describe and evaluate the three positions given on who should be baptized.4. Understand the discussions surrounding the mode of baptism and the spiritual benefit given.5. Explain the theological significance and symbolic value of the Eucharist.6. Explain and evaluate the four views on Christ's presence in the Eucharist.7. Describe the spiritual benefit given in the Eucharist and explain the view of each tradition on

the issue of profit.8. Evaluate the case for paedocommunion.

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Quizzes

1.1 – What is Theology?

True/False

1. Theology is the study of God. True

2. Theology is not an intellectual discipline akin to literature, religion, or philosophy. False

3. “Theology” derives from the Greek words theos and logos. True

4. Theology is concerned with the idea of God. False

Fill in the Blank

5. __Augustine___ defined theology as “rational discussion respecting the deity.”

6. Theology is studied and performed in a __community of faith___.

7. Evangelical theology is the drama of __gospelizing____.

8. ___Kevin Vanhoozer___ presents theology as drama.

Multiple Choice

9. Which dictionary defines theology as “The science which treats God, His attributes, and His re-lations to the universe; the science or study of divine things or religious truth”?a) The Concise Oxford Dictionaryb) The Compact Macquarie Dictionaryc) Webster’s Unabridged English Dictionaryd) None of the above

10. The task of theology is to:a) To enable disciples to perform the script of the Scripturesb) To ensure that those who bear Christ’s name walk in Christ’s wayc) To excavate the manifold truth of the gospel and to start reflecting the spiritual realities the

gospel endeavors to cultivated) All of the above

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1.2 – What Do You Have to Say before You Say Anything?

True/False

1. “Prolegomena,” which derives from the Greek word prolegō, means “to build in advance.” False

2. The Reformation was concerned with reconciling the role of philosophy and Scripture in theo-logy. False

3. Modernity viewed reason itself as the bedrock of all knowledge and truth. True

4. For Karl Barth, prolegomena is the first part of theology itself. True

5. World War I and II shattered the optimism of progress characteristic of modernity. True

6. All Christian theologians responded the same way to postmodernity. False

7. Prolegomena is not useful in doing theology. False

Fill in the Blank

8. __Justin Martyr__ appealed to Platonic and Stoic philosophers in order to establish common ground for discussion.

9. The rejection of supernatural explanations in modernity is called __naturalism__.

10. ___Charles Hodge___ defended Christianity as a science in his theology.

11. Evangelical theology is a __theologia evangelii __ - a theology of the gospel.

Multiple Choice

12. Which philosopher’s works was Europe reacquainted with while Thomas Aquinas wrote his theological treatises?a) Platob) Pythagorasc) Aristotled) Epimenides

13. Which of the following were the two main schools of thought within Modernity?a) Rationalism and skepticismb) Rationalism and empiricismc) Skepticism and positivismd) Positivism and empiricism

14. Which postmodern philosopher claimed there is no single interpretation of a text?a) Jacque Derrida

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b) Michel Foucaultc) Despereaux Monarod) Karl Barth

15. The gospel is:a) The beginning of evangelical theologyb) The center of evangelical theologyc) The boundary of evangelical theologyd) All of the above

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1.3 – What Is the Gospel?

True/False

1. Paul shows awareness of events in the life of Jesus other than the cross and resurrection. True

2. The gospel logically deduces an argument from God’s holiness, to human sin, to the need for Christ’s salvation. False

3. There was no clash between the Roman empire’s proclamation of Caesar and the Christian gos-pel. False

4. All main divisions of the Old Testament (Law, Prophets, Psalms/Writings) find their fulfilment in the gospel of Jesus Christ. True

5. Repentance is a changing of one’s verdict regarding the identity of Jesus and expressing contri-tion for one’s sin. True

6. Salvation is primarily the forgiveness of sins. False

7. Acts of justice and mercy are important for Christians. True

Fill in the Blank

8. __N. T. Wright__ defined the gospel as a “royal announcement.”

9. The abbreviation often employed for Jesus’ preaching is __“gospel of the kingdom”_.

10. The gospel announces the status of Jesus as __Son of David__, __Son of God__, and __Lord__.

11. The false gospel concerned with building up merit or commending oneself to God through good works is called __legalism__.

Multiple Choice

12. The kingdom of God can be best understood as:a) The rule or reign of Godb) Heavenc) Acts of mercy and kindnessd) None of the above

13. Which of events in the life of Jesus is the focus of Paul’s gospel?a) Birth and deathb) Resurrection and exaltationc) Death and resurrectiond) Ministry and miracles

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14. Which of the following Old Testament passages is concerned with the motif of the “righteous sufferer”?a) Isaiah 61b) Psalm 22c) Deuteronomy 18d) None of the above

15. Salvation can be defined asa) Healingb) Restorationc) Eternal lifed) All of the above

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1.4 – The Necessity and Goal of Theology

True/False

1. When divorced from life of faith, theology often becomes dry and academic. True

2. Theology is necessary in order to systematize the varied witness of Scripture and the results of exegesis. True

3. Scripture directly answers any theological or moral conundrum that may be encountered. False

4. The early Christian community was devoted to teaching. True

5. All doctrines are of equal importance in Christian theology. False

6. The story of God told in the Scriptures can be divided in five acts. True

Fill in the Blank

7. Irenaeus combated the Gnostic sect of the __Valentinians__.

8. Fides quaerens intellectum means __“faith seeking understanding”_.

Multiple Choice

9. Which of the following aspects of the Christian faith is “of first importance”?a) Baptismb) The gospelc) Perspective on drinking alcohold) None of the above

10. Which theologian spoke of fides quarens intellectum?a) Ignatius of Antiochb) Irenaeusc) Anselmd) Paul

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1.5 – Is Theology Possible?

True/False

1. The traditional arrangement of systematic theology (doctrine of God, doctrine of Christ, etc.) is drawn from the Bible. False

2. It is impossible to be critical of one’s own historical, cultural, and intellectual situation. False

Fill in the Blank

3. __J. C. Ryle__ warned against the “veneration of a system.”

4. In order to be biblically grounded, systematic theology should be informed by __biblical theo-logy__.

Multiple Choice

5. What is it about the Bible that make systematization challenging?a) Diversity in languageb) Diversity of authors, genres, culture, and historyc) The size of the materiald) The lack of sources

6. Which of the following philosophies has/have influenced systematic theology in the past?a) Neo-Platonismb) Aristotlec) Postmodern literary theoryd) All of the above

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1.6 – Sources for Theology

True/False

1. The Word of God exists in three forms. True

2. The Gnostic heresy represented an abandonment of apostolic tradition. True

3. The process of canonization demonstrates a connection between Scripture and tradition. True

4. “Traditionalism” means an acceptance of the value of tradition. False

5. Natural revelation has no place in a systematic theology. False

6. The common experience of the risen Lord is a unifying element in New Testament theology. True

7. It is possible to do theology without the influence of culture. False

Fill in the Blank

8. __Orthodoxy__ is conformity to the pattern of Christian teaching.

9. The general outline of belief circulating in the second-century was called the __“rule of faith”/regula fidei__.

10. John Calvin claimed that all human beings have an innate knowledge of God and called it the __”sense of divinity”/ sensus divinitatis _.

11. Experience is the __validating norm__ for theology.

Multiple Choice

12. According to the Westminster Confession of Faith, what is the “supreme judge” and standard of all truth?a) Creeds and confessionsb) Scripturec) The churchd) The Holy Spirit speaking in Scripture

13. Which of the following is not a criterion for canonization?a) Apostolicityb) Eloquencec) Antiquityd) Usage

14. Which two theologians rejected natural theology?a) Emil Brunner and Karl Barthb) Karl Barth and D. A. Carson

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c) Karl Barth and Alvin Plantingad) Alvin Plantinga and Tertullian

15. Which of the following elements is a part of “culture”?a) Languageb) Storiesc) Worldviewsd) All of the above

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1.7 – Toward a Gospel-Driven Theological Method

Quiz

True/False

1. Wayne Grudem’s method of theology can be labelled “biblicism.” True

2. The task of the theologian is to arrange the scattered collection of facts in Scripture. False

3. Apologetic theology is concerned with answering questions. True

4. It is always best to start with Scripture when studying a particular doctrine. False

Fill in the Blank

5. Wayne Grudem rejects the doctrine of __divine impassibility__.

6. __Dialectic theology__ emphasizes the tensions, paradoxes, and ambiguities of the Christian faith.

7. The first task of evangelical theology is to __define the gospel__.

Multiple Choice

8. What is the goal of theology?a) Propositions to be believedb) Knowing God betterc) Performance in the divine dramad) All of the above

9. In what circles has the Wesleyan Quadrilateral been influential?a) Catholic and Anglicanb) Anglican and Methodistc) Methodist and Reformedd) Anglican and Reformed

10. What is the second step in an evangelical methodology?a) Reading Scriptureb) Consulting traditionc) Organising and relating the foci to the gospeld) Considering culture

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2.1 – God and the Gospel

True/False

1. The gospel is inseparable from the doctrine of the Trinity. True

2. The idea that all three members of the Trinity are active in the gospel took many centuries to develop. False

3. The gospel can be separated from the story of Israel. False

4. The gospel gives us insight into God's ultimate purposes. True

Fill in the Blank

5. An evangelical theology is a mix of extrapolation and exposition of the gospel of God.

6. The gospel answers the question “What is God like?” and reveals the attributes of God.

7. It is essential to understand that the gospel contains the background of creation and the story of Israel.

8. The gospel looks forward to the new creation.

Multiple Choice

9. Which member of the Trinity is responsible for the resurrection? a) The Father b) The Son c) The Spirit d) The Father, by the Spirit

10. The gospel offers e) Historical relics and rituals of a past civilization f) Modern ethical mantras g) God himself h) All of the above

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2.2 – Getting an Affinity for the Trinity

True/False

1. Gnosticism taught that the world was made by a wicked being, from whom Jesus came to liberate us. True

2. Tritheism is the belief that there are three separate persons in the Godhead. False

3. Arius taught that Jesus was a created being. True

4. Functional subordination of the Son to the Father is heretical, whereas ontological subordination is not. False

5. There is no practical application for the doctrine of the Trinity. False

Fill in the Blank

6. Eutyches taught that Christ's human and divine natures were combined, as in a blender.

7. The view that there is one God who just appears differently, or wears different masks, during salvation is called modalism.

8. Adoptionism is the view that Jesus was a regular human, who became God's Son at his baptism.

9. The most explicit Trinitarian creedal statement is the Athanasian Creed.

10. One of the earliest indications of Trinitarian theology is that the early church worshipped Jesus alongside the Father.

Multiple Choice

11. Some scholars try to equate Trinitarian relations with a) Ecclesiastical structures b) Marriage relations c) The leadership of the church in Acts d) The Levitical priesthood

12. Which New Testament book contains the clearest Trinitarianism? a) 2 Corinthians b) 1 Peter c) Romans d) John

13. Arius’ main theological opponent was a) Athanasius b) Tertullian c) Nestorius

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d) Justin Martyr

14. Which of these statements is not true? a) The members of the Trinity are co-eternal b) The members of the Trinity are equal in deity c) The members of the Trinity are one in person d) The members of the Trinity are one in substance

15. Who believed that the Logos was united to Jesus’ human soul in the incarnation? a) Philo b) John c) Origen d) Justin Martyr

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2.3 – What Is God Like?

True/False

1. Incommunicable attributes are those which are unique to God. True

2. Eternity is a communicable attribute. False

3. Divine immutability is predicated upon divine impassibility. True

4. Pantheism holds that god is a force, not a person. True

5. God is present everywhere equally. False

Fill in the Blank

6. Which human virtue is the corollary to God's reliability? Faith

7. Which characteristic is attributed to God thrice? Holiness

8. Omnibenevolence describes God's perfect goodness.

9. The Euthyphro dilemma asks whether God can arbitrarily declare something to be good, or is goodness a virtue independent of God?

10. Aseity is another way of describing God's self-sufficiency.

11. God's knowledge of all possibilities is known as his middle knowledge.

Multiple Choice

12. Which of these attributes is incommunicable? a) Glory b) Eternity c) Love d) Holiness

13. Which of these passages refers to God's omnipotence? a) Psalm 104:24 b) 1 Thessalonians 5:24 c) Job 42:2 d) Exodus 19:5-6

14. The doctrine of divine impassibility means that a) God does not have emotions b) God is unable to suffer c) God only suffers when he chooses to suffer d) God is not able to change his purpose

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15. Which of these scholars does believe in divine impassibility? a) D. A. Carson b) J. I. Packer c) Dietrich Bonhoeffer d) Karl Barth

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2.4 – The God Who Creates

True/False

1. The Bible teaches that God made the world to run on its own. False

2. God's immanence means that he remains distinct from creation. False

3. The Christian worldview requires that nothing except God is eternal. True

4. The Spirit is the organizing principle in creation. False

5. A Christian view of creation maintains that heaven and earth are completely separated. False

Fill in the Blank

6. Irenaeus used the analogy that the Son and the Spirit were the Father's gloves in creation.

7. Which Old Testament book contains the strongest emphasis on the new creation? Isaiah

8. God's providence means that he continually cares for creation.

9. What worldview posits God as a watchmaker who then leaves his creation to run itself? Deism

10. Exclusive monotheism means that there is no other being to rival God's power.

11. What New Testament events guarantee that God will remake all of creation? Jesus’ resurrection and the gift of the Spirit.

Multiple Choice

12. Which worldview holds that there is one supreme god who rules over a group of lesser gods? a) Henotheism b) Panentheism c) Paganism d) Monotheism

13. Panentheism means that a) God is to be identified with the universe. b) God inhabits the universe like a soul inhabits a body. c) God has control over the whole universe. d) God is present everywhere in the universe.

14. Which of the following is not part of a Gnostic view of creation? a) We need to be rescued from the world. b) Creation has fallen from its original state. c) The world was created by an evil, semi-divine being. d) Salvation has no connection with creation.

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Short Answer

15. Read Isaiah 44:9-20. Make a list of the reasons the passage gives as to why worshipping idols is foolish.

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2.5 – The God Who Reveals Himself

True/False

1. We are entirely dependent upon God for knowledge about God. True

2. Revelation is the Holy Spirit speaking God's words to us. True

3. Natural revelation is universally proclaimed. True

4. Natural revelation, if studied in the right way, will bring someone to salvation. False

5. Barth believes that natural revelation may point someone towards God. False

6. Inspiration is what happens when a person comprehends the meaning of God's word. False

Fill in the Blank

7. God primarily reveals himself as Saviour.

8. The highest, clearest form of revelation occurred in the incarnation.

9. The three modes of revelation are history, doctrine and experience.

10. The blinding of the mind due to sin is known as the noetic effects of sin.

11. Fill in the blanks: the self-presentation of the Triune God, who through the Holy Spirit communicates saving truth about himself and draws humankind into a community in fellowship with his Son, so that they might know him, experience his mercy, and enjoy him forever” (p 171).

Multiple Choice

12. Natural theology establishes that a) People have a natural sense of God's existence b) People are able to believe in God c) People can infer God's existence from the world around them. d) All of the above.

13. Which is the best way of understanding the relationship between history and revelation? a) God reveals himself through personal encounters that may be based in historical events. b) God reveals himself in historical events and in the scriptural testimony to those events. c) God does not reveal himself in history, but only through reading the inspired accounts of

those events. d) God reveals himself in historical events, which are recorded in Scripture.

14. The argument for God's existence based on the order evident in nature is called the a) teleological argument. b) moral argument.

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c) ontological argument. d) cosmological argument.

15. Which of the following statements is not true? a) The incarnation shows that the human and divine spheres of existence are compatible. b) The incarnation proves God's faithfulness to his covenant promises. c) Jesus referred to OT Scripture primarily because it proved his Messianic identity. d) The incarnation allows Jesus to be the perfect mediator.

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2.6 – God’s Purpose and Plan

True/False

1. God's plan describes his ultimate aim for the world. True

2. According to the Fourth Gospel, God's glory is revealed most powerfully on the cross. True

3. The Greek word for 'plan' is diathēkē. False

4. God's ultimate goal is the redemption of humanity. False

5. The first intimation of God's plan to restore the world occurs in the calling of Abraham. False

6. In Reformed Theology, Adam acts as the federal head of humanity. True

Fill in the Blank

7. God is most glorified when he displays his sacrificial love.

8. Complete the list of biblical dispensations, as described by dispensational theology: Eden, Noah, patriarchs, Israel, church, millennium.

9. In Reformed theology, the covenant of works made with Adam is republished as the Sinaitic Covenant.

10. In Isaiah 40-55, God promises to deliver Israel from Babylon for the sake of his name.

11. The Mosaic covenant was given to cocoon God's promises around Israel until the Messiah came.

12. The promise to Eve that her descendant would bruise the Serpent's head is known as the protevangelium.

Multiple Choice

13. Which of the following is not true of dispensational theology? a) It looks forward to a literal millennium and rapture of the faithful. b) It aims to take biblical prophecy literally. c) It sees the story of Israel as continued in the story of the church. d) It sees biblical history as divided into six dispensations.

14. The mystery of God's plan, revealed through the gospel, is a) Salvation is now by faith, not by works. b) Resurrection has happened in the present. c) The Jews will reject the gospel, so Paul will go to the Gentiles. d) Gentiles will be included in God's people with Jews.

15. Which of the following is not a version of the covenant of grace?

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a) Abrahamic covenant b) Covenant of redemption c) New covenant d) Davidic covenant

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3.1 – Gospel and Kingdom

True/False

1. “Eschatology” means “study of the last things.” True

2. The main place to find eschatology in the Bible is the Book of Revelation. False

3. Bultmann said that “apocalyptic is the mother of all theology.” False

4. History is divided into two ages: this age and the age to come. True

5. Eschatology has minimal practical application now, and will become more important when we reach the “last days.” False

Fill in the Blank

6. Eschatology is strongly connected to the theme of the kingdom of God.

7. Modernism holds the belief that reason is the highest good.

8. Constantine was the Roman emperor who first put the sign of the cross on his soldiers’ shields.

9. The modernist era lasted from the fall of Bastille until the fall of the Berlin Wall.

Multiple choice

10. Which of the following is true of a Roman imperialist worldview? a) The gods had chosen the Caesars as their appointed rulers. b) Rome was secure from invasion. c) Rome would have peace. d) All of the above.

11. Which worldview values tolerance as the highest virtue? a) Modernism b) Roman imperialism c) Postmodernism d) Christian eschatology

12. Which of the following is not an application of studying eschatology? a) It enables us to speak about suffering with integrity. b) It enables us to focus on spiritual realities instead of on the body. c) It allows us to critique our politicians. d) It spurs us on in mission.

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3.2 – Apocalypse Now... And Not Yet!

True/False

1. In Dodd's view, Jesus believed that the kingdom would involve radical political upheaval. False

2. To remove the eschatology from Jesus’ teachings is to remove his Jewishness. True

3. John emphasizes the present-ness of the kingdom less than the Synoptic authors do. False

4. The biblical authors viewed themselves as living in the last days. True

5. In 2 Thessalonians, Paul addresses the reasons why Christ had not returned yet. False

6. All eschatology is apocalyptic. True

Fill in the Blank

7. According to Paul, the gift of the Spirit is a deposit that guarantees believers’ future inheritance.

8. Cullmann gave the analogy that living between the “now” and the “not yet” is like living between D. Day and V. E. Day.

9. The Book of Revelation was written to encourage believers experiencing persecution.

10. Menander taught that the resurrection was gained when believers were baptized.

11. The interpretative framework that believes that most biblical prophecies were fulfilled during the destruction of the temple in AD 70 is called preterism.

Multiple Choice

12. Which scholar is associated with a consistent eschatological model? a) Albert Schweitzer b) C. H. Dodd c) Oscar Cullmann d) John D. Crossan

13. Which of the following themes is associated with Israel's hopes? a) The end of exile b) A coming Davidic ruler c) The judgment of their enemies d) All of the above

14. Which of the following elements of Jesus’ teaching display the present-ness of the kingdom? a) The Lord's prayer b) Exorcisms c) The parable of the great banquet

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d) All of the above

15. The literary genre that focuses on a divine revelation to a human subject, and is characterized by dualism, is called a) apocalypticism. b) apocalypse. c) eschatology. d) preterism.

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3.3 – The Return of Jesus Christ

True/False

1. The phrase “second coming” is found in the New Testament but not the Old Testament. False

2. Revelation describes Jesus’ return in detail. False

3. Jesus’ return will see heaven and earth coming together. True

4. Barth believed that the parousia will not reveal Christ in a new way. True

5. The gospel presupposes the return of Christ. True

6. The main reference behind the term epiphaneia is the idea of unveiling. False

Fill in the Blank

7. The word parousia is used to describe an arrival or presence after absence.

8. In Daniel, the one like a Son of Man represents the vindication of God's people after persecution.

9. A preterist eschatology sees most of the Bible's eschatological predictions fulfilled in the destruction of the temple.

10. Jesus’ speech in Matt 24:1-36/Mark 13:1-37/Luke 21:5-36 is known as the Olivet Discourse.

11. The trumpet blasts that occur in descriptions of Jesus’ return symbolize his royalty.

12. What image of the new creation does the Lord's Supper foreshadow? The wedding supper of the Lamb.

Multiple Choice

13. Which of the following rulers is likely the cause of the “abomination that causes desolation” in Daniel 9:27? a) Antiochus Epiphanes b) Nebuchadnezzar c) Nero d) Vespasian

14. Which of the following terms for Jesus’ return has the strongest background in the Old Testament? a) Epiphany b) The day of the Lord c) Parousia d) Apokalypsis

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15. Which of the following displays hope in Christ's return? a) Practicing the Lord's Supper b) Practicing baptism c) Evangelizing d) All of the above

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3.4 – Millennium and Tribulation

True/False

1. The Bible's teaching on the millennium is clear and undisputed. False

2. Amillennialists believe there will be no millennium. True

3. Paul does not teach about the millennium. True

4. Pretribulationism is the most biblical position because it takes the teaching about suffering seriously. False

5. Matthew teaches that believers will be taken and non-believers will be left behind. False

Fill in the Blank

6. The main passage used to discuss the millennium is Revelation 20:1-8.

7. Postmillennialism believes that the kingdom of God will expand until it fills the whole earth, and then Christ will return.

8. Dispensational premillennialism teaches that there will be three resurrections.

9. The belief that Christ will return secretly to remove the church from the earth is known as the rapture.

10. The tribulation is also known as the birth pangs of the Messiah.

11. The “man of lawlessness” is another name for the Antichrist.

Multiple Choice

12. Which millennial position involves belief in the rapture? a) Postmillennialism b) Amillennialism c) Historic premillennialism d) Dispensational premillennialism

13. Which millennial position is least common today? a) Postmillennialism b) Amillennialism c) Historic premillennialism d) Dispensational premillennialism

14. Which millennial position teaches that the millennium is occurring now? a) Postmillennialism b) Amillennialism c) Historic premillennialism

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d) Dispensational premillennialism

15. Which of the following is an obstacle for the historical premillennial interpretation? a) The Bible only mentions the millennium in one passage. b) The nations are judged and destroyed at the end of Revelation 19. c) Revelation 20 appears to teach two resurrections. d) It involves resurrected bodies mixing with non-glorified bodies.

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3.5 – The Final Judgment

True/False

1. Judgment should prompt us to worship God. True

2. Christians will not be judged at the final judgment. False

3. Jesus descended into hell after his death and was punished in our stead there. False

4. Salvation involves being delivered from judgment. True

5. Only humans will be judged. False

6. Christians will be rewarded for how much they have cooperated with God's grace. True

Fill in the Blank

7. 2 Corinthians 5:21 says that Christ was made sin for us, meaning that he identified with our sin while remaining sinless himself.

8. The essence of hell is separation from God.

9. Because Christ is the representative of believers, they are counted as having been through judgment on the cross.

10. Judgment is the vindication of Christ and his people.

11. God's retributive justice refers to God actively punishing those who have rebelled against him.

Multiple Choice

12. Which of the following is not a result of God's final judgment? a) Those who have been oppressed will be vindicated. b) Those who have rejected God will turn from evil and praise him. c) Jesus will be shown to be God's Son. d) Evil will be condemned.

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3.6 – The Intermediate State: What Happens When You Die?

True/False

1. The Old Testament sees no hope of being with God after death. False

2. In Roman Catholicism, those who go to purgatory will end up in hell. False

3. Venial sins can be forgiven. True

4. The immortality of the soul contradicts the doctrine of bodily resurrection. False

5. Plato believed that the soul was eternal, and would be liberated from the body upon death. True

6. In the Bible, Sheol is the same as Hades. True

7. Hell is a present reality. False

Fill in the Blank8. The separation of humanity from God is known as spiritual death.

9. Belief in the immortality of the soul entered Jewish thought via Hellenistic influences.

10. The belief that the soul is unconscious between death and resurrection is known as soul sleep.

11. In Roman Catholic thought, the main purpose of purgatory is to purify people from sin before they enter heaven.

12. At the ascension, Christ took the righteous in Sheol and took them to heaven.

Multiple Choice

13. Which of the following books does not describe the intermediate state? a) 1 Corinthians b) 2 Corinthians c) Philippians d) Revelation

14. Who of the following do not characteristically believe in soul sleep? a) Martin Luther b) Roman Catholics c) Seventh-day Adventists d) Jehovah's Witnesses

15. Which of the following is an image for the intermediate state? a) Tent b) Paradise c) New temple d) Unhindered joy

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3.7 – The Final State: Heaven, Hell, and New Creation

True/False

1. Heaven is not the final dwelling place for Christians. True

2. Hell is primarily a place of torture. False

3. The idea of hell was based on a place in Israel. True

4. The Israelites believed that God would defend Jerusalem forever. True

5. The New Testament uses the terms Hades and hell interchangeably. False

6. Christians will work in the new creation. True

Fill in the Blank

7. John's vision of heaven in Revelation 4-5 describes heaven as being like God's military control room.

8. In the Bible, descriptions of hell are most commonly followed by warnings to repent.

9. Heaven and earth will be combined, forming the new creation.

10. God's eternal presence with his people in the new creation is foreshadowed in the temple.

11. The writer to the Hebrews describes Christians as pilgrims journeying towards a heavenly city.

12. Annihilationism is the view that people who reject God will be destroyed and cease to exist.

Multiple Choice

13. Which of the following are images for the new creation? a) The new temple b) The new Eden c) The new Jerusalem d) All of the above

14. The purpose of hell is a) to quarantine evil. b) to allow God to get revenge on sinners. c) to punish sin. d) a) and c).

15. Which of the following is used to describe hell in Scripture? a) The place where the devil reigns b) Complete loneliness

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c) Darkness d) Torture

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4.1 – The Gospel of God’s Son

True/False

1. A Christology rooted in the gospel will redefine the meaning of “God.” True

2. Every subsection of theology can be tied to the centrality of Jesus. True

Fill in the Blank

3. The gospel sets forth both the __person__ and __work__ of Christ.

4. Liberal theology tends to accommodate theology to a pluralistic __Zeitgeist__.

Multiple Choice

5. Which area/s of the world has/have been affected by the conservative error of an inadequate Christocentric approach to Scripture?a) Americab) The Westc) Indiad) All of the above

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4.2 – Christological Method

True/False

1. The quest for the historical Jesus is an attempt to peer behind the layers of dogma and tradition. True

2. The “Christology from Below” approach always denies the divinity of Christ. False

3. The Third Quest reinstated the historical Jesus in his Jewish and eschatological context. True

4. Karl Barth argued historical study of Jesus was improper because it diminished trust in God’s revelation. True

5. Rudolf Bultman, though unconcerned with the historical Jesus, still believed in the resurrection as a historical event. False

6. The danger of Christology from Below is Ebionism. True

7. The Old Testament has no place in Christological method. False

Fill in the Blank

8. Adolf von Harnack summarized Jesus’ message as __the love of God and the brotherhood of man__.

9. The second attempt at discovering the historical Jesus was called the __New Quest__.

10. The danger of “Christology from Above” is __Docetism__.

11. __Martin Hengel__ argued against the Christology from Above/Below dichotomy.

Multiple Choice

12. Which scholar provided the impetus for the second wave of historical Jesus research?a) Rudolf Bultmannb) Ernst Käsemannc) Albert Schweitzerd) Wolfhart Pannenberg

13. What was Rudolf Bultmann’s preferred designation for Jesus from the Fourth Gospel?a) Lordb) Redeemerc) Rescuerd) Revealer

14. Which of the following is not a benefit of the Third Quest?a) A renewed appreciation for Q and the Gospel of Thomasb) New insights from archaeology, philology, and sociology

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c) Clarification of the criteria for historicityd) An ecumenical and international dimension to the research

15. Which of the following factors favor/s Christology from Above?a) The Johannine Prologue (John 1:1-18)b) The Nicene Creedc) Both of the aboved) None of the above

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4.3 – The Life of Jesus

True/False

1. Early confessions showed great concern for the life of Jesus. False

2. The life of Jesus features prominently in apostolic preaching. True

3. Allegory is always illegitimate as an interpretive framework. False

4. The Old Testament is only Christological when viewed from the point of view of New Testa-ment faith. False

5. The virgin birth of Jesus evinces dependence on pagan mythology. False

6. The virgin birth is an important doctrine. True

7. The phrase “kingdom of God” is rare in the Old Testament. True

Fill in the Blank

8. The hermeneutical approach concerned with identifying recurring patterns and figures in histor-ical persons and events is called __typology__.

9. The Old Testament is not only Christological but also __Christotelic__.

10. In Christian tradition, Mary is called __theotokos /“God-bearer” __.

11. The expression of Jesus’ mission in Luke 4:18-21 is known as the __Nazareth Manifesto__.

Multiple Choice

12. What is the pre-incarnate appearance of Christ in the Old Testament called?a) Christologyb) Christophanyc) Theophanyd) Christotelism

13. Which two Gospels include the virgin birth as part of their narrative?a) Mark and Matthewb) Matthew and Johnc) Matthew and Luked) John and Luke

14. What is the point of the Sermon on the Mount?a) Demonstrating that humanity cannot keep God’s law perfectlyb) Showing the task of the Jews in the future millennial kingdomc) Setting out the ethical vision for God’s people in the kingdomd) None of the above

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15. What was the scholarly consensus reached in the mid-twentieth century about the kingdom of God?a) The kingdom was both future and presentb) The kingdom was futurec) The kingdom was presentd) The kingdom referred to heaven

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4.4 – The Death of Jesus

True/False

1. Augustine advocated the “ransom” model. True

2. Anselm’s “satisfaction” model was influenced by medieval feudalism. True

3. The “exemplary” model is incompatible with “penal substitution.” False

4. “Penal substitution” only appeared later on the theological scene. False

5. “Christus Victor” integrates both objective and subjective, cosmic and individual aspects of the atonement. True

6. “Limited atonement” negates the need for evangelism. False

7. “Amyraldianism” implies a twofold will of God. True

Fill in the Blank

8. The model which identifies Christ’s role as rehearsing the roles of Adam and Israel is called __recapitulation__.

9. __Hugo Grotius__ developed the governmental model of the atonement.

10. “Moral influence” describes the change in the __subjective__ state of humanity.

11. The Greek word debated in discussion regarding the mechanics of the atonement is __hilastērion__.

Multiple Choice

12. In traditional “ransom” theory, who was the ransom paid to?a) Godb) Satanc) Humanityd) The angels

13. Which areas of life does the atonement have an exemplary effect on?a) Fellowship with other believersb) Endurance in hardshipc) Marriaged) All of the above

14. What is emphasized in the summary of apostolic preaching in Acts?a) The resurrection and exaltation of Jesusb) The death of Jesus

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c) The ministry and miracles of Jesusd) The example of Jesus

15. Which theologian rigorously and forcefully defended the “limited atonement” view?a) John Wesleyb) Owen Watsonc) John Owend) John Calvin

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4.5 – The Resurrection of Jesus

True/False

1. Generally speaking, in both theology and apologetics the true significance of the resurrection has been overlooked. True

2. That Jesus’ tomb was found empty is a solid historical fact. True

3. It is possible to absolutely “prove” the resurrection of Jesus. False

4. Jewish eschatological hopes generally held to a resurrection in the last day. True

5. Resurrection indicates the Trinitarian nature of salvation. True

6. The resurrection enables Christians to ignore or overlook ecological matters. False

7. Resurrection highlights the discontinuity between the present and future age. False

Fill in the Blank

8. Jesus was buried by __Joseph of Arimathea__.

9. The presence of the __Holy Spirit__ is an indication of the inauguration of the new age.

10. While the cross displays God’s verdict of condemnation against sin, resurrection is the verdict of __justification__.

11. The significance of the resurrection for discipleship can be termed __anastasity__.

Multiple Choice

12. Who was Jesus seen by after the resurrection?a) Followersb) Skepticsc) Enemiesd) All of the above

13. What does the whole creation await in order to see its renewal?a) The return of Jesusb) The final judgmentc) The resurrection of believersd) None of the above

14. What is the relation between the resurrection of Jesus and salvation?a) Proof of the cross’ redemptive significanceb) Objective grounds of salvationc) Consummation of salvation

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d) No relation

15. Which theologian’s famous paschal homily eloquently expresses the all-encompassing trans-formation brought by the resurrection?a) John Chrysostomb) Martin Chrysostomc) John Piperd) Cyprian

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4.6 – The Ascension and Session of Jesus

True/False

1. The main significance of the ascension is to demonstrate the reality of heaven as the believer’s true home. False

2. The outpouring of the Spirit was evidence that the last days had arrived. True

3. The ascension indicates the beginning of Trinitarian worship. True

4. Psalm 110 is the most frequently cited portion of Scripture in the New Testament. True

5. Jesus cast off his human nature/body at the ascension. False

6. Scripture attests to a democratization of the idea of the messianic rule. True

7. Jesus’ work of intercession stopped after the achievement at the cross. False

Fill in the Blank

8. The two figures who were assumed into heaven in the Old Testament are __Enoch__ and __Eli-jah__.

9. Jesus’ block of teaching in John 14-16 is known as the __Farewell Discourse__.

10. __Melchizedek__ is the mysterious priestly and royal figure in Psalm 110.

11. The celebration of Jesus’ exaltation in the liturgical calendar is called __Ascension Day__.

Multiple Choice

12. How many accounts of the ascension are found in the New Testament?a) Oneb) Twoc) Threed) Four

13. Which prophet indicated the outpouring of the Holy Spirit as a sign of the last days?a) Joelb) Micahc) Elijahd) None of the above

14. Which interpretation of the figure from Psalm 110 was present in Jesus’ teaching?a) Priestlyb) Royalc) Eschatological delivererd) All of the above

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15. What is the Greek word for “confidence”?a) parousiab) prosagōgēc) parrēsiad) paraklētos

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4.7 – The Story of Jesus and the Identity of God

True/False

1. In the Nicene Creed, incarnation and redemption are bound together. True

2. It is impossible to maintain preexistence and humanity. False

3. Jesus was a monotheist. True

4. Christians uniformly held to adoptionism in the early church. False

5. Jesus provides a pattern for resurrected humanity. True

6. The Council of Chalcedon ended all Christological controversy. False

7. Apollinarianism argued that Jesus’ human soul and mind were replaced by the divine Logos. True

Fill in the Blank

8. Some scholars argue for a __kenotic Christology__ in Philippians 2:5-11.

9. Richard Bauckham argues that the best framework for understanding Jesus’ relation to God is __“divine identity”__.

10. __Athanasius__ was the most impassionate opponent of Arianism.

11. __Nestorianism__ divides Christ into two persons.

Multiple Choice

12. What particular issue is a key test of orthodoxy in the Johannine letters?a) The deity of Jesusb) The sonship of Jesusc) The humanity of Jesusd) The miracles of Jesus

13. Which theologian claimed Jesus was a semidivine created being?a) Apollinariusb) Ariusc) Athanasiusd) Augustine

14. Which aspect/s of God’s being does Jesus Christ share?a) Honorsb) Attributesc) Namesd) All of the above

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15. In which order were the councils settling Christological matters convened?a) Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus, Chalcedon, Constantinopleb) Chalcedon, Constantinople, Constantinople, Ephesus, Nicaeac) Ephesus, Nicaea, Constantinople, Chalcedon, Constantinopled) Constantinople, Nicaea, Ephesus, Chalcedon, Constantinople

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5.1 – Saved by the Gospel

True/False

1. The gospel is only good news because it first announced bad news. True

2. “Salvation” means only deliverance from sin, death, and hell. False

Fill in the Blank

3. God’s righteous judgment on wickedness and sin is called __distributive justice__.

4. God’s faithfulness to __his covenants__ assures that justice will be done and at the same time judgment will not overtake God’s people.

Multiple Choice

5. Which of the following elements can be classified under a scriptural definition of “salvation”?a) Healingb) Deliverance from injusticec) Forgiveness of sind) All of the above

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5.2 – Redemptive History: The Plan for the Gospel

True/False

1. Redemptive history is the outworking of the covenant of grace. True

2. There is no grace in Genesis 1-11. False

3. The giving of the Law is contrary to the Abrahamic covenant. False

4. Jesus’ achievements can be seen from multiple redemptive-historical perspectives. True

5. The church does not replace Israel. True

6. Humanity’s original mandate to rule creation is abandoned in the consummation. False

7. The meaning of salvation can only be properly grasped in the context of redemptive history. True

Fill in the Blank

8. The Latin term for “redemptive/salvation history” is __historia salutis__.

9. The figure who fulfils Israel’s mandate to be a light to the nations and acts as an expiatory sacri-fice is __the Servant of the Lord__.

10. Under the new covenant, the church has a __new scope__, __new mission__, and __new re-source__.

11. The final act of redemptive history is the __consummation__.

Multiple Choice

12. What does it mean for the gospel to transpire “according to the Scriptures”?a) The events can be matched up to proof texts in the Old Testament.b) The events occur in accordance with the story of Scripture.c) The events occur in the spirit of the Old Testament.d) None of the above

13. Which Abrahamic promise is particularly intensified in the New Testament and placed in a cos-mic scope?a) Landb) Seedc) Blessingd) A great name

14. Which of the following is NOT a prominent figure in Israel’s hopes of the Old Testament?a) The Son of Manb) The Davidic King

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c) The High Priestd) The Servant of the Lord

15. What task/s is the church to undertake under the new covenant?a) Evangelismb) Disciple makingc) Doing justiced) All of the above

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5.3 – Order of Salvation: The Logical Working of the Gospel

True/False

1. The doctrine of predestination includes both the election of some for salvation and the reproba-tion of others for judgment. True

2. Arminian theology does not believe in election. False

3. There is a close link between “gospel” and “call” in the New Testament. True

4. Old Testament believers did not experience regeneration. False

5. Repentance includes a changing of one’s verdict. True

6. Sanctification is both positional and progressive. True

7. Glorification is solely a future event. False

Fill in the Blank

8. __Pelagius__ and his views were condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431.

9. Both Luther and Calvin wrote works __On the Bondage of the Will__.

10. The Arminian solution to the problem of sin restricting freedom to believe is called __preveni-ent grace__.

11. Central to the task of transformation is __imitation__ of God, Christ, and Christian leaders.

Multiple Choice

12. Which theologian developed doubts about the Calvinistic scheme of double predestination and proposed an alternate model?a) Johannes Arminiusb) Jacob Arminiusc) Jacob Amyrautd) John Wesley

13. Which theological view of God’s eternal decrees maintains that the decree to elect and reprob-ate precedes all other decrees?a) Supralapsarianismb) Infralapsarianismc) Sublapsarianismd) Überlapsarianism

14. What is the definition of “faith”?a) Beliefb) Faithfulness

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c) Content of doctrine/teaching.d) All of the above

15. What is the temporal nature of salvation?a) Past and futureb) Present and futurec) Past, present, and futured) Past and present only

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5.4 – Images of Salvation: The Result of the Gospel

True/False

1. Redemption has a background only in the Old Testament. False

2. Paul was the first author to speak of reconciliation in terms of the offended party initiating the offer of peace and restoration. True

3. In Roman Catholic theology, justification is a process. True

4. The primary nature of peace offered by salvation is tranquillity in one’s state of mind. False

5. Adoption has a background in both Old Testament and Roman legal contexts. True

6. The concept of unity with God was a popular image of salvation in the Church Fathers. True

7. No single image of salvation can claim to be the center of understanding salvation. True

Fill in the blank

8. The only image of salvation referenced in the Apostles’ Creed is __forgiveness__.

9. In Reformed Theology, what is credited to the believer in imputed righteousness is Christ’s __active obedience__.

10. The Hebrew word which captures the absence of enmity between Creator and creature is __sha-lom__.

11. Theosis, the idea of becoming like God, can also be called __deification__.

Multiple choice

12. Which scholar wrote a groundbreaking book in 1977 arguing for a reinterpretation of first-cen-tury Judaism?a) N. T. Wrightb) K. Stendahlc) E. P. Sandersd) James D. G. Dunn

13. Which of the following is not a biblical category of justification?a) Eschatologicalb) Progressivec) Forensicd) Triune

14. Which of the following is a standard blessing and promise of the Mosaic covenant?a) Long lifeb) Immortality

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c) Resurrectiond) None of the above

15. What is the center of salvation?a) Communion with Godb) Union with Christc) Life in the Spiritd) All of the above

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5.5 – Scope and Security: How Wide and How Certain a Salvation?

True/False

1. Universalism is the view that in the end every human being will be saved. True

2. Universalists emphasize the subjective dimensions of salvation. False

3. Universalists sometimes appeal to the Adam-Christ comparison in order to justify their position. True

4. Humanity generally responds properly to natural revelation. False

5. Scripture is unclear on the fate of children who die in infancy. True

6. There is tension in Scripture between divine sovereignty and human responsibility when consid-ering the security of salvation. True

7. Salvation in Hebrews is principally a past event. False

Fill in the Blank

8. __Origen__ held the view called apokatastasis, the return of all things to their original unity with God.

9. The term Karl Rahner used for the person in a state of grace without explicit knowledge of Christ is __anonymous Christian__.

10. The view that there is redemptive revelation in nature and other religions is called __inclusiv-ism__.

11. The term which expresses the complex composition of the church in terms of both believers and non-believers is __ecclesia mixta__.

Multiple Choice

12. What assumption is made about God’s will/desire and God’s decree by universalists?a) The two are different.b) The two are the same.c) The two are denied.d) None of the above

13. Which biblical figure speaks the most often about hell?a) Jesusb) Paulc) Peterd) John

14. Why are Old Testament believers exceptions to the condition of salvation (faith in Christ)?

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a) They responded correctly to natural revelation.b) They were righteous due to obedience to the Law.c) They stand in God’s covenantal promises that lead to the Messiah.d) They were “anonymous Christians.”

15. Which view of the warning passages in Hebrews maintains that the warnings are addressed to-ward non-genuine believers?a) Apostasy viewb) Phenomenological viewc) Hypothetical viewd) Community view

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6.1 – God’s Spirit: The Breath of the Gospel

True/False

1. An excessive emphasis on Christology has led evangelicalism to neglect studying the person and work of the Holy Spirit. True

2. The outpouring of the Holy Spirit was not an important promise in the Old Testament. False

Fill in the Blank

3. In the Nicene Creed, the Spirit is described as “the Lord, __the giver of life__.”

4. The Spirit’s work of delivering Israel from exile and New Testament believers from the law of sin and death makes him the __liberator__ of humanity.

Multiple Choice

5. The Spirit empowers the gospel by:a) Energizing the church to go out and proclaim.b) Enabling the word of proclamation to bear fruit.c) Directing the church’s mission.d) All of the above.

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6.2 – Person of the Holy Spirit

True/False

1. Friedrich Schleiermacher defined the Holy Spirit as “the common Spirit of the Christian soci-ety.” True

2. The New Testament always uses personal language and imagery for the Spirit. False

3. The filioque debate was the only cause of separation between the Eastern and Western churches. False

Fill in the Blank

4. The Greek term which encompasses “comforter,” “advocate,” and “helper” is __parakletos__.

5. __Basil of Caesarea__ assigned the terms “original cause,” “creative cause,” and “perfecting cause” to the operations of the Father, Son, and Spirit, respectively.

6. __On the Holy Spirit__ was an important work by the above theologian defending the divinity of the Holy Spirit.

Multiple Choice

7. The view that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son is called:a) Augustinian viewb) Irenaean viewc) Eastern viewd) None of the above

8. Which divine attribute is the Spirit said to share?a) Eternityb) Omnipresencec) Omniscienced) All of the above

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6.3 – Work of the Holy Spirit

True/False

1. The Holy Spirit is active in both the original creation and eschatological new creation. True

2. God’s people under the old covenant had no experience of the Holy Spirit. False

3. Every list of spiritual gifts in Scripture presents the same gifts. False

4. Being filled with the Holy Spirit is a repeatable experience in the Christian life. True

5. The verbal theory of inspiration holds that the Holy Spirit dictated every word and phrase to be used by the authors of Scripture. False

6. Scripture includes quotations of non-canonical and even pagan sources. True

7. In Scripture, the reliability of God’s word is often linked to God’s own fidelity. True.

Fill in the Blank

8. __John Calvin__ could be called “the theologian of the Holy Spirit” because he laid great em-phasis on the Spirit as the mediator and applicator of salvation.

9. The Spirit’s work of purifying and cleansing God’s people is termed his __sanctifying__ work.

10. The theory of inspiration which sees a combination of divine and human elements in the pro-duction of Scripture is called __dynamic theory__.

11. The word __theopneustos __ is a word coined by Paul which describes, albeit ambiguously, the inspiration of Scripture.

Multiple Choice

12. In which of the following aspects of Israel’s history did the Holy Spirit play a part?a) The deliverance wrought by judges and kingsb) The proclamation of the prophetsc) The ministry of the Messiahd) All of the above.

13. In the book of Acts, what is the normative order for conversion, water baptism, and reception of the Spirit?a) No set order is discernible.b) Conversion, water baptism, spirit receptionc) Spirit reception, conversion, water baptismd) Water baptism, conversion, spirit reception

14. What does the “intuition theory” entail?a) The authors of Scripture instinctively knew what to write.

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b) Scripture is fully authoritative.c) Inspiration is relegated to a heightened sense of religious experience.d) None of the above

15. Which word was chosen to express the Bible’s reliability and truthfulness in the North Amer-ican fundamentalist controversy over the doctrine of Scripture?a) Infallibilityb) Inerrancyc) Authorityd) Veracity

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7.1 – Sons and Daughters of the King

True/False

1. An atheistic view of humanity is unable to give a purpose for humanity's existence. True

2. Non-theistic evolution teaches that human existence is an accident. True

3. The gospel is centered around humanity. False

4. In German, the end time is known as the Urzeit. False

5. Augustine believed that humanity was created to re-populate heaven with rational creatures. True

6. Christ's work restores people so that they become truly human. True

7. Paul believed in a literal Adam. True

Fill in the Blank

8. The dilemma that humans have evolved to the point of realizing that their existence is meaningless is known as the human condition.

9. Humanism attaches supreme importance to the welfare of humanity.

10. In the gospel, the old self is crucified and the new self is made alive.

11. Humanity exercises dominion over creation as God's viceregents.

12. Humanity was created to reflect the glory of God.

Multiple Choice

13. Which theological idea, described in Paul, is threatened if there was no literal Adam and Eve? a) Creatio ex nihilo b) Biblical inerrancy c) Male headship d) Adam Christology

14. Which of the following views believe in a literal six day creation? a) Special creationists b) Progressive creationists c) Theistic evolutionists d) All of the above

15. The belief that God directly created different species and then allowed them to develop over a period of millions of years is called a) special creationism.

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b) humanism. c) progressive creationism. d) theistic evolution.

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7.2 – Image of God

True/False

1. Imago dei is Greek for “image of God.” False

2. The “image of God” is to be distinguished from the “likeness of God.” False

3. The fall destroyed the image of God in humans. False

4. The functional view sees the image of God as something inherent in humanity's nature. False

5. God displays his rule over creation through millions of images of himself. True

6. The New Testament sees Jesus as restoring God's image in the rest of humanity. True

Fill in the Blank

7. The key text that describes humanity as being in the image of God is Genesis 1:26-27.

8. The royal view holds that “image of God” is an Ancient Near Eastern throne name.

9. Irenaeus and Tertullian believed in the substantive view of the image of God.

10. The image of God is perfectly revealed in the new Adam.

11. Jesus’ perfect humanity reveals God and rescues humanity.

Multiple Choice

12. In the substantive view, the image of God is most commonly identified as a) a supernatural endowment. b) being impervious to death and decay. c) being spiritual as well as physical beings. d) being able to reason and reflect.

13. Which of the following statements supports the relational view? a) Barth believed it. b) Humanity was created in the image of God as male and female. c) It means that humans can have (horizontal) relationships with each other as well as

(vertical) relationships with God. d) It explains why humans have souls when animals do not.

14. Which view of the image of God did Barth hold? a) Substantive b) Relational c) Functional d) Royal

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15. Which view of the image of God did Calvin hold? a) Substantive b) Relational c) Functional d) Royal

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7.3 – What Is Humanity? The Human Constitution

True/False

1. Christians have generally held a dualistic view of the human constitution. True

2. Materialistic views generally hold to anthropological dichotomism. False

3. The Bible uses “spirit” and “soul” interchangeably. True

4. Body and soul are inseparable. False

5. The Bible teaches that a person is a soul trapped inside a body. False

Fill in the Blank

6. Anthropological dichotomism has historically been the most common position.

7. The unity between body and soul is known as psychosomatic unity.

8. Recently, scholars have attempted to use neurology to support the anthropological monism view.

9. In the trichotomistic view, the mind and emotions form the soul.

10. Anthropological dichotomism holds the spirit and soul as synonymous.

Multiple Choice

11. Which of the following views disregards the Bible's use of synonymous parallelism the most? a) Anthropological dichotomism b) Anthropological trichotomism c) Anthropological monism d) Dualistic view

12. Which of the following views does not hold that the soul can survive death? a) Anthropological dichotomism b) Anthropological trichotomism c) Anthropological monism d) All of the above

13. Which of the following views has 1 Thess 5:23 as its proof-text? a) Anthropological dichotomism b) Anthropological trichotomism c) Anthropological monism d) Dualistic view

14. Which of the following views hold that scriptural references to the soul are metaphorical? a) Anthropological dichotomism

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b) Anthropological trichotomism c) Anthropological monism d) All of the above

15. Which of the following is the biggest problem with the monist view of the human constitution? a) The intermediate state b) Passages that speak of the human soul c) Passages that speak of the human spirit d) The Holy Spirit cannot reside in a purely physical being

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7.4 – What is the Problem With Humanity?

True/False

1. The Old Testament frequently discusses the fall as the source of sin. False

2. The New Testament assumes that the world is inherently sinful. True

3. The gospel declares the end of sin and death through the cross and resurrection. True

4. Paul teaches that people are incorporated into the guilt of Adam. True

5. The doctrine of total depravity teaches that sinful people are incapable of doing good. False

6. Augustine believed that human free will was destroyed through the fall. False

Fill in the Blank

7. Pelagius believed that if God made a command, humans were able to obey it.

8. The study of sin is called hamartiology.

9. The most serious consequence of sin is death.

10. The key passage that teaches on original sin is Romans 5:12-21.

11. Concupiscence refers to a habit or propensity towards sin.

Multiple Choice

12. Which of the following is not a consequence of sin? a) Increasing awareness of one's sinfulness b) Being estranged from God and others c) Self-centeredness d) Degeneration

13. Who wrote the book The Free Will? a) Pelagius b) Calvin c) Erasmus d) Luther

14. Which perspective argues that we get a corrupted nature from Adam, but not any inherited guilt? a) Pelagianism b) Semi-Pelagianism c) Augustinianism d) concupiscence

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15. The word for sin that denotes crossing a boundary is a) lawlessness b) transgression c) rebellion d) perversion

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7.5 – The Odyssey of Theodicy

True/False

1. Theodicy means explaining how a good and powerful God can allow suffering. True

2. The Bible has little to say on the topic of suffering. False

3. It is possible to identify evil without a moral absolute. False

4. Gnosticism tried to explain the existence of suffering by arguing that the Christian God did not create the world. True

5. When God answers Job, he does so using the free will defense. False

6. Believing that God is sovereign over evil requires believing that he is the author of evil. False

Fill in the Blank

7. Socrates believed evil was a matter of ignorance.

8. The question of how an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God could allow suffering is known as the problem of evil.

9. God's knowledge of all possibilities is called his middle knowledge.

10. Limitations that prevent creatures from reaching their natural state are known as metaphysical evils.

11. Racism, poverty, discrimination and caste systems are all examples of social evil.

12. The task of defending the Christian faith is known as apologetics.

Multiple Choice

13. Which person or religion sees evil as the product of desire? a) Socrates b) Zoroastrianism c) Buddhism d) Benedict de Spinoza

14. Earthquakes are an example of a) natural evil. b) moral evil. c) social evil. d) supernatural evil.

15. Which of the following attempts to solve the problem of evil by suggesting that God does not know the future, but he can “win with any hand?”

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a) Gnosticism b) Open theism c) Middle knowledge d) Free will defense

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8.1 – The Evangelical Church

True/False

1. Evangelicals tend to prefer the visible church over the invisible church. False

2. Evangelicals generally agree on how the church should be structured. False

3. There is a place for individualism in Christianity. True

4. Saying that evangelicals are not catholic enough means that they shouldn't have separated from Rome. False

5. The church is identical to the kingdom of God. False

6. A high Christology necessitates a high ecclesiology. True

Fill in the Blank

7. The communion of believers that have entered heaven is known as the church triumphant.

8. Preferring the invisible church over the visible church leads to the danger of Platonic dualism.

9. Tradition is what Christians before us have learned from reading Scripture.

10. The church is to act out the gospel before the world as the company of the gospel.

11. The kingdom is God's redemptive reign among human beings.

Multiple Choice

12. Which of the following is least likely to be a danger of evangelical ecclesiology? a) Ignoring visible unity b) Hyperindividualism c) Lack of concern for tradition d) Ecclesiolatry

13. Who said, “outside the church there is no salvation”? a) Donatus b) Augustine c) Pope Gregory I d) Calvin

14. Which church tradition typically identifies the kingdom with the church? a) Roman Catholicism b) Southern Baptists c) Anabaptists d) Presbyterians

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15. Who believed that the physical kingdom, or state, looks after civil governance while the spiritual kingdom governs the soul and the things of religion? a) Augustine b) Martin Luther c) The Council of Trent d) Jonathan Edwards

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8.2 – Biblical Images of the Church

True/False

1. The term “elect” emphasizes that God has chosen his people. True

2. “Priesthood” is primarily an Old Testament image for the people of God. False

3. The image of “new creation” occurs in both testaments. False

4. Paul always uses the term “Israel” negatively. False

5. The existence and function of the church do not make sense without considering the history of Israel. True

6. The church is the representative of Israel in the Messianic age. True

Fill in the Blank

7. The Greek word ekklēsia means gathering or assembly.

8. The new covenant is a fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant and a renewal of the Mosaic covenant.

9. The view that the church replaces Israel in God's plan is known as supercessionism.

10. Sonderweg describes the special way in which Jews are saved, apart from Christ.

11. The Catholic Letters describe the election of Israel as being extended to include the church.

Multiple choice

12. Which of the following images has the greatest Trinitarian emphasis? a) Temple of God b) Remnant of Israel c) Flock d) Body of Christ

13. Which theological system regards the distinction between Israel and the church as axiomatic? a) Supercessionism b) Dispensationalism c) Jewish restoration eschatology d) Lutheranism

14. Which of the following is not an element of Jewish restoration eschatology? a) The advent of a new, Davidic king b) The banishing of the Gentiles from God's purposes c) The ingathering of Gentiles d) The renewal of the world

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15. Which Old Testament prophet does James quote in Acts 15 to demonstrate the inclusion of Gentiles into the people of God? a) Isaiah b) Jeremiah c) Hosea d) Amos

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8.3 – The Shape of the Church

True/False

1. The church can show its Trinitarian identity through relationships. True

2. The church does not exist for its own sake, but only for the sake of non-members. False

3. Evangelicalism tends to prefer the visible church over the invisible church. False

Fill in the Blank

4. Churches may become so logocentric they resemble mosques more than churches.

5. Koinōnia is the Greek word for fellowship.

6. The church is called out of the world into what is the beginning of the new age.

7. Being a unity-in-diversity is an expression of the church's identity as a Trinitarian community.

8. The church's diaconal identity is to be expressed both through practical service and gospel proclamation.

9. The tangible institution of the church is known as the visible church.

10. A church with an excessive preference for the Spirit, that neglects the Word and sacraments, moves towards mysticism.

11. Without the sacraments, the church will lack unity and spiritual nourishment.

Multiple Choice

12. Which characteristic of the church is most expressed in its efforts to remain holy? a) Eschatological community b) Diaconal community c) Holistic community d) Fellowshipping community

13. Which characteristic of the church is commemorated through the Lord's Supper? a) Eschatological community b) Fellowshipping community c) Holistic community d) All of the above

14. Which theologian introduced the distinction between the visible and invisible church? a) Irenaeus b) Augustine c) Calvin d) Barth

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15. Which of the following best describes the difference between the visible and invisible church? a) The invisible church is completely separate from the visible church. b) The visible church is identical the invisible church. c) The visible church is the present, though imperfect, manifestation of the visible

church. d) The visible church exists now, and the invisible church will exist at the eschaton.

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8.4 – The Marks of the Church

True/False

1. For the Reformers, the true marks of the church were preaching of the Word and administration of the sacraments. True

2. The author concludes that the gospel is the truest mark of the true church. True

3. The church's unity is to be expressed in a unity of styles of worship and church cultures. False

4. The church's unity derives from its common head. True

5. The church's holiness means that it must be comprised solely of regenerate members. False

6. The Bible never refers to the church as a catholic entity. False

Fill in the Blank

7. The traditional marks of the church come from the Nicene Creed.

8. The dual foci of holiness are a status of set-apartness and an ethical standard to live up to.

9. What did some Reformers posit as a third mark of the church? The exercise of church discipline.

10. Roman Catholics define apostolicity in terms of episcopal succession.

11. Much of the modern impetus towards church unity is the result of the missionary movement.

Multiple Choice

12. God's initiative in electing the church results in its a) Oneness b) Holiness c) Catholicity d) Apostolicity

13. Which mark of the church emphasizes its global comprehensiveness? a) Oneness b) Holiness c) Catholicity d) Apostolicity

14. The Reformation marks of the church (right preaching of the Word and administration of the sacraments) can be seen as an expression of the church's: a) Oneness b) Holiness c) Catholicity

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d) Apostolicity

15. Which of the following is not a consequence of church unity? a) Church growth b) Increased credibility in witnessing c) Maturity in Christ d) More effective use of resources

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8.5 – Governance of the Church

True/False

1. The early church consistently used one model of church governance. False

2. In the presbyterian system, the pastors who teach the congregation are known as ruling elders. False

3. Congregational church governance means that a church has no organizational ties to any other. False

4. In the episcopal model of church governance, an assistant bishop is called a suffragan. True

5. The episcopalian model derives authority from an apostolic succession of bishops and priests. True

6. In the New Testament, the words episkopos and presbyter are used synonymously. True

Fill in the Blank

7. In the episcopal model, a bishop has oversight over a region called a diocese.

8. The group of elders in a presbyterian congregation is called a session.

9. The primary purpose of the church is worship.

10. The congregationalist practice of involving the congregation in every church decision expresses the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers.

Multiple Choice

11. Which of the following denominations does not have an episcopal model of church governance? a) Roman Catholic b) Reformed c) Anglican d) Lutheran

12. Which of the following forms of church governance has the greatest degree of autonomy between congregations? a) Episcopalian b) Presbyterian c) Congregational d) All the forms have an equal amount of autonomy.

13. Which form of church governance only uses principles and institutions found in Scripture to organize its authority structures? a) Episcopalian b) Presbyterian

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c) Congregational d) None of the above

14. Which form of church governance centers around the office of elder? a) Episcopalian b) Presbyterian c) Congregational d) All of the above

15. Which form of church governance elects its leaders democratically? a) Episcopalian b) Presbyterian c) Congregational d) All of the above

8.6 – Emblems of the Gospel: Baptism and the Lord's Supper

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True/False

1. The term “sacrament” emphasizes the symbolic nature of the action, rather than any spiritual benefit gained. False

2. The early church held a unified view of when Christians should be baptized. False

3. The New Testament does not describe any need for second-generation Christians to be baptized. True

4. The name “Eucharist” emphasizes the thanks to be given during the meal. True

5. Calvin believed that Christ's body and blood are present spiritually in the Eucharist. True

6. Paul criticizes the Corinthians because they were using the Lord's Supper to reinforce class distinctions. True

Fill in the Blank

7. The belief that people should be baptized only after a profession of faith is called credobaptism.

8. Baptism by pouring water over a person is known as affusion.

9. The view that baptism is the moment when a person is born again and receives the Spirit is known as baptismal regeneration.

10. The Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation involves distinguishing between something's accidents (what it appears to be in outward form) and its substance (what it is in its true, inward nature).

11. The belief that children of Christian homes should be given communion is known as paedocommunion.

Multiple Choice

12. Which of the following is not given as an argument for paedobaptism? a) It replaces circumcision under the new covenant. b) It is a symbol of dying to self and rising with Christ. c) Jesus is accepting of children. d) Acts records incidents where entire households were baptized.

13. Which of the following is the main argument given for credobaptism? a) The church consists only of regenerate members. b) Baptism symbolizes a person dying to their old way of life and beginning a new life in

Christ. c) Baptism is an external symbol of an inward faith. d) The early church practiced believers’ baptism, not infant baptism.

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14. Which view believes that Christ's body and blood are physically present during the Eucharist? a) Transubstantiation b) Consubstantiation c) Reformed view d) Both a) and b)

15. Which Reformer taught that the Eucharist is purely symbolic, and that Christ's body and blood are not present? a) John Calvin b) Ulrich Zwingli c) Thomas Cranmer d) Martin Luther

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Suggested Essay Questions

1.1 – What is Theology?

In what ways is theology similar and dissimilar to other intellectual disciplines? What are the implications for the life of the Christians?

Evaluate the drama model of theology. What are its benefits and shortcomings in describing the task, method, and goal of theology?

1.2 – What Do You Have to Say before You Say Anything?

Evaluate the impact of the Reformation attitude towards philosophy and tradition for Christian theology and intellectual disciplines more generally.

What was Karl Barth’s contribution toward developing a prolegomena? How should an evangelical theology be developed in light of the challenges of Postmodernity?

Make reference to the contributions of Stanley Grenz, Kevin Vanhoozer, and Alister McGrath. Defend the necessity and possibility of the gospel as the prolegomena to an evangelical theo-

logy.

1.3 – What Is the Gospel?

What is the meaning of the “kingdom of God” in Jesus’ ministry and preaching? Analyze the interaction between gospel and empire in the New Testament. What is the importance of the Old Testament in defining and presenting the gospel? Discuss the relationship between gospel and acts of mercy and justice.

1.4 – The Necessity and Goal of Theology

Is theology necessary for maintaining the integrity of the Christian faith? Why/why not? How can theology enhance Christian discipleship and devotion?

1.5 – Is Theology Possible?

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the traditional loci in systematic theology.

1.6 – Sources for Theology

Define and defend the inspiration of Scripture. “The Word of God created the church; the church did not create the Word.” Discuss. What is the place of natural revelation in systematic theology? Evaluate Richard Niebuhr’s Christ and culture models and propose a solution.

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1.7 – Toward a Gospel-Driven Theological Method

Evaluate biblicism as a theological method. How should an evangelical theology be done?

2.1 – God and the Gospel

How is the doctrine of the Trinity expressed in and essential to the gospel?

2.2 – Getting an Affinity for the Trinity

Why is the divinity of the Son and/or the Spirit necessary for the Gospel? Explain why the gospel requires a theology of the Trinity? Examine the Trinitarian theology of Justin Martyr, or the Shepherd of Hermas. Is the Son eternally functionally subordinate to the Father? What are the Scriptural grounds for the Filioque clause? Should we remove it from the Nicene

creed or leave it in?

2.3 – What Is God Like?

Evaluate the doctrine of divine impassibility. You cannot understand God's love unless you also understand his holiness and his wrath.

Discuss. Is it scriptural to refer to God as “Mother?” Why or why not? Which attribute of God best describes his essence?

Chapter 2.4 – The God Who Creates

Why is it important to maintain the tension between God's transcendence and immanence? What is unique about a Christian doctrine of creation? Is the doctrine of creation jeopardized if we accept an old earth or theistic evolution? Did regeneration occur in the Old Testament? Understanding the new creation is essential to understanding the gospel. Discuss.

2.5 – The God Who Reveals Himself

On what grounds is Scripture authoritative? Bibliology is inextricably linked with pneumatology. Discuss. The only way God speaks today is through Scripture. Discuss. Is it more accurate to refer to Scripture as infallible or inerrant? Discuss. Is Scripture inspired at a verbal or a conceptual level? Evaluate Barth's doctrine of revelation.

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2.6 – God’s Purpose and Plan

Is dispensationalism or covenant theology a better framework for understanding the Bible? Is it egotistical for God to be primarily concerned with his own glory? Was a covenant of works made with Adam? Is the Mosaic law antithetical to salvation by grace?

3.1 – Gospel and Kingdom

All theology is a subset of eschatology. Discuss. “Eschatology, rightly understood, is the most practical thing that can be thought” (Barth, quoted

p 236). How does eschatology affect Christian praxis? How does Christian eschatology affirm the importance of the body and the physical world?

Why does this matter? How does eschatology affect a Christian view of ecology?

3.2 – Apocalypse Now... And Not Yet!

Understanding the kingdom of God is essential to understanding the biblical storyline. Discuss. How does John's eschatology differ from that found in the Synoptic gospels? What are the distinctive elements of Paul's eschatology? Revelation is more about the situation of its first-century readers than it is about the future.

Discuss. Compare and contrast the consistent, realized, and inaugurated eschatological models.

3.3 – The Return of Jesus Christ

Evaluate a preterist reading of biblical eschatology. Is the second coming of Jesus mentioned in the Old Testament?

3.4 – Millennium and Tribulation

Will there be a literal millennial reign of Christ on the earth? What purpose does the millennium serve in relation to wider biblical theology? Critique the theology of the Left Behind novels. What problems does a dispensational eschatology present? What does the Bible teach about the tribulation?

3.5 – The Final Judgment

In Scripture, justice is primarily restorative rather than retributive. Discuss. Divine judgment is an act of grace. Discuss. What role do works play in the final judgment?

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3.6 – The Intermediate State: What Happens When You Die?

Are people conscious after they die? Evaluate the case for purgatory. Examine the historical development of the doctrine of purgatory.

3.7 – The Final State: Heave, Hell, and New Creation

Hell is essentially separation from God. Discuss. Evaluate the case for an annihilationist view of hell. What is wrong with the statement, “Christians will live in heaven forever?”

4.1 – The Gospel of God’s Son

“If anything in theology does not lead to Christ, it is not worthy of the name ‘Christian theo-logy.’” Discuss.

4.2 – Christological Method

Analyze the contributions of the quests for the historical Jesus. What are the limitations of Christology from Below? Does Christology from Above necessitate a rift between the “historical Jesus” and the “Christ of

faith”? Why/why not? Evaluate Karl Barth’s contention that historical study of Jesus diminishes the importance of

faith and trust in God’s revelation.

4.3 – The Life of Jesus

In what ways is the Old Testament prospectively and retrospectively Christological? Why was it necessary for Jesus to be born of a virgin? What is the link between Jesus’ message of the kingdom and his crucifixion? What is the significance of the life of Jesus for theology?

4.4 – The Death of Jesus

Examine the “recapitulation” model of the atonement and discuss its strengths and shortcom-ings.

What is the significance of the “exemplary” model of the atonement?

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Analyze the “Christus Victor” model of the atonement and evaluate its potential to integrate victory and cross, objective and subjective, cosmic and individual elements.

Evaluate the three views on the extent of the atonement.

4.5 – The Resurrection of Jesus

Defend the historicity and reality of the resurrection. What is the necessity of the resurrection for salvation? Discuss the implications of the resurrection in constructing a Christian ecological ethic. What is the connection between resurrection and discipleship?

4.6 – The Ascension and Session of Jesus

Evaluate the interpretation of Psalm 110 in Jewish and early Christian texts. Discuss the implications of the ascension for the mandate of humanity to rule. In what ways are believers “raised with Christ and seated in the heavenly realms”? Analyze Jesus’ role as intercessor subsequent to the ascension.

4.7 – The Story of Jesus and the Identity of God

How does the person and work of Christ redefine the meaning of “God”? Does the New Testament teach an adoptionist Christology? Why is the humanity of Jesus necessary for redemption? Evaluate the precision and value of the Chalcedonian definition.

5.1 – Saved by the Gospel

Analyse the relationship between “gospel” and “salvation” in Scripture.

5.2 – Redemptive History: The Plan for the Gospel

Trace and discuss the pattern of sin-judgment-grace in Genesis 1-11. Analyze the significance of the Abrahamic promises (Gen 12:1-3) for redemptive history. What is the relation between the Abrahamic covenant and the Sinai covenant? How does the new covenant affect the definition and task of the people of God?

5.3 – Order of Salvation: The Logical Working of the Gospel Evaluate and compare the Calvinistic and Arminian models of predestination. Does regeneration precede faith or vice versa? Outline the doctrine of sanctification. Is the ordo salutis a logical or temporal order?

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5.4 – Images of Salvation: The Result of the Gospel How central is reconciliation to the biblical conception of salvation? Does imputed righteousness accurately convey the mechanics of justification? Evaluate the New Perspective on Paul and its contribution toward understanding justification. Evaluate the concept of union with God in the Church Fathers.

5.5 – Scope and Security: How Wide and How Certain a Salvation?

Evaluate universalism. How inclusive is the exclusivity of the gospel? Is it possible for believers to lose their salvation?

6.1 – God’s Spirit: The Breath of the Gospel

How central should the person and work of the Holy Spirit be in an evangelical theology? Evaluate the Pentecostal/charismatic movement and its contribution to pneumatology.

6.2 – Person of the Holy Spirit

Is the personhood and divinity of the Holy Spirit sufficiently demonstrated in Scripture? How should awareness of the personhood and divinity of the Holy Spirit affect Christian life

and worship? Trace the debate and controversy regarding the personhood and divinity of the Holy Spirit in the

patristic period. Evaluate the addition of the filioque clause and its significance for understanding the person of

the Holy Spirit.

6.3 – Work of the Holy Spirit

What is the extent of the Holy Spirit’s activity in the old covenant? What is “baptism in the Holy Spirit?” How should the inspiration of Scripture be assessed and expressed? How should the veracity of Scripture be assessed and expressed?

7.1 – Sons and Daughters of the King

What does it mean to be human? It is only in Christ that persons become authentically human. Discuss. Was there a literal Adam and Eve?

7.2 – Image of God

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What does the image of God consist of? In what way is Jesus Christ the perfect human being?

7.3 – What Is Humanity? The Human Constitution

Do humans have a soul? What does the soul consist of? A trichotomistic view of the human constitution owes more to Greek philosophy than Scripture.

Discuss.

7.4 – What is the Problem with Humanity?

Sin makes people less human. Discuss. Do humans inherit guilt from Adam?

7.5 – The Odyssey of Theodicy

How is the cross the ultimate answer to the problem of evil? If God is sovereign, does that make him the author of evil? Evaluate the case for open theism.

8.1 – The Evangelical Church

Is there such thing as an evangelical ecclesiology? An evangelical ecclesiology lacks catholicism. Discuss. How does the kingdom relate to the church? Trace the history of thought surrounding how the church relates to the kingdom.

8.2 – Biblical Images of the Church

Evaluate a supercessionist reading of Scripture. What is the connection between the church and Israel?

8.3 – The Shape of the Church

What is the place of practical service in a gospel-focused ecclesiology and missiology? What are the dangers of an imbalance between the visible and invisible church?

8.4 – The Marks of the Church

Evangelical churches lack catholicism. Discuss. By what criteria should the apostolicity of a church be judged?

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Is the nature of the true church better encapsulated in the marks of the Reformers or the marks of the Nicene Creed?

8.5 – Governance of the Church

Which model of church government is the most biblical? Pragmatism is the best means for determining an ecclesiastical structure. Discuss. Trace the development of church government structures throughout the first five centuries of

church history. Which model ended up predominating? Why? What is the purpose of the church? What is worship? What Scriptural principles should guide the practice of worship in our

churches and Christian life? What biblical precedence is there for the practice of ordination? It is better to belong to a denomination than an independent church. Discuss.

8.6 – Emblems of the Gospel: Baptism and the Lord's Supper

Outline and defend your view of baptism. Outline and defend your view of the Lord's Supper. Who should be baptized? What does baptism give to the receiver? What is the symbolism inherent in the act of baptism? Does the mode of baptism effect this

symbolism? Who can preside over the Eucharist? How is Christ present in the Eucharist? Is the Eucharist a sacrament? Evaluate the case for paedocommunion.

Syllabi and Exam Information

Sample syllabi and exams for Evangelical Theology are available on Textbook Plus. These syllabi and exams have been created for several possible course configurations, including courses that utilize Evangelical Theology for one, two, and three semester sequences. You will find zipped folders containing appropriate syllabi and exams for each of these sequencing options on Textbook Plus.

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