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ALEXANDER’S CAMPAIGN IN BA CTRIA
THEME
In 331 BC after finally defeating the Persian king Darius III in the battle of
Guagamala, Alexander pursued him into a region called Bactria. Bounded by the river
Oxus in the north, china in the east, India in the southeast and Persia in the west, the
region is generally akin to present day Afghanistan. Alexander’s campaign in Bactria
has been termed by the historians as one of the most difficult of his conquests and
amounted to a low intensity conflict in ancient times. It was also the longest of his career
where he battled not only relentless enemies but also extremely unreliable allies anduncontrollable weather. In trying to control this volatile territory he on one hand restored
to extreme brutality by annihilating complete towns and cities and on the other, tried to
pacify its hardy people by number of administrative measures including settling of his
troops in the region and encouraging local marriages. One of his wives Roxana also
belonged to Bactria, his campaign against Bactrian also consumed large portion of his
army otherwise required for expansion eastwards into India. Over millenniums, other
foreign invaders also met the same fate in the region whether they were the British, or
the Soviets or lately the Americans.
Carryout the study of Alexander’s campaign in Bactria and its outcome, drawing
comparison with other foreign invaders or armies which came later in time with the view
to drawing pertinent lessons as relevant in today’s environment.
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Introduction
1. The land of Bactria (present day Afghanistan), is a conflux of rugged mountains
and battle hardened people, which has proved to be a grave yard of many great military
powers/leaders throughout history.(modern day part of Afghanistan) is the world’s inexhaustible well spring of warlords and
fighting tribes, who have left undeletable prints in the history. Alexander took only six
months to conquer Iran, but it took him nearly three years (from 330–327 BC) to subdue
this area. Macedonian leader encountered fierce resistance from the local rulers. In a
letter to his mother, Alexander described his encounters as: "I am involved in the land of
a 'Leonine' (lion-like) and brave people, where every foot of the ground is like a well of
steel, confronting my soldier. You have brought only one son into the world, but
everyone in this land can be called an Alexander.” Local resistance and the difficult
terrain made it difficult for Alexander's forces to subdue the region as many invaders
have found the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan similar to a maze that often trapped
outside invaders. The location of Afghanistan astride the land routes between the Indian
subcontinent, Iran, and central Asia has enticed conquerors throughout history.
Afghan’s resistance to invaders was exemplary, irregular in nature, where lightly armed
warlords rendered a superior, heavily armed and ponderous army ineffective by
concentrating their strength against the weaknesses of the enemy.2. During last three centuries, superpowers had trained their sights on the tragic
land. All endeavors began with confidence and ended in catastrophe. This land has
never been captured by foreign invaders and if was done, then they could not sustain it,
rather had to withdraw with heavy losses which ultimately became cause of their defeat.
This exactly explains where US stands today, Soviets did in 1980, British in nineteenth
century and even Greeks and Macedonians in 329 BC. To change Afghan history it will
take a little luck, a lot of blood and much more time.
Aim
3. To analyse Alexander's campaign in Bactria and subsequent invaders with a
view to draw pertinent lessons relevant to prevailing environments.
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Sequence
4. Following shall be sequence of presentation:-
a. Part-I -Alexander The Great and Bactria Major Salman
b. Part-II -Alexander’s Campaign in Bactria Major Raheel
c. Part-III -Other Invaders in Bactria Major Iftikhar
d. Part-IV -Allies Invasion in Bactria Major Qaiser
e. Part-IV -Analysis and Lessons Learnt Major Asghar
PART – I
ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND BACTRIA
Old Topography of Bactria and What it is Now a Days
5. Geographical Location of Bactria . Bactria, the name of an ancient
country in Central Asia, was the home of Iranian-speaking people from about the eighthcentury BC. At the time of Alexander’s campaign it was part of the ancient Persian
Empire. It lies between the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya River, in today's
Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. A branch of the Hindu Kush
Mountains separated it from the territories of the Sakas (Sacae), the Iranian nomads.
Its capital city, Bactra, was situated in northern Afghanistan, but since the nineteenth
century, the site has been no more than a village near the modern city of Mazar-i-
Sharif.
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1. Name. The most common name found in the history for this region is
Bactria. However, few other names are also found in different languages of that time:-
(a) Bactriana : Ancient Greek(b) Bahtri / Bakhtar : Ancient Persian(c) Bahdi : Avestian(d) Bhalika : Arabic /Indian(e) Daxia : Chinese
2. Topography . Bactria was a mix of mountainous, plain and desertterrain. Towards its South and East were the mountains of Hindu Kush. In the central
region it was plain area noted for its fertility. It was well watered and produced almost
all types of fruit and crops. Because of this fertility it was also known as “The pride of
Ariana” and the people used to call it “Bactria the Beautiful”. However all along the
Western frontier lay the great shifting sand dunes forming an almost impenetrable
barrier to invaders. After the North-western gale it was not uncommon for the whole
face of the country to be altered, roads being blotted out, landmarks obliterated and
fresh sand hills piled up. One of the most characteristic features of Bactria was the
succession of great forts scattered over the face of the country which provided it a
great strength against the foreign intruders.
3. Neighbours. On the Southern and Eastern flanks of Bactria the
great mountain barriers divided it from India and Gandhara. On its Western side were
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the great Carminian desert and the grassy downs of Aria and Margiana (Modern Heart
and Merv). Beyond the Oxus to the North was the sparsely inhabited region of
Sogdiana (Modern Bukhara and Turkestan).
4. People. The original population of Bactria was largely Scythianswho had occupied the plains of Oxus long before the advent of Aryans. The Iranians
conquered Bactria around 8th century BC but did not exterminate the primitive
inhabitants and lived with the aboriginal inhabitants. This created a mix of the
Scythians and the Aryans. The whole population was an obstinate and valiant race.
The inhabitants were warlike people of pure Aryan stock, who were determined to fight
for their freedom. They were rough and outspoken and were continually at war which
kept their martial spirit alive.
5. Language. The language used in the region of Bactria was known as
“Bactrian”. It was of the Indo - Iranian sub – family of the Indo – European family. Since
it was written predominantly with the Greek alphabets, it was also referred to as
“Greeco – Bactrian”. Its extinction took place somewhere in 9 th century AD.
6. Religion. Bactria is thought to have been the birthplace of Zoroaster,
the prophet of Persian religion. Hence the religion being followed in this area was
Zoroastrianism. “Avesta” is the holy book of the Zoroastrians (Modern day Parsi’s). The
great temple of Iranian goddess Anahita was also located here.
7. Strategic Importance of Bactria . Despite its rugged mountainous
and desert terrain, Bactria was strategically located on the Silk Road linking Europe
and China via Western Asia. It was the centre from which other parts of the area could
be checked. For example, Bactria was a block to the northern nomads, and had easy
access to the eastern and western provinces. The presence of great temple of Iranian
godess “Anahita” also increased its importance. Another important feature of Bactria
was the succession of mighty forts spread over the country, asserting to the traveller
the safety and excellent strategic position of the country. This strategic location of the
area was always the source of trouble for this region. The area had been subjected to
the invasions by various armies of the world in different times. A brief account of
different rulers till Alexander the Great’s campaign is given below.
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Overview of Alexander’s Life
8. IN 336 B.C.E., A PROUD, INTELLIGENT, AND SUPREMELY ambitious
young man rose to the throne of Macedonia, a kingdom on the northern border of
modern-day Greece. Only 20 years old, he was already bristling to rule the mighty
Persian Empire to the east. The fact that he accomplished this feat and much more,
despite the wealth, power, and, often, the huge military strength of his foes and in just
under 12 years illustrates his extraordinary gifts as a leader and military strategist. It
has also kept his name in the forefront of legendary “action figures” even into the 21st
century, more than 2,300 years later. He is still known throughout the world as
Alexander the Great.
9. Born to Greatness. Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 B.C.E.) was the
son of King Philip II of Macedon (382–336 B.C.E.) and Olympias of Epirus (c. 376–316
B.C.E.) (in what is now modern-day Albania), daughter of King Neoptolemus I.
Alexander’s birth, which some historians say probably occurred in the month of July,
was accompanied by various unusual events. One of these was the burning down of
the Temple of Artemis, the goddess of the wilderness, wild animals, and the hunt.
Soothsayers (those who foretold the future based on signs) consulted by King Philip
prophesied that these events indicated his son’s great destiny. Whether or not the
prophecies were legitimate, the fact remains that Alexander became the most
successful warrior in the history of the world. From the age of 20 until his death at only
32, Alexander and his armies swept across a vast region that included Persia, Asia
Minor, Syria, and Egypt. He traveled thousands of miles with his troops and ultimately
ruled an empire that stretched approximately 2 million square miles over three
continents. In his conquest of the known world, he overcame armies far more powerful
than his by being smarter, more resourceful, and more determined than his enemies.
His life was instructional for many other great conquerors and rulers as well, including
Julius Caesar, Queen Cleopatra VII, and Napoleon Bonaparte. The young prince had
the best possible background for someone with great ambitions. King Philip II was an
aggressive leader who set an example for his son by conquering neighboring lands
when Alexander was just an infant. As he grew up, Alexander spent much of his
childhood among the soldiers of his father’s army. Another important influence on the
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young prince was his teacher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.), one of the greatest Greek
philosophers ever to have lived. Aristotle, who wrote or edited several hundred books,
taught the young prince geography, botany, zoology, logic, and many other subjects.
10. Alexander’s Education. As a Macedonian prince being groomed for the
throne, Alexander received a first-rate education. But he did not always enjoy his
educational experiences. His first tutor was a man named Leonidas. The stern
Leonidas toughened Alexander physically. The young student was required by his
teacher to engage in physical exercise before dawn and sometimes had to march for
hours before breakfast to increase his appetite. Leonidas insisted on a lean, simple diet
and believed being hungry was good discipline. He would search Alexander’s
belongings to make sure his mother, Olympias, had not snuck him any treats. Leonidas
taught Alexander skills such as running, memorizing lessons, riding a horse bareback,
driving a chariot, and using a sword and a spear. Historians have credited Alexander’s
later ability to endure the many extreme hardships of his war campaigns to the tough
discipline he was subjected to under Leonidas’s tutelage. When Alexander was 13, his
father hired Plato’s student, Aristotle, to replace Leonidas. With this great teacher
Alexander studied literature, philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, geography, zoology,
botany, scientific criticism, drama, poetry, art, law, and politics. Both physical and
spiritual qualities were emphasized in the young prince’s education. He learned to sing
and play a lyre and received training in physical fitness and warfare. Aristotle also
instilled in his young student a lifelong love of the writings of Homer. Alexander believed
in the Homeric concept of personal success for the sake of honor and glory, and tried to
emulate his heroes Heracles and Achilles. Alexander had a great respect for learning,
and during his years in the Middle East he often ordered books to be sent to him from
Greece. He also sent Aristotle a great deal of money over the years to fund his
research and educational projects. In some cases, the king also looked after the
education of his troops’ children. As the army moved from place to place, many soldiers
left behind children who were half Persian and half Greek or Macedonian. Alexander
made many of these children wards of the state and arranged for their education. They
were given military instruction and also learned about the ideals of Greek culture.
11. Alexander’s Weapons
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a. Catapult. The Greeks invented catapults in about 400 B.C.E. Philip was the first
commander to use siege weapons on the battlefield, and Alexander adopted the
same practice. His soldiers used smaller, mobile catapults to fire large arrows
aimed at individual soldiers and
stones, or bags of stones, capable of
killing or wounding a number of men
with a single shot. Catapults were still
in use in the 20th century. In World
War I, soldiers in trenches made
catapults by hand. They would use
them to propel grenades and poison
gas canisters at the enemy. Since World War II, catapults have been used to
launch jets from aircraft carriers. During that war catapults were hydraulic, but
later the British invented a steam-powered catapult. Commonly used today, the
steampowered catapult launches a jet fighter at full throttle, giving it the power to
accelerate from zero to 165 miles in two seconds— enough to get it airborne
from the relatively short distance of the aircraft carrier’s deck. In the 21st century
experimentation is in progress with even more sophisticated and powerful
catapults.
b. Battering Ram. The battering rams used by ancient armies were most often
made of the largest tree trunk possible, which had been hacked to a point at one
end. The tree trunk would then be set on wheels, or sometimes carried by men,
and rammed through the doors and walls of fortresses and castles. Sometimes a
battering ram was slung in a support frame so that it could be repeatedly swung
against the barricade. Modern battering rams are usually used by police forces,
most often by special paramilitary units known as SWAT (special weapons and
tactics) teams, which are specially trained for dangerous missions. Sometimes
these battering rams are attached to cars or other heavy vehicles and sometimes
they are smaller, operated by just two or three officers to break down a door.
c. Ballistae. Ballistae were giant crossbows, powerful enough to shoot huge
darts or arrows, singly or in bunch. Ballistae were generally designed on a
horizontal plane with arms of wood. Human hair or animal sinew was wrapped
around each arm and acted like a spring to send the darts or arrows hurtling
forward. Ballistae were extremely accurate in hitting intended targets but had the
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disadvantage of not being able to travel very far. The Greek word ballista
originates from another Greek word, ballei, meaning “to throw.” These words are
also the ancient roots of our modern word ballistics, the science of the way
projectiles move in flight, or more specifically, the study of what happens when
firearms are fired. Most people today have heard of ballistic missiles. These are
one of the more destructive modern equivalents of ancient projectile weaponry.
12. Alexander’s Army. During Alexander’s time, soldiers fought on foot and
on horseback, meeting each other on the battlefield face to face. There were no guns,
bombs, or tanks; weapons included bows and arrows,
swords, spears, chariots, javelins, catapults, and special
artillery used for sieges. Alexander inherited from his
father the best army of his day. When Philip became
king of Macedonia in 359 B.C.E., Greek armies
consisted of both civilians and professional soldiers. His
first innovation was to create the world’s only
completely professional army. By using only
professionals, warfare was no longer a seasonal activity
fought when the soldier/farmers did not have to tend their fields but became possible
year round. All the helmets, shields, and weapons were made by skilled metalworkers,
who beat the armor into shape from sheets of bronze. Iron was used for spearheads
and swords because it is a much harder metal. The infantry was the backbone of
Alexander’s army. More than twice as many soldiers made up the infantry as the
cavalry. The infantry included mercenary soldiers from a variety of places, including
Agranians (natives of modern Bulgaria), Thracians, Cretans, and Paeonians, and was
broken up into units according to nationality. Each unit had its own distinctive armor.
Infantry soldiers were called
hoplites, and they generallyfought in a formation called a
phalanx, which was
developed by the Greeks.
13. The Companion
cavalry was an elite body of
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upper class Macedonians led in battle by Alexander himself. He adopted this
innovation from his father. A highly disciplined cavalry could turn an enemy’s flank, cut
off its retreat, or pursue fleeing soldiers, and Philip’s cavalry was just such a body. The
Macedonian cavalry changed the nature of warfare, in particular because the phalanx
was such a sophisticated and terrifying method of attack, later adopted by other
leaders. Alexander went on to develop his father’s methods further, employing them to
great advantage across two continents. Alexander’s cavalry squadrons were divided
into platoons. Their commanders were chosen for personal merit rather than race or
birth. Armed with sarissas and outfitted with open-faced iron helmets and short body
armor that protected their chests and backs, these troops were the most effective
cavalry in the ancient world. The cavalry used formal, strict formations, such as wedges
and diamonds. The officer at the tip of the formation would find weak points in the
enemy’s line and then order a charge.
General Line of Move of Alexander’s Campaign
14. Greek Decline . Alexander came of age just after the so-called Golden
Age of Greek civilization, which as at its height between 500 and 400 B.C.E. The
Greeks were renowned as statesmen, philosophers, builders, poets, dramatists, and
sculptors. But by the time Alexander was born, Greek civilization had begun to decline.
Even so, the Greeks were justifiably proud of their knowledge, language, and
refinement, and their customs and ideas still had powerful influence in the world. They
thought very highly of themselves—and not so highly of their neighbors to the north,
the Macedonians. In fact, although the Macedonian kings claimed that the royal family
was descended from the Greek heroes Heracles and Achilles, for the most part the
Greeks considered the Macedonians to be uncivilized barbarians living on the fringes
of Greece. But these tough frontiersmen became effective soldiers under the
leadership of Philip II.
15. Alexander in Charge . Alexander was only 16 years old, when his father
named him as regent, or temporary ruler, of Macedonia while he was away for an
extended period of time. When Thrace, one of the Macedonian colonies, revolted,
Alexander quickly marched troops to the area. He conquered the rebels and renamed
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their stronghold Alexandroupolis. It was to become the first of several cities that he
founded and named after himself. In 338 B.C.E., at the age of 18, Alexander led the left
flank of the Macedonian cavalry (soldiers who fight on horseback) in the battle of
Chaeronea, northwest of Athens. This decisive battle crushed the final Greek
resistance to Philip’s rule.
16. How Alexander Beat Darius . Alexander was greatly outnumbered andovermatched by Darius in almost every way. The Persians had many more troops and
ships and much greater wealth. With a force of Greek mercenaries estimated at up to
50,000, they may have even had more Greek soldiers fighting on their side than
Alexander had on his. Even the size of the two men made them unequal. Darius, then
in his mid-40s, was said to have been nearly six and a half feet tall—huge for the time.
Alexander was of medium height. Yet Alexander had a number of advantages that
enabled him to overcome his enemy’s strength and stature. Alexander’s troops,
inherited from his father, were the most powerful fighters in the world. They were
extremely disciplined and committed, even devoted, to their leader. Not until
gunpowder was introduced 18 centuries later did a stronger army come along. The
Persian forces were not as well trained, well disciplined, or devoted. Their size even
worked against them at times, as they were not as fast or flexible as Alexander’s army.
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Alexander was an expert at analyzing what his available men and weapons could do,
at coordinating his troops for complex battle maneuvers, and at hiding their real
numbers. An incredible tactical genius, he was able to seize opportunities that opened
up during a battle and organize his troops on the spot to make the most of their abilities
and to exploit his enemy’s weaknesses and mistakes.
17. The Battle of Granicus . Between 334 and 331 B.C.E., Alexander won
three decisive battles against the Persian Empire. The first of these was at the
Granicus River (today Kocabas Cay in Turkey) in May of 334 B.C.E. Darius III was so
disrespectful of his young foe that he did not come to the battlefield at all. Instead, he
sent the local satrap, or regional governor, and a force of Persian cavalry and Greek
mercenaries to turn back the invaders. The Persian troops met Alexander’s forces at
the river. The Persians held a strong position, lined up along the eastern bank of the
Granicus, but Darius’s commanders made a fatal error. They had positioned their
cavalry in front and their infantry in back, the standard defensive formation of the
Persian army. Alexander, always shrewd in the heat of battle, quickly saw that this
formation would keep the Persian cavalry boxed in and unable to maneuver easily. The
Macedonian king attacked at once, even though it was late in the afternoon; he feared
that if he waited, the Persians might realize their mistake and reorganize their troops.
Alexander himself led the charge of the main cavalry, sending his infantry directly
across the river. The Macedonians had to cross the deep, rapid river and climb the
steep banks of the Granicus to attack. There was savage fighting. Alexander was
injured and lay unconscious for a short time as the battle raged around him. He
regained consciousness, got back on his horse, Bucephalas, and charged into the
center of the enemy troops. Soon, the Macedonians had gained the upper hand. As the
frantic Persians retreated, many men were trampled by their fleeing comrades. The
Macedonians butchered the Persian soldiers.
18. Capturing Key Ports Of Persia . After the battle at Granicus, Alexander
saw the wisdom of capturing Persia’s coastal cities before driving deeper into the
country. The Persians had a powerful fleet of warships, and he did not have the naval
strength to defeat them at sea. As long as the Persian fleet sailed the Mediterranean,
they would remain a threat. Alexander realized that by capturing key ports that supplied
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the Persian ships with food and water, the navy would eventually have to surrender. He
also needed to control the ports in order to ship reinforcements and supplies to his
army. The coastal city of Miletus resisted, and a Persian fleet of 400 ships with 80,000
men headed there to reinforce the city. Alexander’s brilliant solution was simply to
blockade the harbor, so the Persian ships could not bring their troops ashore. Miletus
fell quickly. But Alexander was so impressed by the courage of the Greek mercenaries
who fought there that, unlike earlier battles; he accepted them into his army. Alexander
used the same technique along the east coast of the Aegean Sea. This kept the
Persian fleet from being able to get fresh water and supplies. Despite its huge size,
Persia’s mighty navy was defeated, simply because Alexander’s army managed to
capture so many coastal cities. About a year and a half after Alexander’s first
onslaught, the entire Persian fleet surrendered.
19. The Battle of Issus . By 333 B.C.E., Alexander reached the coast of
Syria. In October of that year, in a fierce battle at Issus (a coastal plain between what is
now Turkey and Syria), the Macedonians had their second major encounter with the
Persian army. This time, Darius was there to lead his troops into battle. The Persians
outnumbered the Macedonians, but once again they made a deadly mistake. They
chose to fight on a narrow plain bordered by the sea, a river, and mountains. Alexander
ordered his infantry to charge into a heavy shower of arrows. With his personal
regiment, the Companion cavalry, he charged directly into the Persian lines and broke
them up— they had no room to maneuver around the Macedonian charge. The
Macedonians quickly overwhelmed the Persians.
20. The Siege of Tyre . Alexander now marched south through Phoenicia
(a territory that now roughly comprises the coastal area of Lebanon). The major port
cities of Sidon and Byblos (now Jubayl in Lebanon) surrendered to him without a fight,
but when Alexander arrived at the fortified island of Tyre in February 332 B.C.E., the
city refused to let him enter. A walled fortress off the coast of what is now Lebanon,
Tyre was a strategic coastal base, and Alexander knew he had to capture it. But
gaining control of the island city would prove to be his most difficult military operation
so far. Tyre lay about a half mile off the mainland. The water surrounding it was about
18 feet deep, and its walls were about 150 feet high. Its harbor was well fortified and
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there was no land beyond the city walls. Alexander decided to lay siege to Tyre. He
hired thousands of local workers to help the Macedonian soldiers build a mole a
massive land bridge that reached from the mainland to the island. To build this, they
used debris from the old city of Tyre, by then an abandoned ruin on the mainland. They
drove wooden piles into the seabed to support the mole and piled rocks and logs on
top. The work was extremely difficult and dangerous, and the Tyrians did not make it
any easier. They used catapults to hurl stones and balls of burning debris at their
enemies, and shot arrows at them. They captured some of the Macedonians and
slaughtered them, then tossed them into the sea in view of their comrades. But
Alexander’s men, using screens and shields to protect themselves, continued building
the mole. When they finally finished, the mole was about half a mile long and 200 feet
wide. Unfortunately for the Macedonians, the wall where the land bridge came ashore
was too strong for them to batter down. But at the same time the mole was being built,
Alexander also constructed several 150-foot portable wooden towers, or siege towers,
which were covered with iron plates to make them fireproof. Battering rams, catapults
(machines that throw a projectile) were then mounted on these towers. Alexander also
commandeered about 120 ships from the nearby city of Sidon, and mounted siege
engines on their decks. In August 332 B.C.E., these ships moved in to attack Tyre from
both north and south. The Tyrians piled rocks in the water around their island to keep
the ships from drawing near, used their catapults to fling enormous boulders in hopes
of sinking the ships, and poured scalding liquids and red-hot sand on them. The
Tyrians held out for seven months against Alexander’s siege, but eventually were
defeated. Alexander and his men destroyed most of the city, massacred more than
8,000 Tyrians, and sold the remaining 30,000 residents into slavery. This slaughter was
intended as punishment for the way the Tyrians had treated Macedonian prisoners, as
well as a warning to other cities.
21. Onward to Egypt . After his victory at Tyre, Alexander headed for Egypt,
the richest part of the Persian Empire. Its farms grew the best wheat and fruit in all the
Mediterranean lands, and its ancient culture was widely admired. The Egyptians
welcomed Alexander as a deliverer who was freeing them from the rule of the
Persians, whom they detested. They turned over their entire treasury to him and
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crowned the 24-year-old Macedonian pharaoh (king) of Egypt. Along with the title came
the status of a god: The Egyptians considered Alexander (and all their pharaohs) to be
the son of Ammon, their most important god. This made a deep impression on the
young king, who had never considered himself an ordinary mortal. He began to wear a
headdress adorned with two rams’ horns, a sacred symbol also depicted by the
Egyptians as being worn by Ammon. Alexander spent six months in Egypt, where he
founded the great ancient city of Alexandria. Alexandria grew into a worldwide center of
culture and learning, and is still a thriving and respected metropolis today.
22. The Battle of Gaugamela . Alexander left Egypt in the spring of 331
B.C.E. and returned to Tyre to gather his troops. Through the spring and summer, they
prepared for their next battle, at Gaugamela, which would turn out to be the decisive
clash for the Persian Empire. King Darius had been preparing for this encounter with
Alexander since his humiliating defeat at Issus. He amassed a large number of soldiers
and added new weapons to his arsenal. He fitted the wheels of 200 chariots with razor-
sharp, curved blades that could slash the legs of the enemy’s horses and foot soldiers.
He also brought in 15 Indian war elephants. The battle took place near the village of
Gaugamela, east of the Tigris River in what is now Iraq. Darius chose the broad plain
as the battle site to make sure his troops would not get hemmed in as they had at
Granicus and Issus. He had workers smooth over rough spots on the field to level the
ground for his special chariots. In some spots, his soldiers placed metal spikes on the
ground to cripple the Macedonian horses. Alexander reportedly had 40,000 infantry
and 7,000 cavalry. Estimates of the size of Darius’s army range from 250,000 to 1
million soldiers. Alexander lured the Persians into attacking his right and left flanks.
This opened up a gap in their center, where Darius was fighting. Seizing the moment,
Alexander quickly led his cavalry through to the center and galloped toward Darius,
killing his chariot driver. Before he could get to the Persian king, however, Darius leapt
from the chariot and fled the battlefield on horseback. Most of his men soon followed.
23. Alexander’s Pursuit for Darius . After this, Alexander set off in pursuit of
Darius. Darius was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As
Alexander approached, Bessus killed Darius, declared himself king and retreated into
Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. With the death of
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Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance. His three years campaign, first
against Bessus and then against Spitamenes, the satrap of Sogdiana took Alexander
through Media, Parthia, Aria, Drangiana, Bactria and Scythia.
PART – II
B ACTRIAN CAMPAIGN
Theatre of War
24. The Bactria lay between the Hindu-Kush and the Oxus (Amu Daria). It was
a tangled mass of mountains and most of Sogdiana (Bokhara and Turkestan) was
either open plain land or desert. Except for Bactra, the last great city of the Persian
Empire, there were no towns to strike. The people were either village dwellers or
nomads. The Bactrian and Sogdians were warlike people of pure Aryan stock, who
were determined to fight for their freedom, they inhabited Bactria one of the most
difficult regions in the world for any army to operate.
25. Crossings the Hindu Kush. Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush
Mountains into Bactria with a force of about 64,000 troops with 10,000 cavalry and half
as many people accompanying as servants or camp followers in the spring of 329 BC.
Bessus, with 7000 Bactrian, accompanied by Spitamenes and Oxyartes (barons of
Sogdiana) lost the opportunity to attack the Macedonians as they descended in thin ,
weak lines from the Hindu Kush. Instead, alarmed by their approach he fled north and
held Aornus (Tashkurgan) near the upper Oxus. Although the Hindu Kush was deep in
snow, Alexander crossed Khawak Pass (11,600 feet high) and descended into Bactria.
He advanced northwards to Drap Saka (Kunduz) to reach Aornus form the east. His
move forced Bessus to withdraw beyond the Oxus and resulted in fall of Aornus andBactra (Balkh) without resistance.
26. In pursuit of Bessus. Form Bactra, Alexander marched to the Oxus
opposite Kilif. During the march a forty five mile stretch of desert sands cost him more
causalities than in any battle. Here the river was about three quarters of a mile wide
which he crossed in five days using skins stuffed with chaff. Alexander marched
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rapidly north through ancient Sogdiana, a region that roughly corresponds to today’s
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. During the march, Spitamenes sent a message that Bessus
had been arrested by him and was willing to surrender. Alexander dispatched Ptolemy
to accept the surrender. Bessus was mutilated and returned to Ecbatana for a horrible
execution.
27. To Maracanda and Jaxartes . Alexander now marched to Sogdian
capital Maracanda (Samarkand) and then to Jaxartes. A party of Macedonians was
attacked while foraging in the area and a number were killed and taken prisoners. Army
reacted at once lead by Alexander. He was shot in the leg with an arrow and suffered a
broken fibula; however the troops stormed the mountain and killed several thousand of
their antagonists. He conquered Maracanda with little resistance and decided to found
another city near Jaxartes.
28. The Real Menace . At jaxartes he learned that the entire territory from
jaxartes to Hindu Kush had erupted in rebellion behind him. Garrison of Cyrus’s seven
fortresses had been massacred. Spitamenes had descended on Maracanda with a
large force of cavalry reinforced by Scythians of the Dahae tribe(robbers); and Bactrian
leaders, after being summoned to a conference at Bactra which seemed a trap and
revolted instead.
29. Revolt at Cyropolis. Alexander sent a force of fifteen hundred
infantry men eight hundred cavalry and sixty companions to deal with Spitamenes.
With rest of the army he started knocking down Cyrus’s forts, one after the other.
Cyropolis was the strongest town. Alexander advanced to Cyropolis which was
surrounded by a high wall and garrisoned by tribesmen. He ordered the battering rams
to be brought up to the wall to divert the attention of tribesmen and gained access to
the city by way of the channels or tunnels, as part of his classical deception plan.
Probably under cover of night or morning twilight, they slipped through the channels.
When the tribesmen saw their city in enemy’s hands, they made a vigorous onslaught.
Alexander himself was struck violently with a stone upon his head and his neck but
finally subdued the tribesmen. Cyropolis was seized and eight thousand of the
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tribesmen were killed along with 15,000 forced to surrender. The last two remaining
forts were taken with little trouble..
30. Battle at Jaxartes. Macedonians returned to erecting Alexandria the
furthest. While Cyropolis and the other fortified posts were reduced, the Scythianscontinued to assemble on the right bank of the Jaxartes. The Jaxartes at Eschate was
not very wide. Alexander deployed his catapults along the left bank to cover the
passage through the river and opened the bombardment on the Scythians. He took
advantage of their confusion and began to cross the river. First to cross the river were
the archers. He ordered them to shoot at the Scythians to prevent them approaching
the phalanx steeping out of the water.
31. On the far side of jaxartes the leading Macedonian elements advanced
inland too quickly and became surrounded. Alexander after arriving at the scene
improvised a solution and soon Scythians found themselves assailed in two sweeping
wings with Alexander leading the companions cavalry on the right. The Scythians could
no longer manoeuvre but were trapped between converging forces. A thousand were
killed and 150 captured.
32. Problem at Maracanda. The news of another disaster was received
there. The force sent to Maracanda had indeed relived spitamene’s siege of that city
citadel. After pursuing the rebels into the country side, however, the relief force hadfallen into a trap and now Spitamenes had laid a siege to Maracanda. Alexander failed
to realize the intensity of the rebellion until the Maracanda was besieged. Retribution
was immediate, as Alexander set out with half the companions, archers and the lightest
men. He covered 170 miles to Maracanda in three days and on fourth day at dawn,
came near the city. Spitamenes and his followers fled with Alexander at their heels, but
when he reached the battle field, he halted to bury dead of his force. He then marched
back to Bactra for winter of 329-28 BC.
33. March to Sogdiana. Before he set out to subdue Sogdiana in 328
BC, Alexander left Craterus with a strong force in Bactra with orders to patrol the
country and prevent any uprising. He divided rest of his army into five columns. He led
his own column to Maracanda, while the others swept the countryside, reduced the
Sogdian strongholds and then joined up with him at Maracanda. They built fortified
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posts and garrisons to confine mounted commandos. He instructed Coenus and
Artabazus to advance their column into Scythia (Turkestan) where Spitamenes had
sought refuge and reinforcement of a tribe already famous for killing Cyrus the great. In
all his great battles, the organization of his army created a decisive point. Against
nomads, the only sure method was to compel them to mass in an area in which their
mobility will be restricted. He grasped the conditions which rendered the Scythians
invincible. He so shrewdly penetrated to compel them to do what they did not want to
do i.e. to enter a siege of trained, disciplined and better armed soldiers. Should this
interpretation of Alexander’s manoeuvre be correct, then it is a model of its kind.
34. End of Spitamenes. In the spring of 328 BC, Alexander returned to
Oxus. After Alexander had established his network of fortified posts, he allotted Coenus
two battalions of the phalanx, two squadrons of companions, all the mounted javelin
men and the newly raised Bactrian and Sogdian light horse and instructed him to
continue the operations against Spitamenes while he rested the army at Nautaca.
When Spitamenes saw every place was occupied by the Macedonians with garrisons,
and that there was no way to fight, he decided to attack Coenus. When Coenus saw
Spitamenes preparing for attack, he launched a sharp encounter in which 800
Spitamene’s followers were killed and Spitamenes deserted again. When the Coenus
was pursuing Spitamenes, one of his followers from Massagetae betrayed Spitamenesand sent his head to the Alexander. Thus perished the most formidable opponent who
ever faced Alexander. After Spitamenes death, Coenus and Craterus rejoined the army
at Nautaca, rest of the year was used for mopping up the entire area.
35. Battle of Sogdiana Rock. The most famous battle took place at
the sogdian rock, an in accessible precipice where Bactrian noble Oxyartes had taken
refuge with thousands of soldiers and ten years worth supplies. Alexander canvassed
his army for mountain climbers. Finding three hundred, he charged them with scalingthe nearly sheer cliff behind the rock. Over thirty fell but in the morning Oxyartes found
a triumphant force of Greek soldiers above his head and behind him. Oxyartes promptly
surrendered. In late spring of 327 B.C the king married daughter of Oxyartes, Roxane.
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PART III
OTHER INVADERS IN BACTRIA
British Campaign
“More fighting still ! When will this country be pacified?”
Alexander Burnes, Chief British political officer in Kabul, July 1841.
36. First Anglo–Afghan War . It lasted from 1839 to 1842. It was one of the
first maj conflicts during the Great Game, the 19th century competition for power and
influence in Central Asia between Great Britain and Russia, and also mark one of the
worst setbacks inflicted on British power in the region after the consolidation of India by
the East India Coy.
a. Problems Faced and Their Solutions (Factors contributing to Failure)
(1) Afghans resented the British presence and Shah Shuja
whom they took as British puppet.
(2) Invasion stemmed from intelligence failure, and confused /
optimistic policy.
(3) Britons raised taxes and attached existing customs and
interests, especially of chiefs and warriors, while the mere
presence of their garrisons caused inflation and irritation.
(4) In 1841-2, invasion sparked a combination of jihad, elite
coup, Pushtun war of national resistance, and banditry, not anational revolution, but dozens of loosely related risings. The
British had no friends; once they ceased to be feared, and
slashed their bribes, everyone struck opportunistically.
(5) As the occupation dragged on, MacNaghten (Britain's chief
representative to Kabul) allowed his soldiers to bring in their
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families to improve morale; this further infuriated the
Afghans, as it appeared the British were settling into a
permanent occupation.
(6) Failure to introduce political reforms as follow up of mil
campaign.
(7) Major cause of war that is furtherance of British imperialistic /
expansionist designs.
42. Second Anglo–Afghan War. In the three decades after the First Anglo-
Afghan War the Russians advanced steadily southward towards Afghanistan. In 1842
the Russian border was on the other side of the Aral Sea from Afghanistan, but five
years later the Tsar's outposts had moved to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. By
1865 Tashkent had been formally annexed, as was Samarkand three yrs later. Russian
con now extended as far as the northern bank of the Amu Darya. To check further adv
of Russians towards south, in 1878, the British again invaded Afghanistan, beginning
the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
a. Problems Faced and Their Solutions (Factors contributing to
Failure)
(1) The cause of the second Afghanistan campaign had little to
do with the Afghans themselves but everything to do with the
Great power rivalry of the British and the Russians.
(2) Mindful of the disaster that befell the expedition during the
First Afghan War, the Indian government prep for this
campaign in a much more diligent manner.
(3) Constant attacks by Afghans on isolated supply and relieve
columns were of serious concern for the British.
(4) Britain found operations in Afghanistan hard, because the
population, including veterans of the Indian Army,
armed with effective rifles, played its hand against
Britain.
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(5) Due to this campaign, there had been a considerable
financial burden to the Indian government.
(6) British forces were pleased to pull out of Afghanistan to
avoid the horrendous summer temperatures and to avoid the
constant attacks on isolated supply and relieve columns.
(7) Disaffection of many Afghans for the terms and conditions of
the British peace posed serious problems for the British.
(8) The timing of the campaign did not seem propitious. The
British troops entered their second uncomfortable winter in
the Himalayas.
(9) The British attempt at maintain any legal facade for their
undertakings was made more difficult as Yakub Khan
(the ruler of Afghanistan) attempted to abdicate. With
no obvious leader in sight, the country
descended into unpredictable tribal allegiances.
(10) The various tribes made it abundantly clear that as
little as they liked each other, they liked the British still
less.
(11) Failure to introduce political reforms as follow up of military
campaign.
Soviet Invasion
“There is no single piece of land in this country which has not been occupied by a
Soviet soldier. Nevertheless, the majority of the territory remains in the hands of rebels.
There is no single military problem that has arisen and that has not been solved, and
yet there is still no result. The whole problem is in the fact that military results are not
followed up by political”.
Sergei Akhrome’ev, Soviet Deputy Minister of Defence, Nov 1986
43. In 1979, the USSR took control of the Afghan capital, Kabul, and tried through
the following decade to gain control over the whole country and its people. The invasion
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was a failure, costing thousands of lives and having serious consequences still felt
today.
a. Factors Contributing to Failure
(1) Lack of understanding regarding geo and culture of
AOO.
(2) The Communist governments in Kabul in the 1970s
lacked the popular sp of the rural population.
(3) Red Army of 1979 lacked adequate prep for ctr-insur
ops. Moreover, it had not fought a war since 1945.
(4) The Red Army was a conscript force whose sldrs
served for two-yr periods. It did not have an NCO
corps--in keeping with long Russian tradition, the Red
Army relied on junior officers to perform the
roles that NCOs perform in Western armies.
(5) Soviet conscripts were notoriously brutal, drunk, and
unprofessional.
(6) Resistance fighters, called mujahidin, saw the
Christian or atheist Soviets con Afghanistan as a
defilement of Islam as well as of their traditional
culture. Proclaiming a "jihad"(holy war), they
gained the sp of the Islamic World.
(7) US gave mujahidin sp incl weapons, trg and money -
Op Cyclone.
(8) Mujahidin successfully emp guerrilla tac against the
Soviets.
(9) Decentralized and scattered around Afghanistan, the
mujahidin were like a poisonous snake without a head
that could be cut off. There was no one strong cen
stronghold from which resistance operated.
(10) Alienating the civ populace - Soviet invasion had a
devastating eff on the Afghan people. Because the
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rural population fed and housed the mujahidin, the
Soviets tried to eliminate or remove civilian
populations from the countryside where
resistance was based.
(11) Soviet invasion in Afghanistan elicited a strong
reaction from all over the world.
(12) From throughout the Arab world, people gave money
and aided the mujahidin.
(13) Although the primary reason for the Soviet wdr was
their mil failure, diplomatic pressure from around the
world hastened it.
PART IV
ALLIES’ INVASION
44. The US led coalition’s campaign in Afghanistan presents an interesting case
study in contemporary times where like previous invaders a superior force succeeded in
initially overrunning the country and got caught up in a protracted conflict thereafter. In
succeeding pages the analysis testifies that US strategy in Afghanistan bears many
similarities and some departures from Alexander’s model of conquering and retaining
Afghanistan. As a whole the US model can be assumed to be closer to Alexander’s
strategy than any other invader of Afghanistan. The US campaign in Afghanistan will be
dealt with in following sequence in this part of study:-
a. Background and reasons of invasion.
b. Brief conduct of operations.
c. Comparison with Alexander’s model including similarities and departures.
45. Background and Reasons of Op Enduring Freedom. On 11 September
2001, USA was struck with terrorist attacks precedented in its history only by Japanese
attack on Pearl harbour .The magnitude and degree of destruction left the Americans
flabbergasted; not only the invincibility of world’s sole super power had comprehensively
shattered but also the loss of lives and damage to the economy was colossal . Outraged
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and shocked America was quick at pointing figure toward Al Qaeda and Afghanistan
and demanded for immediate extradition of Osama Bin Laden from Taliban regime.
Afghan government’s defiance to comply left Americans with no option but to undertake
a major military campaign and a policy statement enunciating “ Either you are with us
or with the terrorists” was made by US administration to coerce international support.
Pakistan had considerable stake in continuation of Taliban regime in Afghanistan and it
tried to persuade Afghan government to abide by the US demands failing which it took
the fateful decision of siding with the coalition in war against terror. The US along NATO
allies invaded Afghanistan with Pakistan providing intelligence, rights to use its air
space and logistic support in support of coalition efforts.
46. Conduct. The war can be categorized into four distinct phases:-
a. Air Campaign. “Operation Enduring Freedom” began with a massive
air campaign starting from 17th Oct 01. Soon Americans ran out of visible
targets to strike and resorted to special force operations as well as
bombing of front line Taliban positions. After a month of bombing, US
forces had nothing much to show to their credit except the collateral
damage.
b. Ground Offensive and Capitulation of Taliban. Northern alliance
started the offensive from Northern fringes by taking Mazar-e- Sharif with
Dostam’s militia. Local Taliban surprisingly did not put up much of fight.
Soon Kunduz, Herat and several other cities fell to Northern alliance. On
13 Nov 02, Northern Alliance troops entered into Kabul and claimed
victory. History repeated itself once again as Afghanistan was conquered
by a superpower without much of a resistance.
c. Resistance Phase. It is an ongoing phase. After the fall of Kabul, an
interim government was formed under Hamid Karzai. His cabinet has
Tajiks and Uzbeks from North but Pushtuns who form the majority of
population have very less representation in the government. Taliban
organized them once again and started raids, ambushes and suicide
attacks against NATO led ISAF forces in Afghanistan. US has only itself to
1 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:114
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blame for shifting of its focus from Afghanistan to Iraq at a critical time,
and forces were divided to look after two fronts .
d. Strategy Revisited (Obama Administration). Subsequent to formation
of new American Government the strategy was a revisited and the issue
was viewed in regional context leading to announcement of Afpak
Strategy. Whereas the strategy is yet to be unfolded on ground in specific
terms additional dimensions of addressing the causes outside
Afghanistan, engaging the non hardline Taliban and empowering the
Afghan National Army are the salients.
47. Comparison With Alexander’s Campaign. US led coalitions’ campaign in
Afghanistan has so far been closest to the Bacterian model it bears many similarities in
its concept and conduct, however owing to variations in aim of the campaign and
contemporary geopolitical realities there are some departures from Alexanderian model
as well these similarities and departures are as under:-
a. Similarities
(1) Massive Use of Force. Like Alexander the coalition broke the
ground with massive use of force in the form carpet bombing the
country with state of the art weapons and potent support to the
Northern Alliance troops. Like Alexander and earlier invaders the
coalition was able to secure a victory in a quick time but the Taliban
instead of being annihilated melted in the country side with
considerable resistance potential entangling the invaders in a
protracted and bloody conflict which goes on todate.
(2) Engaging with Local Forces and Warlords. In a bid to
strengthen his hold over Bectria Alexander empowered local
warlords like Sismithers the policy did pay him rich dividends.
Coalition went a step ahead in securing the support from anti
Taliban forces not only in post operations stage but also during the
conduct of battle with Coalition boots touching the ground after the
Kabul had fallen to Northern alliance.
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(3) Reconstruction Efforts. To quell the insurgency and win the
hearts and minds of the people in post war scenario the coalition
forces just like Alexander undertook considerable reconstruction
efforts these can be broadly divided into administrative, political and
economic developments. A brief review is a s under:-
(a) Political Initiatives. To alienate the feelings of being ruled
by foreign invaders the coalition followed a line of putting in
place Afghan governments in an early time frame major
developments are as under:-
(1) Establishment of Provisional Government. With
the campaign in its seventh week the coalition
commenced with the efforts to put in place a
provisional government accommodating as much
ethnic groups as possible. Resultantly an agreement
was reached on 5 December 20012 by various Afghan
stake holders at Bonn conference in Germany putting
in place an interim government under Hamid Karzai.
United States, United Nations and Japan played a
major role to help secure the agreement.
(2) Establishment of National Government. Going
further the coalition was successful in establishing an
Afghan National Government as a result of Loya Jirga
(as provided by the provision of Bonn agreement)held
on 11 and 12 Jun 2002.3Hamid Karzai was elected as
president for next two years.
(3) Formulation of Constituiton. The coalition played
a major role in settling the difference and persuading
all segments of Afghan national government in
adopting a constitution thus setting the stage for
nationwide elections in Jun 2004. The constitution put
2 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:1163 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:119
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in place a presidential form of government and tried to
accommodate various ethnic groups by recognising
Pashto, Durri, Uzbek and Turkmen as official
languages.
(4) Nationwide Elections. By holding general
election s in 2004 and 2009 the coalition has stuck to
its effort to project Afghanistan being ruled by the
Afghans and put in place some democratic framework
in the country. The results of the effort however
remain marred owing to factors of Hamid Karzai being
viewed as American puppet and failure of the
government to extend its writ beyond Kabul.
(b) Economic Initiatives. Like Alexander coalition under took
several steps to improve the economic condition of the Afghan
government right from the outset. The international conference held
in Japan in January 2002 set a target of $15 billion assistance to
Afghanistan in next 10 years. The coalition was able to win the
commitment for provision of $ 4.8 billion over next five years.
America itself committed $ 296 4million in the coming year. This is
largest ever assistance from a single government in a single year.
Although considerable amount of this allocation did make it to
Afghanistan, however factors like government’s lack of capacity
and infrastructure to undertake development works compounded by
worsening security situation did not allow requisite results to be
achieved.
(c) Administrative Initiatives. Just like Alexander coalition
under took a number of administrative initiatives to win the
population on their side and put in place developmental
infrastructure, major steps are as under:-
4 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:118
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(1) Establishment of ISAF. Although it later became to be
viewed as an extension of American presence in
Afghanistan, ISAF was established as an international
security assistance force under the umbrella of Unites
Nations for purposes like peace keeping, improvement of
security situation and undertaking development works. Thus
clearly differentiating its role form US prime aim of capturing
Osama Bin Laden and Taliban leaders.
(2) Establishment odf Afghan National Army. Although still
having a strength of 4700 people the establishment of
Afghan National Army was a major step towards achieving
security in the country. Failure to amalgamate local militias
with Afghan National Army owing to resistance by the war
lords and United States’ ceding to these war lords to keep
them on her side have seriously undermined the effects to
be achieved from establishment of Afghan National Army.
(3) Repatriation of Refugees. Another major initiative
was to go ahead with the repatriation of refugees. In 2004
alone 0.65 million of Afghan refugees returned to
Afghanistan. Overall 2.5 million refugees returned to
Afghanistan this is the single largest repatriation of the
refugees in past 30 years5. The worsening security situation
coupled with government’s lack of capacity to undertake
rehabilitation initiatives have marred the outcome from the
fact.
(4) Development of Communication Infrastructure. The
coalition undertook some major projects to develop road
communication network in the country. Joint construction of
Kabul- Kandhar-Heart road (by Saudi Arabia, Japan and US
government) and Torkham- Jalalabad road by Pakistan
5 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:121
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coupled with several initiatives of local communication
arteries are some of the examples.
b. Departure from Alexandrian Model. The coalition model of invading
and retaining Afghanistan differs from Alexander’s campaign in many
ways. The phenomenon is rooted in the basic aim of coalition forces and
different geopolitical realities. Major departures are as under:-
(1) Basic Aim of Invasion. Unlike Alexander’s aim to conquer
Afghanistan, coalition’s declared aim was to topple the Taliban
regime, bring the perpetrators of 9/11 attacks to justice and
dismantle the terror infrastructure in the country. The fact
fundamentally alters the concept of waging the war and variations
are evident.
(2) Formulation of Coalition. Unlike Alexander America was able to
articulate a multinational coalition to undertake the campaign.
Although US was able to retain the role of major decision maker,
however the actions of coalition forces fell short of response
generated by single nation’s force under one single command.
(3) Alienation of Local Population. In later half of his campaign
Alexander tried to reach out to the local population by a variety of
measures. Contrarily the coalition stays in water tight
compartments with civil military relation and developmental
initiatives falling to the domain of ISAF.
(4) Encouraging Independent Power Centers. While Alexander
took on any independent power centres with an iron hand the
coalition seems to be settled with the existence of various warlords
and their militias partly attributable to the variation the aim of the
campaign.
(5) Shift of Focus Amidst the Campaign. Whereas Alexander
vigorously pursued the campaign being unifocal and without
engaging himself on any other front; the coalition on the contrary
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lost focus of Afghanistan by getting entangled in Iraq seriously
affecting the outcome of the campaign.
48. Many of these departures are being undone in the new US policy for Afghanistan
and hopefully with these new initiatives the coalition will be able to prevail.
PART- V
ANALYSIS AND LESSONS LEARNT
Analysis of Bactrian Campaign
49. Securing the Base of Operation. Alexander always operated from a
secure base of operation and ensured its protection at all cost. Even in the
middle of the campaign he preferred to return for its protection then the
immediate objectives by retaliating quickly and ruthlessly. The testimony is
evident form his actions against the pursuit of Darius and Bessus, and the revolt
of Satibarzanes at Cyropolis.
50. Centre of Gravity. Alexander the Great led an Army of 40,000 for 12
years from one corner of known world to the other, across the most treacherous
of terrains, while fighting and defeating the greatest of his time. His personality asa leader captured the centre peace of his conquests. He was the centre of gravity
of his army mainly due to his determination and influence in the battle.
Macedonians never reached that glory after his death.
51. Speed of Operations. In the history, except Napoleon, no other general
appreciated as fully as Alexander the value of mobility in war. Throughout his
career, speed dominated all his movements and the result was increasing the
time at his disposal. Number of times in Bactrian campaign, he surprised his
enemies due to superior mobility. He manifested the application of mobility in
pursuit of Darius and Bessus, and execution of Satibarzanes. He covered the
distances with speed to reach at a place, where his enemy never expected him.
37. Pursuit. Alexander was the first general in history to understand that the
fruits of a battle are in pursuit. He in all the battles followed his enemies until they
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were executed or murdered. Darius, Bessus and Spitemens are the few
examples.
38. Singleness of Purpose. Alexander’s tactical operations were invariably
subordinated to strategic aim of their respective campaigns. In his great battles,
his aim was to assault from a secure base and annihilates his enemy’s power of
resistance. He did so by subduing all Persian provinces along axis of advance.
His aim was to secure NE front so as to invade India after the Bactrian campaign.
39. Intelligence Network. Alexander always obtained advance information
about the country he decided to conquer and his intelligence network was so well
orchestrated that he could get first hand information about his enemy’s movement and
his intentions well in advance to take appropriate actions at his end. When this was not
possible, he stepped into his enemy’s shoes, looked at the situation through his enemy’s
eyes and fathomed his intentions.
40. Security. Alexander while at rest or during march or in battle, ordered
entrenchment to be dug and picketed the route along which he marched, as he
did in the Elburz Mountains. He also resorted to night move to hide his intentions
and to surprise his enemy. In the battle, the security of his army was guaranteed
by its organization. Its centre was impenetrable as long as phalanx maintained its
dressing and its mobile wings were self protective. They could adopt themselves
to attack or defence as occasions demanded.
41. Quelling Rebellions. Whenever Alexander confronted with any
revolt, he eliminated all uprisings by responding immediately and ruthlessly whether
inland or abroad, like the revolt of Satibarzanes.
42. Adaptation to Guerrilla Warfare. In this theatre, Alexander fought
a war with mounted guerrillas, who when he advanced would suddenly appear in his
rear. They entrenched themselves on inaccessible crags, and when pursued, they
vanished into the Turkoman steppes. That is why he took two years to subdue these
provinces which tested his generalship. In response to guerrilla warfare he lightened
the phalanx and there was a considerable expansion of his light troops both on foot and
on horse. Whatever changes he made, these were based on mobility and flexibility
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coupled with use of large number of military posts and military colonies that restricted
his enemy’s mobility.
43. Concentrated Employment of Fire Power . Alexander used catapult as
his main field artillery gun. In the battle with Scythians at Jaxartes, he used this
weapon to cover river crossing and to cover the assault on Aornus. He has the
distinction of being the first field gunner in the history.
44. Socio-Politico Reforms. Alexander secured important bases and later
their administration was carefully organised. Peaceful conditions were resorted to, trade
was stimulated and police force was left to the colonies rather than armies of
occupation. As his conquest extended, he won peace as he waged war and bound the
whole into one by means of communication network.
45. Logistic Sustenance. Alexander knew the importance of continuous
Logistic support and he never left sight of it. He always appointed commanders
responsible for the route protection, and he normally chose locals for this task. When
Satibarzanes, the Governor of Aria submitted to him, he allotted him small police force
for the route protection. In the entire campaign, it was only once before the battle of
Issus, that his supply system broke down.
46. Promoting Inter Cultural Harmony. Alexander knew that his
existence in the area depends not on his endeavours, but on the good will and
contentedness of its people. To expunge his victories from their minds and show them
he was one of them, He introduced Persian etiquettes into his court and donned
Persian attire. He adopted a composite dress mid way between the Persian and the
Macedonian culture.
47. Impartial Justice. Alexander treated his followers impartially. When he
came across the Ariaspians and learnt that they not only enjoyed a form of government
unlike that of the other barbarians. He also observed that Ariaspians laid claim to justice
like the best of the Greeks, so he set them free and gave them adjacent country as they
asked for themselves.
48. Selection of Strategic Objectives. Bactrian campaign was beyond the
original mandate of League of Corinth. After the fall of Persia his allies considered this
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campaign as an endless struggle instead of actual cause. Alexander was forced to
detach a considerable portion of his allies and was short of troops for capture of India.
Common Difficulties Faced by All Invaders in Bactria
64. Some of the common difficulties faced by all invaders in Bactria are as
under:-
a. Terrain. Bactria, present day Afghanistan, known as the
battleground of the world has received and became a "graveyard of
empires" from Alexander the Great through Genghis Khan followed by the
British, Russians and now probably the United States. This peculiarity has
remained a constant factor for all the invaders and posed a serious
problem for all. The ruggedness of terrain and hard mountains has always
provided safe sanctuaries to the local tribes who by virtue of local
inhabitants knew the terrain well and exploited that to the maximum. This
phenomenon resulted into transformation, from a concept of large scale
force into small and agile body of troops.
b. Geographic Location. Like terrain, geography has played a
very important role in history of Afghanistan. Despite its rugged
mountainous and desert terrain, its strategic location on the Silk Road
linking Europe and China via Western Asia, has played its part since
Alexander’s time. This pivotal location provided invaders a jump off point
towards India, China, Central Asian Republics (CARs) and Russia.
Without a strong hold in Afghanistan, the control of other region is affected
to a larger extent. Exploitation of other regions through Afghanistan
remained the major reason of most of the foreign invasions. The United
States / NATO Forces in Afghanistan at present are the true manifestation
of this, as it is not only dealing with the Taliban/Al-Qaeda but also keepingan eye over Pakistan, Iran, Central Asian Republics (CARs), Russia and
China.
c. Tribal Unity Against Foreign the Aggressor . Tribesmen
are tenacious fighters. They love freedom and have never compromised
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on it. This aspect remained a constant threat to all invaders, which
resulted in display of relentless fighting even by a small body of tribesmen.
These tribes never accepted the invaders on their land. Despite of mutual
rivalry they fought collectively against invaders and their joint struggle
against them is clear manifestation of the same. In the course of guerrilla
war during Soviet invasion and now the US/NATO, Afghan leadership
came to be distinctively associated with the title of "commander". It applied
to independent leaders, eschewing identification with elaborate military
bureaucracy associated with such ranks as general. As the war produced
leaders of reputation, "commander" was conferred on leaders of fighting
units of all sizes, signifying pride in independence, self-sufficiency, and
distinct ties to local community. The title epitomized Afghan pride in their
struggle against an overwhelmingly-powerful foe.
d. Severe Weather . The harsh winters always posed considerable
restrictions over the movement of forces in high snow clad mountains.
This always dictated the campaigning season to be in summers. Even in
modern times, the US/NATO operations are restricted to summers only
despite the sound log system.
e. Low Intensity Conflict. The rugged mountains and adverse
communication infrastructure facilitate hit and run tactics that make this
region conducive for Guerrilla Warfare. To off set this balance, any invader
is required to identify and destroy multiple centre of gravities, which may
include military targets, economic supports, local and foreign
sympathizers, and political influence.
f. Logistic Support. To sustain any operation in the region requires
a sound logistic support, which is true in any part of the world. However,
geographical factor changes its status in the priority table. Long lines of
communication are susceptible to interruptions and protection of these is a
major aspect in any conflict in the region. This dictates efficient logistic
system with minimum dependence on long line of commutation.
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65. US Invasion of Afghanistan. US invasion of Afghanistan ultimately
proved to be a strategic failure and its’ changed policy on war against terror in the
region is a clear manifestation of the same. Salient aspects that are hampering the US
efforts in Afghanistan include:-
a. Preoccupation with Iraq. Intense US forces engagement in Iraq
seriously effected the military operations in Afghanistan. Not only troops
but it also changed the focus of its military effort.
b. Non Representative Government. The US formed puppet
government in Afghanistan, has so far proved to be a total failure since it
don’t represents the major ethnic faction i.e. Pashtuns and it has yet to
establish its writ outside Kabul.
c. Revival of Taliban Insurgency. Taliban initially suffered heavy
losses but resurfaced as a potent force by adopting guerrilla warfare
tactics as they did against previous invaders.
d. Survival of Al Qaeda Leadership. Failure of coalition and
Afghan forces to eliminate the top Al- Qaeda and Taliban leadership
resulted in regrouping and strengthening of various fighting groups.
e. Economic Factor . Economy is not moving forward at the level
that benefits ordinary Afghan; rural development is very weak with major
problems like the narcotics trade. Current US and NATO aid and re-
habilitation activities in the war torn country are inadequate.
f. Insufficient Boots on Ground. The US and NATO have
insufficient force to secure the south and west, and key NATO partners
like France, Germany, Japan and Italy do not provide fighting forces due
to political constraints.
Application of Principles of War
49. Maintenance of Aim. Maintenance of aim as principle of war was the
predominant factor faced by invaders. Alexander’s tactical operations were invariably
subordinated to strategic aim of their respective campaigns. In his four great battles, his
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aim was to assault from a secure base and annihilates his enemy’s power of
resistance. On the other hand, The Soviet troops suffered from the confusion about
their goals. Initial official mission was to protect the government that changed to
overthrow Amin and his regime. Mission was changed once again, but the leadership
was not willing to admit that the Soviet troops were essentially fighting the Afghan civil
war for the government. This aspect contributed towards its defeat.
50. Mobility. In the history, except Napoleon, no other general appreciated
as fully as Alexander the value of mobility in war. Throughout his career speed
dominated all his movements and the result was by increasing the time at his disposal.
Number of times in Bactrian campaign, he surprised enemy due to his mobility i.e. In
Darius and Bessus pursuit, Satibarzanes execution, he covered the distance with
speed to reach a place where his enemy never expected him.
51. Offen sive Action. Like mobility offensives action also remained the
hallmark of Alexander’s campaign in Bactria. Pursuit of his enemies and response
towards any revolt was vigorously executed. Whenever Alexander confronted with any
revolt, he eliminated all uprisings by responding immediately and ruthlessly whether
inland or abroad, like the revolt of Satibarzanes.
52. Concentration of Force. To overcome the disadvantages, all the
invaders concentrated their forces at the point of application to put the opponents at a
disadvantage. Unlike other battlefield environments, this aspect is quite difficult in this
region mainly due to terrain and nature of enemy. Alexander covered 170 miles while
moving towards Maracanda in four days and concentrated his forces, which proved
decisive. US invasion in Afghanistan ultimately proved to be a strategic failure. Intense
US forces engagement in Iraq seriously effected the military operations in Afghanistan.
53. Intelligence. Nature of operations and the enemy pattern dictates an
effective intelligence network in the region. Most of the operations are premeditative, as
the target will appear at the place and time of his choosing, leaving us with little time to
react. Lack of effective intelligence network contributed heavily towards defeat of major
empires in the region. Alexander always obtained advance information about the
country he decided to conquer and got first hand information about his enemy’s
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movement and his intentions well in advance to take appropriate actions. Same
phenomenon is advocated by subsequent invaders in the region.
54. Unity of Command. Articulation of command plays a very important
role towards the outcome of any battle. The nature of enemy and geographical factor inthe region demands centralized control with decentralized execution. Alexander
controlled his massive campaign with tremendous results. Same aspect lacks in the
USSR and US invasion to a large extent.
Lessons Relevant Today
55. Relevance of Operation in FATA. Bactria though is different from
the own border region but still a lot of similarities exists in terms of mountainous terrain,
ethnicity of people and the harsh weather. Considering these similarities of the regionfew pertinent lessons relevant to today’s environment are discussed in subsequent
paragraphs:-
a. Geography. Geography of the region has played a very important
role in dictating the rules of engagement in the region. It has direct
implication on conduct of on going operations in FATA region:-
(1) Force Size. Large forces operating in the area should
transform into small and agile one. Large force is more prone to
ambushes and raids and it’s cumbersome to move at short notices.
Thus, employment of large scale force of any specific operation in the
region is debatable. Ongoing operation in FATA requires an agile,
but still potent enough force to carryout independent operation with
minimum time to react.
(2) Mobility. Mobility will play a major role in Low Intensity
Operations in the region. Considering the nature of operation and
the enemy, greater mobility will be able to curtail the inherent
geographical disadvantages. Employment of compatible mobility
means will synergize the effect created by a force at the point of
application.
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(3) Domination of Route. Under Low Intensity Operations
environments, occupation of dominant positions in the route of any
operation (operational or logistic support) carries its own
significance. With the nature of terrain in the FATA region requires
a major effort to clear and subsequently sustain it. Eviction of a
smaller size enemy from these positions requires a deliberate effort
which is expensive both in force and time. Any further development
without prior clearance of these life lines will be prone to sustained
interruptions.
b. Aerial Mobility. Aerial platforms have given a new dimension to
this type of warfare. Geographical disadvantages can be nullified to a
large extent with its employment. Disposition of any force in the enemy
rear can create the desired effect towards achievement of objectives.
Employment of these platforms in FATA, both in logistic and attack role,
produced commendable results which may not be possible with ground
mobility means.
c. Logistic Support. Geographical factor changes the status of
logistic support in the operational priority table as a whole. Long lines of
communication are susceptible to interruptions and protection requires
major effort. This dictates efficient logistic system with minimum
dependence on long line of commutation.
d. Political Solution. There could be no military solution to the
conflict in the region which dictates the employment of strong political
response. From Alexander to present day, any sort of peace achieved was
through political channel. A sustained peace in the region can only be
ensured through an effective political system. In FATA also, we should not
abandon the employment of political option for a sustained peace in the
region.
e. Mountain Warfare. Natives utilize the advantages of
geography even defeated major empires. Conventional military operation
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may be altered to gain desired results in any future conflict. Predominantly
the Low Intensity Conflict will dictate its employment parameters.
Protection of force, its size and the sustenance measures will require
revaluation at the conceptual plan.
f. Training. The conflict in the region is asymmetric in nature and
requires a major shift in military training and doctrines. Mastery in Guerrilla
Warfare, field craft and Low Intensity Conflict will contribute towards the
attainment of strategic objectives. Our army is trained for third generation
warfare, while we are confronted with forth generation warfare,
represented by Low Intensity Conflict. We should adopt the conduct of our
operation to forth generation warfare as only then we can counter this
threat.
g. Importance of Human Intelligence. To predict the Low
Intensity Conflict operations we should have considerable ingress into the
planning quarters of the terrorists. High altitude and sophisticated
surveillance means are of limited value in forth generation warfare
environments.
h. Respect Of Tribal Traditions. Tribal people are sensitive
towards their traditions, especially with regards to elders and women.
While operating in the region we must hold these traditions in respect.
Alexander was always respectful to the local populace. Pushton are
fiercely warlike and independent race. It will be facilitating for pursuance of
our policies that we leverage the tribal authorities to our advantages.
Conclusion
56. The history of Bactria i.e. present day (part of) Afghanistan spans 2500yrs. We should not forget the past as we run the risk of being condemned to relive it.
The Bactrian terrain, people, and weather have inflicted defeat on invaders throughout
the history. The lessons learnt from Alexander till US invasion are still relevant today,
and only avoiding the short falls of earlier invaders can ensure success of any future
operation in the region.
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Reference Material
74. Following reference material is used:-
a. Books
(1) Afghanistan from Alexander the great to fall of Taliban, StephanTener
(2) Afghanistan from tragedy to triumphs, Sadhan Mukhherjee
(3) Afghanistan of afghans, Sardar Iqbal Ali Shah
(4) Alexander the Great and Logistics of the Macedonian Army, Donald
W. Engels
(5) Great Empires of the Past, Empire of Alexander The Great, Debra
Skelton and Pamela Dell
b. Internet
(1) Battle of Wanat Historical Analysis Rough Draft Release by A
Battlefield Tourist.htm
(2) Afghanistan-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia..htm
(3) Bactria-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.htm
(4) bactria history, population, religion, tradition, speciality-Google
Search.htmc. Encyclopedia
(1) International military and defence encyclopedia, Trevor N.Dupuy
(2) The encyclopedia of warfare, from earliest times…..to present day,
Adrian Gilbert
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