What next after a ban on glyphosate – more toxic chemicals and GM crops?
Or the transformation of global food systems?
TWNThird World Network
ContentsAcronyms 3Glossaryofterms 4Aboutthebriefing 5Keyissues 5Introduction 6GlyphosateandGeneticallyModified(GM)Crops 6 Weed resistance and other pesticides 9 Health and environmental risks 10Glyphosate:IARC/WHOassessmentandtheglobalresponse 12 Understanding the industry’s response 12Realalternatives 13Annexure:NewGMherbicidetolerantvarietiesintheUSA 15GlobalapprovalsforMON87708xMON89788(MON89788) 15References 16
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The Network for a GE-Free Latin America (RALLT) was established in January 1999, inspired by the need for communities to develop global strategies to deal with the increase of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the region, and to prevent new introductions into the region.
The objectives of the Network are:• To avoid the introduction of transgenic organisms into new areas, supporting
national and local processes within the region;• To promote the creation of GE Free Zones; and• To support communities facing the impacts of the expansion of GE crops and the
associated technology package in their demands for full reparations.
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TWN’s objectives are:• To deepen the understanding of the development dilemmas and challenges
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Design and layout: Adam Rumball, Sharkbouys Designs, JohannesburgCover design: Adam Rumball
Cover photograph: Medioambiente. www.paginapopular.net
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What next after a ban on glyphosate 3
Acronyms
AMPA AcompoundthatisaspecificagonistfortheAMPAreceptorANVISA NationalHealthSurveillanceAgency(Brazil)APHIS AnimalandPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS)CA ConservationAgricultureCIMMYT InternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCentreCSA ClimateSmartAgricultureEC EuropeanCommissionEFSA EuropeanFoodSafetyAuthorityFAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationFESPROSA FederationofHealthProfessionals(Argentina)GMO GeneticallyModifiedOrganismHa HectaresHT HerbicideTolerantIAASTD InternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalKnowledge,Scienceand TechnologyforDevelopmentIARC InternationalAgencyforCancerResearchIR InsectResistantISAAA InternationalServicefortheAcquisitionofAgri-biotechApplicationsJMPR JointFAO-WHOMeetingonPesticideResiduesMRL MaximumresiduelevelsPAN PesticideActionNetworkRR RoundupReadySIMLESA SustainableIntensificationofMaize-Legumesystemsforfoodsecurityin EasternandSouthernAfricaUN UnitedNationsUNCTAD UNConferenceonTradeandDevelopmentUSA UnitedStatesofAmericaUSDA UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureUSEPA UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyWEA DanishWorkingEnvironmentAuthorityWHO WorldHealthOrganization
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Glossary of termsActiveingredient:Theingredientinapesticidethatisconsideredbiologicallyactive.
Adjuvant:Otherchemicalsaddedtotheactiveingredientincommercialherbicideformulationstoincreasetheirefficacy.Thepreciseformulationsofactiveingredientsandadjuvantsincommercialherbicidesarecloselyguardedcommercialsecrets.Riskassessmentsofherbicidesusuallyconcentrateontheactiveingredientandnottheactualchemicalformulationsused.
Agroecology:Isthestudyofecologicalprocessesthatoperateinagriculturalproductionsystems.Theprefixagro-referstoagriculture.
Biotechnology:Istheuseoflivingsystemsandorganismstodevelopormakeproducts,oranytechnologicalapplicationthatusesbiologicalsystems,livingorganismsorderivativesthereof,tomakeormodifyproductsorprocessesforspecificuse.
Carcinogen:Anysubstancecapableofcausingcancerinlivingtissue.
GeneticallyModifiedOrganism(GMO):Anyorganismwhosegeneticmaterialhasbeenalteredinawaythatdoesnotoccurnaturallybymatingand/ornaturalrecombination.Inagriculture,themajorityofGMOsarecropsthathavehadgenesaddedtothemthatenableanorganismtotoleratecertainchemicals,oraddedgenesfoundinsoilbacteriathatenabletheorganismtoproducecertainproteinsthataretoxictoinsectpests.
Glyphosate:Achemicalthatistheactiveingredientinmanyglyphosate-basedherbicides.Glyphosateisconsideredabroad-spectrumherbicidebecauseitsmodeofactioninhibitsametabolicpathwaythatispresentinallplantlife,aswellasinsomefungiandbacteria.
Glyphosate-basedherbicides:Herbicidesthatcontaintheactiveingredientglyphosate.
Herbicide:Atypeofpesticidespecificallydesignedtokillweeds,i.e.aformulationcontaininganactiveingredientplusadjuvants.
Herbicideresistance:Thisoccurswhenweedsnaturallydevelopresistancetoaherbicideovertimeduetolong-termexposure.Glyphosate-resistantweedsareamajorproblemintheUSA.
Herbicidetolerance(HT):Thisoccurswhenaplanthasbeengeneticallymodifiedtotoleratetheapplicationofcertainchemicalactiveingredients.Thevastmajorityofherbicidetolerantplantsaretolerantofglyphosate.
Modeofaction:Theoverallmannerinwhichaherbicideaffectsaplantatthetissueorcellularlevel.Forexample,glyphosateisanaminoacidinhibitor.Otherherbicides,suchas2,4-D,areauxingrowthregulators,whichactasanartificialgrowthhormone.
Pesticide:Abroadgroupofagriculturalchemicalsthatincludesherbicides(weed-killers),insecticides(forinsectpests),andfungicides(forplantdiseases).
Roundup:Monsanto’sbrandofcommercialglyphosate-basedherbicides.
RoundupReady(RR)crops:Monsanto’svarietiesofgeneticallymodifiedcropsthathavebeenspecificallydesignedtotoleratetheapplicationofglyphosate-basedherbicides.Forexample,RoundupReadymaizeandsoya.
What next after a ban on glyphosate 5
About this briefingThisbriefinghasbeenpromptedbytherecentconclusionoftheInternationalAgencyforCancerResearch(IARC),oftheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),thatglyphosate,theworld’smost-usedchemicalingredientforweedcontrol,isa“probablehumancarcinogen”.
Inrecentyears,theuseofglyphosatehascometobeassociatedwithherbicide-tolerant(HT)geneticallymodified(GM)crops,withglyphosateuseincreasingdramaticallyinallmajorGMHTcrop-producingcountries.Theconsequencesforhumanhealthandtheenvironmenthavebeendisastrousinmanycommunities.AnumberofcountrieshavealreadytakenactiontoreduceorhalttheuseofglyphosateinresponsetotheIARCassessment.
WhileglyphosateisstillinuseandisheavilyrelieduponforGMsoyaproductioninparticular,Monsantoandotherbiotechnologyandagro-chemicalcompaniesarealreadyplanningforbusinessafterglyphosate.AplethoraofGMcropsthataretoleranttomultipleherbicidesarealreadyapprovedforthemarket,whileMonsantohasrecentlysoughtthepotentialacquisitionofSyngenta,theworld’slargestproducerofherbicides.
ItisimperativethattheIARC’sfindingstakethedebatefurther—beyondsimplyreplacingglyphosatewithothertoxicchemicalherbicides—intodeeperconversationsaboutthecharacteristicsofourfoodandagriculturesystemsandhowtheyinteractwithandimpactuponpeopleandtheenvironment.
Key Issues• Theintroductionofgeneticallymodified
(GM)herbicide-tolerant(HT)crops,suchasMonsanto’sRoundupReady(RR)varieties,hasledtodramaticincreasesintheuseofglyphosate.Between1997and2014theglobalareaexploitedbytheseHTcropsincreasedfrom6.9millionhato154millionha.IntheUSAoverallherbicideuseincreasedby237millionkgfrom1996to2011;RRsoyaalone
accountedfor70%ofthisincrease.InSouthAmerica,theintroductionofRRsoyahasseenglyphosateuseinArgentinaandUruguayincreasetenfold,whileBrazilisnowtheworld’slargestpesticidemarket.
• Thishugeincreaseinglyphosateusehasresultedinmassoutbreaksofglyphosate-resistantweeds,totheextentthatin2013glyphosate-resistantweedscoveredapproximately28millionhaintheUSA.BywayofresponsebiotechnologyandagrochemicalcompanieshavebegundevelopingGMcropswithresistancetomultipleherbicides,manyofwhichareolderandevenmoretoxicthanglyphosate.MonsantoisonthevergeofreleasinganewGMsoyavarietythatisresistanttoglyphosateanddicamba,suggestingthatthecompanyintendstoekeasmuchprofitfromglyphosateaspossible.(Dicambaisanotherherbicide;itisachemicalcompoundcomprisinganorganochloride(acompoundcontainingcarbon,chlorineandhydrogen)andaderivativeofbenzoicacid.)AtthetimeofwritingMonsantoisalsointhemiddleofatakeoverbidfortheworld’slargestherbicideproducer,Syngenta.
• Theimpactsofthismassiveincreaseinglyphosateuse,forbothhumanhealthandtheenvironment,havebeencatastrophic.RRsoyagrowingareasinArgentinahavewitnessedfourfoldincreasesintheratesofbirthdefectsandchildhoodcancers.SimilarrelationshipsbetweenglyphosateuseandnegativehealthimpactshavebeenfoundinCanadaandParaguay.Highlevelsofglyphosatehavealsobeenfoundasresiduesinharvestedsoybeansandinwatersources.Inaddition,theexpansionofRRsoyainSouthAmericahasproducedmassivedeforestation,
JavieraRulli.BASEIS.Presentation:LatinoamericaSojera.Socio&enviroimpactsofsoymonocultureinParaguay&Argentina.www.lasojamata.net
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lossofbiodiversityandland-lossforindigenouscommunities.
• TheIARC’sfindingthatglyphosateisa“probablehumancarcinogen”hasbeenrejectedbybiotechnologyandpesticidecorporations,whocitefindingsof‘safety’fromanumberofregulatorybodies.However,thesesamecompanieshavebeenintimatelyinvolvedintheassessmentsconductedbytheregulatingagencies.
• TheIARC,ontheotherhand,haslookedatallavailablestudies,includingthosethatexamineformulatedproducts,anditsassessmentisup-to-date.Inresponse,severerestrictionsontheuseofglyphosate,oroutrightbans,havebeenputinplaceinnumerouscountries.InArgentinaandBrazilthefederationofpublichealthprofessionalsandthepublicprosecutorrespectivelyhavecalledforthebanningofglyphosate.
• Whilethebansonglyphosatearetimelyandappropriate,giventheevidence,othertoxicherbicides,suchas2,4-Dichlorophenoxyaceticacid(2,4-D)anddicamba,similarlymustcomeunderurgentreview.(2,4-Disacommonsystemicherbicide,asyntheticauxin(planthormone)).TheIARCitselfhasrecentlyclassified2,4-Das‘possiblycarcinogenictohumans’.Comprehensiveindependentassessmentsoftheseherbicidesandtheirimpactsonhumanhealthandtheenvironmentmustbeconducted.
• Appropriateinternationalbodiesmustinitiateaprogrammeoffairandequitablereparationstoaffectedpeoples,togetherwiththerestorationandremediationofcontaminatedenvironments.
• Ashiftfromchemicalinput-intensiveweedmanagementandchemicalinputagricultureingeneral,toagroecologicalmethodologiesisurgentlyneeded.
IntroductionGlyphosateistheactiveingredientinmanychemicallybasedherbicides.Glyphosate’smodeofactivity(howitworks)isbasedontheinactivationofanenzymeoftheshikimatemetabolicpathway(theEPSPSenzyme).Thisenzymeiscriticalfortheproductionofthreedifferentaminoacidsessentialforplantgrowth,
aswellasseveralothermetabolitesthatplayacriticalroleinprotectingorganismsatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Becausetheshikimatepathwayispresentinallplantlife,aswellassomefungiandbacteria,glyphosateisreferredtoasa‘non-selective’or‘broad-spectrum’herbicide.1Otherchemicalsknownasadjuvantsorsurfactantsareaddedtoglyphosateincommerciallyavailableherbicideformulations,suchasMonsanto’sRoundupbrand.2
Glyphosatewasfirstsynthesisedin1950butitwasnotuntil1974thatascientistworkingforMonsantoidentifiedthechemical’spotentialforuseinagriculture.Ithassubsequentlybecometheworld’stopsellingherbicide.Monsanto’spatentonglyphosateexpiredin2000,leadingtodramaticincreasesingenericproduction,particularlyinChina.Monsantostillholdspatentsandtrademarksoveranumberofglyphosate-basedherbicideformulationsandcontinuestomakebillionsofdollarsevery-yearfromglyphosate,thankstotherapidspreadofgeneticallymodified(GM)glyphosate-tolerantcrops(forwhichMonsanto’sRoundupReady(RR)varietiesarebyfarthemostcommon).3
In1995,whenthefirstglyphosate-tolerantcropswereapproved,theglobalmarketforglyphosatewaswortharoundUS$1.2billion.4By2012thishadincreasedtoapproximatelyUS$5.5billionanditisexpectedtoincreasetoUS$8.8billionby2019.5
Glyphosate and Genetically Modified (GM) CropsDespitethepromiseofnumerousbenefitssuchasenhancednutritionandclimatechangeresilience,nearlyallGMcropsgrowntodayhavebeenengineeredtosurviveexposuretochemicallybasedherbicides(herbicide-tolerant(HT)varieties),ortoproducetheirowninternaltoxinstokillinsectpests(insect-resistant(IR)varieties).Manycropscombinebothofthesetraitsandareknownas‘stacked’varieties.AmongtheHTvarieties,thosetoleranttoglyphosate-basedherbicides,such
What next after a ban on glyphosate 7
asMonsanto’sbrandedRoundupherbicides,arebyfarthemostcommon.ItmustbenotedthatwhiletheexactfiguresonglyphosatetoleranthectaresplantedarehardtocomebyasindustryfiguresrefertooverallHThectaresplanted,whichcouldincludevarietiestoleranttootherchemicalssuchasglufosinate.However,itisfairtosaythatglyphosatetoleranceaccountsforthevastmajorityofoverallHTvarietycultivation.
Theadoptionofherbicide-tolerantGMcrops,thoughconfinedtoahandfulofcountries,hasbeenspectacular.In1997theywereplantedon6.9millionhectares(ha)worldwide,accountingfor54%ofthetotalglobalareaofGMcrops.By2014thishadincreasedto154.3millionha,accountingfor85%ofGMcropsplantedglobally(eitherassingletraitherbicidetoleranceor‘stacked’withinsect-resistantvarieties).6
Over86%oftheworld’sGMcropsaregrowninNorthandSouthAmerica.ThemaindriverbehindthewidespreadgrowingofGMcropsinSouthAmericahasbeentheuseofglyphosate-tolerant(orRoundupReady)soya,whichisnowplantedonover55millionha.BrazilandArgentinaarethemajorHTsoyaproducersinSouthAmerica,havinggrown29millionand20.8millionharespectively,in2014.In
Argentinathisareahasmorethandoubledsincetheturnofthecentury,whileinBraziltheareaunderHTsoyahasincreasedbyastaggering778%overthesameperiod.7
SimilartrendshavebeenobservedinotherHTsoyagrowingcountriesinSouthAmerica.InParaguay,thesoyaareahastrebledsincethemid-1990sto3.2millionha,covering80%ofthecountry’sagriculturalland;95%ofthissoyaisoneofMonsanto’sRoundupReadyvarieties.8InBoliviaover1millionhaofHTsoyawerecultivatedin2014/15,whichisa400,000haincreasesinceHTsoyawasfirstgrowntherein2008.9Between2003/14and2014/15theHTsoyaareainUruguayincreasedfrom77,000hatoover1.35millionha.10
Glyphosatewasalreadytheworld’sbest-sellingherbicidebythetimethefirstHTcropsweregrowninthemid-1990s,buttherapidadoptionofHTcropshasresultedinhugeincreasesinglyphosateuseitself.IntheUSA,overallherbicideuseincreasedby237millionkgfrom1996to2011,withHTsoyaaloneaccountingfor70%ofthisincrease.Canadasawathreefoldincreaseinglyphosateusefrom2005to2011,from34millionlitresto102millionlitres.11
InArgentinaglyphosateusehasincreasedfrom20–26millionlitresperyearin1996to
GlobalGMandGMHTcropplantings(millionsHa),1996–2014
Source:InternationalServicefortheAcquisitionofAgri-biotechApplications(ISAAA).
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Glyphosate, Climate Change and No-Till Agriculture
Climatechangeandpredictionsoverpopulationgrowthhavemadesustainability(itselfamuchdisputedterm)afundamentalcomponentofcurrentagriculturaldebate.Mechanicaltillageofthesoil,whetherbyhand,draughtanimalortractor-power,hasbeenastandardagriculturalpracticesinceancienttimes.However,inmorerecenttimesthishasbeenacknowledgedasacauseofsoildegradationanderosionandalsoasalargesourceofgreenhousegasemissions—asignificantamountofcarbondioxideisheldintheworld’sagriculturalsoils.14
Inano-tillsystem,minimalsoildisturbanceshouldpreventsoilerosionandallowthebuild-upoforganicmatterinthesoil.Thereiscurrentlysomedebateregardingprecisedefinitionsofwhatconstitutesno-tillagriculture.TheFoodandAgricultureOrganisation(FAO)oftheUnitedNations(UN)statesthatsoildisturbancesshouldbe“reducedtoanabsoluteminimumoravoided”.Bydefaultthisrulesoutthemajorityofmanualweedingmethodswhichwouldneedtobereplacedwithalternatives;thesecouldincludetheuseofherbicidesorothermethods(suchasbio-pesticides,cropcoverorcroprotation).
TheFAOisambiguousovertheroleofherbicidesinno-tillsystems,sayingonlythat,alongwithotherexternalinputstheyshouldbe“appliedoptimally”,thoughitdoesemphasisethatforbestresultsno-tillshouldbepracticedinconjunctionwithothermethods.15Naturallythebiotechnologyandagrochemicalindustrieshavebeenquicktopromotetheuseofherbicides(suchasglyphosate)andthepotentialforHTcrops,claimingthatthesearetailor-madetofitintono-tillagesystemsandthattheywillthereforemakeacontributiontosustainablepractices.16
ConservationAgriculture(CA)holdszeroorminimumtillageasoneofitsthreecentralprinciples(alongwithleavingcropresiduesinfieldsandinter-croppingorcroprotation).ManyprojectspromotingCAinSub-SaharanAfrica,suchastheSustainableIntensificationofMaize-LegumesystemsforFoodSecurityinEasternandSouthernAfrica(SIMLESA),whichismanagedbytheInternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCentre(CIMMYT),havebeenactivelypromotingtheuseofherbicides,includingglyphosateasaminimumtillagepractice.17
ClimateSmartAgriculture(CSA),acontroversialconceptoriginatingfromtheUNFAOandsubsequentlytakenonbytheWorldBankandthegovernmentsoftheUSAandtheNetherlands,hascitedHTcanolainCanadaasbeingaCSAbestpracticeduetoitsminimumtillageaspect.18However,tillingisalsonowrecommendedasatooltodealwiththeevolutionandspreadofherbicide-resistantweeds,particularlyinmaizeandsoya,resultingfromtheoveruseofherbicideswithHTcrops.
ItishugelyironicthatGMcrops,whichatpresentarefurtherentrenchingsystemicallyunsustainableagriculturalproductionmethods,arenowbeingtoutedasasolutiontotheclimatecrisis.Herbicide-tolerantcropsmaywellreducesoildisturbancesintheshortterm,butarethepracticesthatarecomplementarytono-till—suchascropcoverorinter-cropping—feasibleinthelarge-scale,mono-croppedsystemswithinwhichHTcropsarecurrentlygrown?
What next after a ban on glyphosate 9
200millionlitresby2013.InBraziltheoverallsalesofpesticidesincreasedby360%from2000–2009,andthecountrysurpassedtheUSAastheworld’slargestpesticidemarket.Overthesameperiod,salesofglyphosateincreasedfromjustunder50,000tonsto300,000tonsandin2010soybeanfieldsaccountedfor44%ofallpesticidesappliedinBrazilianagriculture.12Uruguay’sglyphosateconsumptionincreasedtenfoldfrom1998–2010,from1.22millionkgto12.29millionkg,whileinBoliviatheuseofglyphosateincreasedfrom3.18millionlitresin2004to11.19millionin2008.13
Weed resistance and other pesticides
Despiterepeatedwarningsfromweedscientistsandenvironmentaliststhatglyphosate-tolerantcropswouldleadtotheemergenceofglyphosate-resistantweeds,thesefearsweredismissedbythebiotechnologyandagrochemicalindustries.In1997,shortlyafterthefirstHTcropswereplantedglobally,Monsantostatedthat‘theprobabilityofglyphosate-resistantweedsevolvingwillnotincreasesignificantly’.19
However,accordingtoadatabaserunbytheWeedScienceSocietyofAmerica,32speciesofweedaroundtheworldhavedevelopedresistancetoglyphosate.Intheearly2000smostofthesedocumentedcasespertainedtofieldsofGMglyphosate-tolerantcrops,andmostcasesoverallareincountrieswhereGMglyphosate-tolerantcropsaregrown:14intheUSA,10inAustralia,7inArgentina,5inCanadaand6inBrazil.IntheUnitedStatesthesituationhasreachedepidemicproportions,withtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)estimatingthat28.3millionhaofUSfarmlandswereinfestedwithglyphosate-resistantweedsin2013.This,inturn,hasdrivenupoverallherbicideusebybetween25%and50%.20
Inresponsetothis,thebiotechnologyandagrochemicalindustrieshavebeenencouragingfarmerstouseotherherbicidesandaredevelopingnewGMHTcropsthataretoleranttoothertoxicherbicides,suchasglufosinate,2,4-D,dicambaandIsoxaflutole(seeAnnexure).21ManyofthesenewGMvarietieswillbestackedformultipleherbicidetolerance,resultinginhugeoverallincreases
inherbicideuseandwidespreadcombinationsoftoxicchemicalsnotpreviouslyseen.DowChemical,forexample,planstoreleaseits‘Enlist’GMsoybeanvarietiesin2016.Thesewillbestackedwithtolerancetoglyphosateand2,4-D,achemicalthathasbeenlinkedwithvariousformsofcancerforanumberofyears.222,4-DhasbeenrecentlyclassifiedbytheIARCas‘possiblycarcinogenictohumans’,whichisonelevellowerthanthatofglyphosate(‘probablycarcinogenictohumans’).Nonetheless,a‘substantialminority’oftheIARCworkinggroup(whichalsoincludedmembersoftheindustry-sponsored2,4-Dworkinggroup)consideredtheretobelimitedevidenceofcarcinogenicityinhumansandsufficientevidenceofcarcinogenicityinanimals,whichwouldplace2,4-Dinthecategoryofa‘probable’humancarcinogen,thesamelevelasglyphosate.23DowhopesitsEnlistsystemwillgenerateuptoUS$1billioninextrarevenuesby2018,andplanstomarketinbothNorthandSouthAmerica.24
ForMonsantoinparticular,thesedevelopmentscouldhavesevereramificationsforitsbusinessmodel.In2014thecompanymadeoverUS$5billionfromagrochemicals,thebulkofwhichcamefromitsRoundupherbicides.25InJanuary2015MonsantoreceivedregulatoryapprovalintheUSAforanewGMcottonvarietythatistoleranttoglyphosate,glufosinateanddicamba,andanewGMsoyavarietythatistoleranttodicamba.Dicamba,like2,4-D,isasynthetic‘auxin’herbicidethatactsasanartificialgrowthhormoneinvirtuallyallbroadleafplants,causingdeformitiesandultimatelyplantdeath.ThePesticideActionNetwork(PAN)haslisteddicambaasadevelopmentalorreproductivetoxinandasa
PhotograohcontributedbyElizabethBravo,andtakeninParaguay.Sourceunknown.
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possibleendocrine(hormone)disruptor.26Incommonwith2,4-D,dicambaishighlydriftprone,beingresponsibleforthethirdhighestincidentsofcropdamageintheUSA.AccordingtoprojectionsfromMonsantoandtheUSDA,dicamba-tolerantsoybeansareexpectedtoresultina500-foldincreaseingeneraldicambauseinsoyacultivation.27Monsantoissetonincreasingproductionofdicambaandplansoninvestingawhopping$1billioninadicambaproductionfacilityinLuling,Louisiana.i
However,farfromreplacingglyphosate,itappearsthatdicambawillbeusedasacomplementaryherbicidetokilltheweedsthatarenowresistanttoglyphosate.Monsanto’soriginalapplicationforitsdicamba-tolerantsoyavariety,MON87708,statesthatit“willbecombinedwithMON89788(RoundupReady2Yield)”andthat“thecombinationofdicambaandglyphosatetoleranceinsoybeanswillalsoprovidethebasisfordelayingorpreventingtheevolutionoffurtherweed[s]resistancetoglyphosate,dicambaandherbicidesingeneral”.28ThisstackedGMsoyavarietyisexpectedtobereleasedduring2016,whileMonsantointendsalsotointroduceanaccompanyingdicambaandglyphosatebasedherbicidemixture.29NowthatPioneerHi-BredhasconfirmeditwillbelicensingMonsanto’snewstackedGMsoybeanvariety,industryanalystspredictitcouldbegrownonapproximately90%oftheUSsoybeanarea.30
ThoughthebiotechnologyindustryinsiststhatapprovalsofGMOsshouldbepurely‘science-based’,regulatoryapprovalofaGMcropforimportpurposesisoftensoughtbyamajorGMgrainimportertostrengthenapplicationsforcommercialcultivation.Monsantohasalreadygainedimportapprovalforitsdicamba-tolerantsoyavariety(asfoodorfeed)intheEuropeanUnion(EU),thePhilippines,TaiwanandSouthKorea.Thoughitsstackeddicambaandglyphosate-tolerantvarietywillnotbeavailableuntil2016,ittoohasbeengrantedimportapprovalinJapanandSouthKorea(seeAnnexure).31
Morerecently,Monsanto’shighprofileattempttoacquireSyngenta,theglobalmarketleader
inagrochemicals,suggeststhatMonsantostillseesalucrativefutureinchemicalherbicidesandpesticidesandalonger-termshiftawayfromglyphosate.Atthetimeofwriting(June2015)SyngentahadjustrejectedasecondofferofapproximatelyUS$45billion;itsaidthatMonsanto’sofferundervaluedthecompanyandcitedconcernsthatsuchadealwouldnotpassmusterwithvariousanti-trustauthoritiesaroundtheworld,includingintheUS.Industryanalystspredictthat,inordertoappeaseanti-trustregulators,MonsantowillhavetosellpartsofSyngenta’sbusiness,includingitsseedand(possibly)glyphosateunits.TherewouldbenoshortageofpotentialsuitorsforSyngenta’sseedbusinessshouldthishappen,withallthemajorseedandagrochemicalcompanieslinkedtothis.32
ShouldMonsantobesuccessfulinitsacquisitionofSyngenta,thenewentitywouldcontrolalmostone-thirdoftheglobalagrochemicalmarket(worthUS$57billionin2014).ItwouldalsodramaticallyexpandMonsanto’sglobalfootprint,asabout50%ofSyngenta’srevenuescomefrom“fast-growingemergingmarkets”.33InthemajorGMproducingregionsofNorthandSouthAmerica,Monsanto’snewpesticidemarketshareswouldbe42%and28%respectively.34ReportshaveemergedthatMonsantowillalsoseektoincorporatethenewlycombinedcompanyintheUnitedKingdom,amovethatcouldreduceMonsanto’sannualtaxbillbymorethanUS$500million.35
Health and environmental risks
Industry-linkedsourcesclaimthatglyphosateandcommercialherbicideformulations,suchasMonsanto’sRoundup,aresafe.Buttheseclaimsarebasedonoutdatedandlargelyunpublishedstudiescommissionedbypesticidecompaniesinsupportoftheproduct’sregistration.Further,thesestudiestestonlyglyphosate,theactiveingredient,andnotthecommerciallysoldherbicideformulations.Independentlaboratorystudieswithmammalsandhumancellshavefoundtheseformulations,andtheadjuvantchemicalsinthem,tobeevenmoretoxicthanglyphosateitself.36
i. Gillam,C.June2014.Reuters.Monsantotoinvestmorethan$1blnindicambaherbicideproduction. http://finance.yahoo.com/news/monsanto-invest-more-1-bln-203825246.html
What next after a ban on glyphosate 11
InArgentinatheimpactsofsprayingglyphosateusedinconjunctionwithRRsoyahavebeendevastating.AreportcommissionedbytheprovincialgovernmentofChacofoundthattherateofbirthdefectshadincreasedfourfoldandthatrateofchildhoodcancershadtripledwithinadecadeoftheadoptionofGMHTcrops,singlingoutglyphosateinparticular.AgroupofArgentinephysiciansandscientists,usingclinicaldata,foundincreasedincidencesoftoxicliverdisease,neurologicaldevelopmentalproblemsinchildren,kidneyfailureandrespiratoryproblems.37
Similarly,epidemiologicalstudiescarriedoutinParaguayandCanadahaveshownarelationshipbetweenexposuretoglyphosate-basedherbicidesandbirthdefectsandmiscarriages.38ExposuretoRounduphasalsobeenlinkedtoanepidemicofchronickidneydiseaseinfarmingregionsofSriLanka.39
Inadditiontodirectexposurefromspraying,theconsumptionofRRmaizeandsoyacontainingpesticideresiduesisanotherlong-termandlargelyun-investigatedsourceofhealthrisk.In2014anindependent,peer-reviewedstudycomparedcompositionaldifferencesinRRsoybeanswiththosegrownunderaconventionalagriculturalsystem(non-GMbutstillusingchemicalinputs)andanorganicsystem(i.e.nochemicalinputs).AllindividualsamplesofGMsoyacontainedresiduesofbothglyphosateanditsbreakdownproduct,AMPA(acompoundthatisaspecificagonistfortheAMPAreceptorandwhichmimicstheeffectsoftheneurotransmitterglutamate)withaverageconcentrationsof3.26mg/kgand5.74mg/kgrespectively.40Thisiswellabovelevelsofglyphosatethathavebeenfoundtoinducetheproliferationofcancercellsinvitro.41Bycomparison,nosamplesofconventionalororganicsoybeansshowedanyresiduesofglyphosateorAMPA.Theauthorsconcludedthat“lackofdataonpesticideresiduesinmajorcropplantsisaseriousgapofknowledgewithpotentialconsequencesforhumanandanimalhealth”.42
Thereareregulationsinplacethatgovernthemaximumresiduelevels(MRLs)ofpesticidesinfood,butthereissomecontroversyoverhowthesearecalculatedandwhoactuallysetstheselimits.Forexample,afterthecommercialisation
ofHTsoyain1996,theEuropeanUnionMRLforimportedsoyaincreased200-fold,from0.1mg/kgto20mg/kg.43ThoughthemajorityofRRsoyagrownworldwideisusedforanimalfeed,thisisnotthecasewithallGMcrops.InSouthAfrica,forexample,wheremaizeisastaplefood,HTmaizeaccountedforover60%oftheentiremaizecropin2013/14.44
Therearealsoconsiderableenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwithglyphosateuse.Theserangefromimpactsonsoilbiodiversityandplantnutrientintake,todecliningbirdpopulations(thewildplantsandweedsthatglyphosateandotherherbicideseradicateareanimportantfoodsourceformanyspeciesofbird).45InNorthAmerica,MonarchButterflypopulationshavefallenby90%,chieflybecausehugeincreasesinglyphosateuseintheUSmaizebelthaseradicatedmillionsofhaofmilkweedinthebreedinggroundsoftheMonarchButterfly.46InArgentinaandParaguay,theexpansionofRRsoyahasresultedinmassivedeforestationandlossofnaturalvegetation,aswellaslossofthetraditionalterritoriesofindigenouscommunities.
Agriculturalpesticidessuchasglyphosateareamajorsourceofwaterpollutionandcanenterriversandstreamsviasoilrun-offorleaching,ordirectlywhenappliedaerially.47Onceinwaterglyphosateishighlysolubleandthereforemobileinwatersystems.Studieshaverevealedglyphosate-basedherbicideformulationstobehighlytoxictoaquaticlifeandamphibians.48From2008–2010thegovernmentofQuebec,Canada,testedfourriversinmaizeandsoyagrowingareasforpesticides;glyphosatewasfoundin86%ofthesamples.49AUSgeologicalsurveyfrom2001–2006detectedglyphosate
http://horizontesur.org/radio/index.php/paren-de-fumigar.html.Sourceunknown.
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anditsbreakdownproduct,AMPA,in32%of608watersamplescollected.Inareaswithnearcontinualapplications(commoninareaswithHTcrops),glyphosateandAMPAweredetectedinnearlyeverysample.50
Glyphosate: IARC/WHO assessment and the global responseAgainstthisbackdrop,inMarch2015theIARC,thebodytaskedwithprovidingevidencetoguidethecancercontrolpoliciesoftheWHO,announcedthatglyphosateisa“probablehumancarcinogen”.TheIARChaddrawnthisconclusionfollowingayear-longreviewofthescientificliteratureontheherbicide,inwhichitfound“convincingevidence”thatglyphosatecausescancerinlaboratoryanimals,“limitedevidence”thatitdoessoinagriculturalworkers,andevidencethatitcausesDNAandchromosomaldamageinhumancells.51
InternationalreactiontotheIARC’sfindingshasbeenswift,andisnotmerelyconfinedtotheglobalnorth.Colombiahassuspendedaerialsprayingofglyphosateoncocaplantations,whileBermudaandSriLankahavebothbannedglyphosateimports.InEuropetheDanishWorkingEnvironmentAuthority(WEA)concurredwiththefindingsoftheIARC,whileGermany’sstateconsumerprotectionministerscalledfor“thesupplytoandusebyprivatepersonstobebannedforprecautionaryreasons”;52andtheFrenchenvironmentandenergyministerhasaskedgardencentrestostopself-servicesalesofRoundup.53InArgentinatheFederationofHealthProfessionals(FESPROSA),whichrepresentsmorethan30,000doctorsandhealthprofessionals,hascalledforthebanningofglyphosate.54TheBrazilianpublicprosecutorhaswrittentothecountry’sNationalHealthSurveillanceAgency(ANVISA)askingtheagencytoperformanurgenttoxicologicalre-evaluationofglyphosatewiththeexpectationofadomesticbanonherbicidesbasedonthechemical.
Understanding the industry’s response
Predictably,theIARC’sfindingshavebeenmetwithafiercebacklashfromtheagrochemicalindustry.Monsantoclaimedtobe“outraged”bytheassessmentandaccusedtheIARCof“cherry-picking”dataandhavingaclear“agenda-drivenbias”.55Acommonresponsehasbeentocitenumerousregulatoryagenciesaroundtheworldthathavefoundglyphosatesafe,includingtheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA),theEuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority(EFSA)andtherecentGermangovernment’sassessmentofglyphosate,conductedonbehalfoftheEuropeanCommission(EC).
However,unliketheseandotherregulatorybodies,theIARChaslookedatallavailableandup-to-datestudiesinthescientificliterature,includingstudiesperformedontheformulatedproduct.56LargepartsofthemuchrecentlycitedGermangovernmentreviewofglyphosatewereactuallycarriedoutbytheEuropeanGlyphosateTaskForce,anagrochemicalindustrygroup.57Inaddition,in1985theUSEPAhadoriginallyclassifiedglyphosateas“possiblycarcinogenictohumans”,basedontumoursfoundinmice;afindingwhichwasdowngradedto“non-carcinogenicityinhumans”in1991.Thisre-interpretationreportedlyfollowedinputfromMonsanto.58TheEuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority(EFSA),whosefindingsonglyphosatecontradictthoseoftheIARC’s,foryearshasbeenaccusedofconflictsofinterestandalackoftransparency.59
Interestingly,twooftheotherpesticidesreviewedbytheIARCatthesametimeasglyphosate,i.e.tetrachlorvinphosandparathion,werebothclassifiedas“possiblycarcinogenictohumans”,whichisalevelbelowglyphosate,butbotharesubjecttorestricteduse,unlikeglyphosate.TetrachlorvinphosisbannedintheEuropeanUnionwhiletheuseofparathionhasbeenseverelyrestrictedsincethe1980s.AllauthorisedusesinboththeEUandUSAwerecancelledby2003.60
ItisworryingtonotethatinresponsetotheIARCclassificationtheJointFAO-WHOMeetingonPesticideResidues(JMPR),abodywhoseprimaryfunctionistoadviseonpesticideMRLs
What next after a ban on glyphosate 13
infood,hasdecidedtoundertakeareviewofthedatathattheIARCusedinreachingthisnewclassification.Asnotedinarecentletter,signedbynineNGOs61,thetaskforcesetupbytheJMPRtothisendcontains‘severalmemberswithactualorapparentconflictsofinterest,includingtiestoglyphosateusersandproducersincludingMonsanto’.ThelettercalledupontheJMPRtoaccepttheIARC’sclassificationand‘notestablishaprocesstosecond-guesstherecentworkofIARC’.62
Real AlternativesInlightoftheaccelerateduseofglyphosatewiththeuseofGMherbicide-tolerantcrops,andthedevelopmentofGMcropstoleranttotheherbicides2,4-Danddicamba,includingincombinationwithglyphosate,theIARC’sconclusionthatglyphosateisa“probablehumancarcinogen”indicatesthatseriousactionisneededtoprotecttheenvironmentandhumanhealth.Thisshouldstartwith:
1. Animmediatebanonallusesofglyphosate.2. Adequatemeasuresshouldbeputinplace
toensureothermoretoxicchemicalsdonotreplaceglyphosate.
3. Animmediatesuspensionoftheuseof2,4-Danddicamba-tolerantcropsandahalttoanynewapprovalsforGMherbicidetolerantcrops.
4. AcomprehensiveassessmentoftheimpactsanduseofGMherbicide-tolerantcropsandaccompanyingherbicidesonhumanhealthandtheenvironment,inparticularinallRRsoyaproducingareas.Theassessmentshouldincludefullparticipationbytheaffectedpeoplesandlocalcommunities.
5. Subjecttotheoutcomesoftheseassessments,measuresshouldbetakentoinitiateathoroughprogrammeofreparationstoaffectedpeoplesandthecomprehensiverestorationandremediationofcontaminatedecosystems.
6.Ashiftfromchemicalinput-intensiveweedmanagement,andagricultureingeneral,toagroecologicalmethodologies.
Biotechnologyandagrochemicalcompaniesarealreadyinvestingsignificantlyinthe
developmentofnewGMHTcropsandtheuseofotherchemicalherbicidesinadditiontoglyphosate.TheintroductionofnewGMHTcropswillinevitablyleadtoaviciouscycleofincreasingtheuseofchemicalssuchas2,4-Danddicamba,andtheevolutionandspreadofresistantweeds,increasingtherisktohumanandenvironmentalhealth.
Itisvitalatthisjuncturethatthestormofcontroversyaroundglyphosatebecomesacatalystfordeeperconversationsaboutthefuturedirectionsofagriculturalpolicyandfoodproduction.Thereisagrowingrecognitionthatthestatusquoofhighchemicalinputsandmass-producedmonocultures,isuntenable—inboththeirenvironmentalandsocialcosts—andwillnotbeabletofeedagrowingglobalpopulationintheeraofclimatechange.ThiswasaconclusionreachedbythegroundbreakingInternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalKnowledge,ScienceandTechnologyforDevelopment(IAASTD),thelargeststudyonagricultureundertakentodate,whichcalledfora“thoroughandradical”overhaulofagriculturalpoliciesinthe21stcentury.63
Instead,theIAASTDcalledforgovernmentstostrengthentheirfocusonagroecologicalsciences.Agroecology,whichusesecologicalprinciplesforthedesignandmanagementofsustainableagriculturalsystems,hasconsistentlyprovencapableofincreasingproductivitysustainablyandhasfargreaterpotentialforfightinghunger,particularlyduringeconomicandclimaticallyuncertaintimes.Thiscalltofocusonagroecologyhassincebeentakenupforexample,bythethenUN
JuanBertola
14A F R I C A N C E N T R E F O R B I O D I V E R S I T Y
SpecialRapporteurontherighttofood64andtheUNConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)initsTradeandEnvironmentReview2013.65
Therearenosilverbulletstoendthisstruggleandcircumstanceswilldifferdependingonparticularagroecologicalandsocio-economiccontexts.However,alternativefarmingandfoodsystems,encompassedbyagroecology,food
sovereigntyandsustainablefoodsystems66offerasetofprinciplesthatcanguideusforward.Chiefamongsttheseareprinciplesaroundenvironmentalsustainability,socialequity,democraticparticipationindecision-making,andaccountability.Thesearealongwayfromwhatiscurrentlybeingofferedbythekeyarchitectsofglobalfoodsystems,whowillnotgiveuptheirprivilegedpositionslightly.Thereismuchworkstilltobedone.
What next after a ban on glyphosate 15
Annexure: New GM herbicide-tolerant varieties in the USA
Company Crop Event Herbicides Approved
Dow Cotton DAS-8191Ø-7 2,4-D,glufosinate Underassessment
Monsanto Soybean MON87708 Dicamba 2015
Monsanto Cotton MON-887Ø1-3 Dicamba,glufosinate
2014
Bayer/Syngenta Soybean SYHT0H2 Glufosinate,HPPD 2014
Dow Soybean DAS-444Ø6-6 2,4-D,glufosinate,glyphosate
2014
Dow Soybean DAS-68416-4 2,4-D,glufosinate 2014
Dow Maize DAS-40278-9 2,4-D,ACCase-Inhibitor
2014
BASF Soybean BPS-CV127-9 Imidazolinone 2014
Bayer&M.S.Technologies
Soybean FG72 Glyphosate,Isoxaflutole
2013
Source:AnimalandPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS)oftheUSDA.
Global approvals for MON 87708 x MON89788 (MON89788)
Country Food Feed Cultivation
Australia (2012)
Brazil 2010 2010
Canada (2012) (2012) (2012)
Colombia 2012 2012 2012
EuropeanUnion (2015) (2015)
Japan 2014 2013(2012)
Mexico 2013(2012)
NewZealand (2012)
Philippines (2014) (2014)
SouthKorea 2012 2012(2012)
Taiwan (2013)
Uruguay 2012
USA (2011) (2011) (2015)Source:InternationalServicefortheAcquisitionofAgri-biotechApplications(ISAAA).
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PO Box 29170, Melville 2109, South Africawww.acbio.org.za
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