Western Civilization IHIS-101
Unit 5 - The Roman Republic
Geography of Italy Three main regions:
Po Valley Latium Campania
Ideal for farming Large fertile plains More agriculturally productive than Greece Able to support a larger population
No good natural barriers Alps to the north had numerous passes Apennines Mountains were not as high as the Alps Miles of coastline on three sides
Geography of Italy Best harbors were located on the western side
of Italy Italy had some mineral resources
These were enough to attract outsiders Not enough to provide sufficient wealth to defend
the region People were attracted to Italy
But natives could not afford to protect themselves By first millennium BCE, Italy was inhabited by:
Latin speaking people on the plain of Latium To the north were the Etruscans To the south were the Greeks
Italy (c.500 BCE)
Etruscans Etruscan settled in the late Bronze Age
Their origins are unclear Cannot translate Etruscan language yet
Built towns and cities in north-central Italy Most famous city was Rome They also built the first roads in the area
By 650 BCE, dominant cultural and economic power in Italy They were skilled artisans, metal workers, and
architects Government was a thalassocracy
Their influence spread throughout the western Mediterranean
Etruscans Women had many rights
They participated in public events including politics and sporting events
By 480 BCE, they were on the decline They were challenged by the Greeks in southern Italy By 400 BCE, they were limited to Etruria
Early Rome was heavily influenced by the Etruscans Used Etruscan architecture in the building of their cities Enjoyed gladiatorial combat Wore the Etruscan style toga and cloak Latin alphabet was based on the Greek-derived
Etruscan one Adopted Etruscan-modified hoplite warfare
The Etruscans
Greeks in Italy Greek colonization of Italy (750-550 BCE)
Settled in southern Italy and Sicily They built fortified cities with harbors for trade
Influenced Rome Many philosophers resided in Italy at one point Included Plato, Archimedes, and Roman religion similar to the Greeks
Rome became the link to Near East It will develop as the link between Greek and Near
East culture and the rest of Europe
Ancient Rome
Rise of Rome Romans settled in Latium around 2nd
millennium BCE Region had many advantages Fertile, broad, flat plain Access to the Tiber River
Advantages of Rome: Located 12 miles inland on the Tiber River One of the first accessible crossings of the river On the land path between the Apennines to the
sea Far enough inland to be safe from sea attackers Built on the Seven Hills
Rise of Rome “Latin Rights”
A series of rights between all Latin communities Commercium – All contracts were good throughout
Latium Connubium – Latins could intermarry with legal
recognition Migratio – Latins could migrate and transfer citizenship
after one year Romulus and Remus
Founded the city according to legen Sons of Mars Had been set adrift on the Tiber River as babies and
raised by wolves Romulus eventually killed Remus and became the sole
king of Rome
Remus and Romulus
Regal Period (753-509 BCE) Regal Period (753-509 BCE)
Early Roman government was a monarchy There was a senate made up of the head of clans
Six Etruscan kings Helped transform Rome into an urban city Were city planners and organizers Built walls surrounding the city
Tarquin the Proud (534-509 BCE) Last Roman king Took the throne by murdering the previous king Ruled as an absolute despot and had many
senators executed
Regal Period (753-509 BCE) Rape of Lucretia (510 BCE)
Tarquin’s son raped Lucretia She was considered to be a “virtuous” Roman wife She committed suicide rather than “live in
dishonor” Led to overthrow Tarquin Probably a patriotic myth Shows Roman hatred of the Etruscan monarchs
Roman never adopted monarchy again
Western Mediterranean (c. 509 BCE)
Roman Republic (509-264 BCE) Characterized by military expansion and constant
warfare At first they were on the defensive As time went on they began conquering their neighbors Newly conquered territories were required to provide
soldiers Many were brought under the “Latin Rights” Also received many of the same benefits of Roman
citizens Roman government was practical
It evolved with new circumstances It was a “government on the fly” Three branches: Imperium, Senate, and Popular
Assemblies
Imperium Imperium
Executive branch Means “right to command” Originally was two consuls With expansion, more positions were added These included praetors, proconsuls, and
propraetors Consul
Highest position with imperium Responsible for the overall administration of the
government, military, and religion Positions limited by election and one year terms Served in Senate after term ended
Imperium Praetors
Added in 366 BCE Governed Rome when the Consuls were away in
battle Handled civil law of the Republic
Proconsuls and Propraetors Acted as provincial governors Were former consuls or praetors
Temporary Dictators In case of an emergency Only supposed to last for six months
Senate and Popular Assemblies Senate
Approximately 300 elders A lifetime appointment Not a legislative body until 3rd century BCE Counseled the Imperium
Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assembly) Made up of members of the Roman army Wealthiest always had the majority Elected the Consuls and passed laws
Concilium Plebis (Plebian Assembly) Not added until 471 BCE More democratic assembly made up only of
Plebeians
A Roman with imagines
Roman Society Paterfamilias
Roman society stressed family Head of the family Had complete power over the rest of the family Many families shared the same name They would also group together in social units
known as clans Rise of Patronage
In early Rome, not everybody enjoyed the benefits of citizenship
Thus did not have protection under the law Would seek protection from a citizen family
Roman Society Patronage and Clientage
The word “patron” is derived from pater meaning “father” “Client” is derived from cluere “to obey” Citizen family would act as the patron and provide aid Client would provide labor, military assistance, and votes
in the assembly Roman society was divided into two main classes:
Patricians and Plebeians Plebeians faced discrimination and unfair treatment
Forced to serve in the army but could not hold office Patricians and plebeians were not allowed to intermarry
Roman Families and Society
Struggle of the Orders Struggle of the Orders (494-287 BCE)
Series of struggles by the plebeians to gain more political rights
Started with plebeians acquiring large amounts of wealth
Secession from Rome (494 BCE) Plebeians seceded from Rome until they received more
rights They made up the military Patricians were forced to compromise
Tribunes of the Plebes Started with two Sacrosanct position Were able to protect any plebeian from arrest by
patrician magistrates
Struggle of the Orders Concilium Plebis was added in 474 BCE
Called by the Tribunes Only plebeians could serve on it Laws passed only affected the plebeian class Laws still had to be approved by the Senate Plebeians unfamiliar with legal proceedings
Decemviri (“ten men”) Commission to help clarify new legal codes in 452
BCE They were all members of the patrician class Published the new legal code for the plebeians
Struggle of the Orders Twelve Tables of Law (450 BCE)
New laws maintained the old traditions including debt slavery
Forbade the intermarriage between patricians and plebeians
Many of the plebeians were unhappy with these laws Pushed for greater reforms and more political equality
Lex Canuleia (445 BCE) Allowed intermarriage between patricians and plebeians
Lex Licinia Sextia (367 BCE) Allowed one of the two consuls to be a plebeian Only five plebeians were elected between 366-340 BCE Ended patrician monopoly over Senate
Struggle of the Orders Lex Genucia (342 BCE)
This allowed both consul positions to be held by plebeians
It also required that at least one had to be plebeian Lex Hortensia (287 BCE)
All laws passed by the Concilium Plebis affected both plebeians and patricians
No longer required the approval of the Senate Legally, all Roman citizens were now considered
equal Rise of Nobiles
A new elite class made up of the wealthy politicians Republic never saw complete democracy
Roman Conquest of Italy
Nature of Roman Imperialism Three stages of Roman imperialism:
Conquest of Italy Conflict with Carthage and expansion into western
Mediterranean Conflict with the Hellenistic kingdoms and
expansion into the eastern Mediterranean Goal was not to conquer
Took advantage of the opportunities given to it The more it expanded, the more threats Involvement into even more conflicts This led to more expansion
Not until the 2nd century BCE began to favor expansion Increased the glory of Rome and economic benefits
Early Italian Campaigns (458–396 BC) Roman was surrounded by potential enemies
To the north was the Etruscans To the east and south were various Italian tribes and
the Greeks Latin communities challenged the city for leadership
Peace with Latin communities (493 BCE) Republic made a defensive alliance Lasted long enough so Rome could focus on
Etruscans Fall of Veii (396 BCE)
First major victory over Etruscans City under siege for ten years
Celtic Invasion of Italy (390–387 BC) Next threat came from the north Invasion of the Celts (390-387 BCE)
Invaded northern Italy in 390 BCE They were known as the Gauls to the Romans
Battle of Battle of Allia River (c. 390 BCE) Led by Brennus, they defeated the 15,000 man
Roman army Chased them to Rome and sacked the city Only left after the Romans were forced to pay an
indemnity Celts would be a problem for next 200 years
This is until they are defeated by Julius Caesar
Western Mediterranean (c. 348 BCE)
Conquest of Italy Conquest of Italy began in 340 BCE Latin Revolts (340-338 BCE
Latin communities revolted against Rome’s dominance
Romans easily crushed the rebellion by 338 BCE Established complete supremacy over Latium
Roman Confederation Included the defeated Latins Three categories: full Roman citizens, municipal
status, and allies A state’s status could change All states remained mostly autonomous Only required to provide men for the Roman army
Conquest of Italy Samnite Wars (343-290 BCE)
Samnites were from Campania Rome was able to defeat them Defeated other Italian groups as well (Etruscans and
Umbrians) Allowed Rome to expand its own territory Again, these groups were allowed to be mostly autonomous They had to provide men to the Roman army Rome controlled their foreign policy
New territories were surrounded by Roman lands Lands were confiscated by Rome Roman veterans were encouraged to settle on these lands If any territory proved disloyal, a Roman army would be
sent in
Western Mediterranean (c. 279 BCE)
Conquest of Italy Next threat is from the Greeks to the south Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE)
Greeks hired mercenaries to fight One leader was King Pyrrhus of Epirus Pyrrhus invaded in 280 BCE with 25,000 troops and 20
war elephants He was able to defeat Rome twice at a huge cost Rome had an endless supply of soldiers while Pyrrhus
did not “Another such victory and I shall be lost” (“Pyrrhic
Victory”) Romans defeated them in the third battle These states were added to the Confederation Provided naval assistance instead of army
Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE) In 264 BCE, Rome defeated the last Etruscans
Rome had control of all of Italy Exception was the extreme northern region
Why was Rome so successful in its conquest of Italy?
Diplomacy Punished disloyal states but rewarded loyal ones
Using opportunities to their advantage Used these conquests as a way to increase their
security A practical sense of strategy
Created colonies in newly conquered regions Built up roads between these settlements Created a major communications network and an
easy path to send their military if necessary
Carthage (c. 264 BCE)
Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean Next biggest threat to Rome: Carthage
Settled by Phoenicians in the 9th century BCE Was the richest and largest state in the
Mediterranean Had a monopoly on the western Mediterranean
trade Rome wanted to acquire Sicily
Most was under the control of the Carthaginians Opportunity arose in 264 BCE
Involved the city of Messana Under the control of the Mamertines In 264 BCE, the city was besieged by Hiero, the
King of Syracuse
King Hiero II of Syracuse (270-215 BC)
Clash With Carthage Mamertines turned first to Carthage
Negotiated a settlement Carthage would keep a garrison in Messana and
stop Hiero Mamertines then turned to Rome for an alliance
Reasons are unknown Carthage saw this as a betrayal
Rome was at first hesitant This was their first military expedition outside of
Italy It would ultimately lead to a class with Carthage Messana was strategically important
Roman troops took the city easily Carthage saw this as just cause for war
Sicily
First Punic War (264-241 BCE) First Punic War (264-241 BCE)
Punic comes from the Latin word for Phoenician, punicus Both sides attempted to take control of Sicily Carthage used mercenaries to do most of their fighting War included north Africa as well
Roman naval strategy Rome knew it needed a good navy to win Within two months they had over 100 ships Rome knew the Carthaginian naval strategy Responded with Roman “assault bridges”
Battle of Tunis (255 BCE) Rome’s only major land defeat Cavalry was outnumbered 8:1 plus Carthage had
elephants
First Punic War (264-241 BCE) Carthage’s problem
As the war went on, they were losing troops Because they used mercenaries, they could not
find enough to fill its ranks Battle of Drepana (242 BCE)
Roman navy defeated the Carthaginians Western Sicily under the control of Carthage
surrendered Carthage sued for peace in 241 BCE
Carthage gave up all rights to Sicily Promised not attack Syracuse or her allies Had to pay a large indemnity (22,000 silver talents
= 66 tons of silver) over twenty years
First Punic War (264-241 BCE) Roman Senate did not approve of the payments
Wanted 23,000 talents over ten years instead Carthage was in a financial bind
It could not afford the indemnity and pay its soldiers This led to a revolt by its mercenaries, known as the
Mercenary War (240-238 BCE) Rome took advantage of this
Seized Corsica and Sardinia in 238 BCE Carthage could do nothing about it
According to legend, the leading Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, made his 9-year old son Hannibal swear that he would hate Rome forever
Hamilcar Barca (c. 270–228
BCE)
Carthage Between Wars Carthage turned its attentions to Iberia
Hamilcar hoped to gain riches to rebuild the army Southern Iberia is rich with copper and silver mines Provided enough revenue to make up for recent war
losses Also provided manpower for Carthage
Carthage could now rebuild its army Treaty of Ebro (226 BCE)
Signed by both Carthage and Rome Divided Iberia into respective spheres of influence
using the Ebro River In 221 BCE, Hamilcar was assassinated
He was replaced by his 25-year old son, Hannibal
Europe (c. 218 BCE)
Hannibal Barca (247-183
BCE)
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Leading up to war
In 219 BCE, Rome made an alliance with the city of Sanguntum
It was nervous about the growing power of Hannibal in Iberia
Hannibal attacked and lay siege to the city Many citizens actually committed suicide Rome did nothing in response
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Hannibal decided to attack Rome directly Had 75,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 36 war
elephants First he gained control of the Pyrenees mountains region Then he defeated the Gauls in southern France
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Crossing the Alps
Hannibal crossed the Alps with 40,000 men, 6,000 horses and his war elephants
Lost the elephants to the cold climate and he lost his siege engines as well
Invasion of Italy Took northern Italy easily
Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) Romans attempted to meet Hannibal’s forces
head on Hannibal devastated the Roman army, killing as
many as 40,000 men
Hannibal’s invasion route
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Revolt of southern Italy
After Cannae, many Italian communities rebelled against Rome
Allied with Carthage Rome was on the verge of collapse
Hannibal was unable to take Rome Could not lay siege without siege engines Also did not have enough troops to take the city This gave Rome the time it needed to rebuild its
army At the start of the war, Rome sent troops to
Iberia Were initially unsuccessful there
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Iberian forces were put under the command of
Publius Cornelius Scipio in 211 BCE Brilliant general who led Rome into a number of
victories By 206 BCE pushed Carthage out of Iberia
War in Africa (204-201 BCE Rome took the war directly to Carthage Forces were led by Scipio Carthage was forced to recall Hannibal from Italy
Battle of Zama (202 BCE) Scipio defeated Hannibal and his forces Scipio was given the name Scipio Africanus for this
victory This ended the war
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) Peace was signed in 201 BCE
Carthage gave up Iberia Iberia became a Roman province Carthage was forced to pay a indemnity of 10,000
talents over 50 years Was not allowed to raise an army or to declare war
without Rome’s permission Only allowed to keep 10 ships to protect the traders
from pirates Not all Romans were happy with the peace of
201 BCE Cato stated “I think that Carthage must be
destroyed” Livy stated “The hatred with which they fought also
was almost greater than their resources"
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (235–183 BC)
Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) In 151BCE, Carthage paid off its final debt to
Rome They believed the treaty was now expired Rome thought otherwise
That year, Numidia attacked Carthage Carthage in turn sent troops to attack Numidia Numidia was an ally of Rome
Rome saw this as a violation of their peace agreement
Sent an ultimatum to Carthage: Cease hostilities Surrender their weapons and disband its battlements Send 300 hostages to Rome Move the actual city of Carthage further inland
Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) Carthage refused to concede to the last demand
Rome declared war Third Punic War (149-146 BCE)
Romans unsuccessfully attacked Carthage in 149 BCE Laid siege to the city in 147 BCE Carthage finally fell in 146 BCE Almost 78% of the Carthaginian population died by
that point This was due to battle, disease, or starvation The survivors were sold into slavery
Rome now had control of the western Mediterranean
Greece and Macedonia (c. 200 BCE)
Conquest of Eastern Mediterranean Interest in the eastern Mediterranean began in
219 BCE Rome occupied parts of Illyria This was to stop pirates in the Adriatic Sea King Philip V of Macedonia did not like having Rome so
close After the Battle of Cannae (215 BCE), Philip V
made an alliance with Hannibal Rome responded by allying themselves with the
Aetolian League Rome wanted to keep the Macedonians from invading
Illyria First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC)
Rome was focusing its efforts on Carthage Treaty of Phoenice (205 BCE) Philip promised to give up his alliance with Hannibal
Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE) After the Second Punic War, Rome turned back to
Macedonia Wanted to punish them for allying with Hannibal
In 200 BCE, Rome got its opportunity Ambassadors from Rhodes and Pergamum approached
Rome Philip had made an alliance with the Seleucid king,
Antiochus III Then they attacked Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia Minor Rome saw this as empire building and a threat Rome allied with both the Aetolian and the Achaean
Leagues Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE)
Philip did not have many allies left in Greece by this time Forced to supplant his army with over 25,000 mercenaries
Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE) Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BCE)
Romans cleanly defeated Philip Philip sued for peace
Peace of Flamininus (197 BCE) Philip gave up any interests in Greece and his navy Had to pay a large indemnity to Rome
Rome announced that it would support the freedom of the Greek states Still kept garrisons in strategic points throughout
Macedonia Aetolain League was not happy with the peace
The little territory they got was not worth allying with Rome
Philip V of Macedonia
Seleucid War (192-188 BCE) Aetolain League allied itself with Antiochus
Hoped he would be able to free Greece from Rome Antiochus agreed as he was looking to gain a
foothold in Europe Seleucid War (192-188 BCE)
Seleucid troops landed in Greece in 192 BCE Antiochus stated he was “freeing Greece from
Rome” Rome responded by sending in a force of 30,000
troops They were led by Scipio Africanus Defeated the Seleucids at Thermopylae in 191 BCE
Seleucid War (192-188 BCE) Antiochus retreated back into Asia Minor
Roman troops followed him Defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Magnesia
(190 BCE_ Seleucids sued for peace
Peace of Apamea (188 BCE) Antiochus was forced to pay a large indemnity
(15,000 talents of silver) to Rome Also forced to abandon his territory west of the
Taurus Mountains Pergamum and Rhodes split that territory Rome took no land for itself
Antiochus III (222–187
BCE)
Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE) In 179 BCE, Philip V of Macedonia died
He was replaced by his son Perseus Perseus wanted to bring back the glory of
Macedonia This included a continuation of “anti-Roman” policies
The Greek states again appealed to Rome for help They were fearing their freedom Rome agreed to help them out
Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE) At first, Macedonian forces were winning the war Perseus offered a peace treaty but it was quickly refused The war began to turn in favor of the Romans in 168 BCE
Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE) Battle of Pydna (June 22, 168 BCE)
Roman troops heavily defeated Perseus’s troops Out of 40,000 Macedonian troops, 25,000 were
either dead or captured Perseus fled but was captured soon after and sent
to Rome Macedonia was divided into four republics
Set up with puppet governments Rome seized its treasury Enslaved a large portion of the Macedonia
population In 167 BCE, Roman citizens no longer had to
pay direct property taxes This was because Rome had acquired so much
money from the wars
Perseus of Macedonia (179-166
BCE)
Seizing Control Fourth Macedonian War (149-148 BCE)
In 149 BCE, Andriscus rose up in revolt against Rome Rome responded quickly and sent in troops Revolt was quickly put down Macedonia was annexed by Rome as a province
Achaean War (146 BCE) Greeks were not happy with a Rome right next door Achaean League rose up in revolt in 146 BCE The revolt was quickly put down The city of Corinth was completely destroyed Greece became a Roman province
By 146 BCE, Rome’s empire extended throughout the Mediterranean
Roman Republic (146 BCE)
Fall of the Roman Republic Fall of the Roman Republic
While Rome had a secure hold on the Mediterranean by 133 BCE, it was not stable
Process of creating an empire actually weakened and threatened the internal stability of the Republic
Causes to decline included political, social, and economic
Political and Social Turmoil Caused by the growing power of the nobiles By this point, Senate had become the effective
governing body Was not through legislation Instead, it used its own initiative, which included
taking control of foreign affairs and leading wars
Political and Social Turmoil Senate was under increasing control of the
nobiles Wealthiest of both the patrician and plebeian
classes Ran for both political and personal gains
Divided into two groups: Optimates – (“The Best Men”) – They were the
nobiles in the Senate who wished to keep their oligarchic privileges
Populares – (“Favoring the People”) – These were the aristocrats who used the people’s assemblies to break up the monopoly of the Optimates
By the 1st century BCE, the Optimates and Populares were enmeshed in political turmoil
Political and Social Turmoil Rise of the Equites (“Equestrians”)
Once formed the Roman cavalry Acquired their wealthy through a variety of
means, Participated in the expansion of the empire
through commerce or as private contractors Only by this point did they want a political role
Senate limiting Equites’ power Passed a law in 218 BCE Senators from bidding on
state contracts or engaging in commerce Kept the Equestrians from holding high office
By 100 BCE, the Equestrians demanded political power equal to their financial power
Economic Changes After the Punic Wars, there were major economic
changes Small farmers were hit the worst
Lands were damaged from invading troops Farmers were also required to serve for six years Their farms were in horrendous shape when they
returned Many decided to sell their land rather than reclaim it
Landed aristocracy bought the small farms Created huge estates (latifundia) by buying out the
small farms or taking over state-owned land Concentrated on cash crops, including grapes, olives,
and sheep Relied heavily on slave and tenant labor, which small
farmers could not afford to do
Economic Changes Decline in citizen farmers
With so many farmers losing their properties, decrease in the number of citizen farmers
Led to decline of men available for military service Movement to urban areas
Some small farmers remained in the rural areas to try to find work
More moved into the cities, creating a new class of landless laborer
Very unstable group that and would cause serious problems in hard times (e.g., riots)
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
Were two nobiles who attempted to fix the economic and political problems facing Rome
Tiberius Gracchus – (163-133 BCE) Concerned with the decline of small farmers as
well as the shortage of military recruits Land-Reform Bill
Placed limits on the amount of state-owned land that could be held
Stipulated that public land could be given to landless Romans on a permanent, low-cost lease
Wanted to establish a land commission to oversee the redistribution of land
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers Tiberius knew he would not be able to get this
bill through the Senate Most of them were the large landowners who
would be most affected by this bill Instead he went to the Concilium Plebis, where it
easily passed Many of the Senators were upset with this
They had him assassinated in 133 BCE Gaius Gracchus – (154-121 BCE)
He continued the efforts of his brother Worked on laws that regulated the price of grain Included one that enabled grain to be sold at below
market value by establishing government subsidies
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers He was not reelected as Tribune of the Plebes in 121
BCE Senate began stripping all of the reforms he had made
Gaius and his followers led mass demonstrations in Rome Many brought weapons with them but none were used Consul Lucius Opimius used the power of senatus
consultum ultimum (“a final decree of the senate”) to restore order
Brought in the military to break up the crowd Over 3,000 of Gaius’ followers were killed Gaius had his slave stab him
Impact on Roman Politics Rome started to think in terms of political “right” and
“left” Used the Concilium Plebis to create an alternative
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers Populares and optimates felt justified in this
struggle Populares knew that their reforms could not get
pass the Senate so they needed to break the power of the optimates
Optimates believed the leaders of the populares wanted to bring in tyranny and use the masses to further their own ambitions
The optimates were unwilling to compromise They were also quick to resort to violence to stop
the brothers and their followers This would bring about the beginning of the end of
the Republic
King Micipsa of Numidia (148-118
BCE)
The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE) The decline of Rome is first seen with the
Jugurthine Wars (111-105 BCE) It exposed extensive corruption, especially in the
Senate Numidia
Most powerful kingdom in Africa after the Punic Wars By 111 BCE, the kingdom was under the rule of two
brothers and their cousin Jugurtha Jurgurtha was a skilled warrior and had been trained
in Roman military tactics He sought to claim the kingdom for himself Had one of his cousins assassinated and went to war
with the other
The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE) The surviving cousin, Adherbal, turned to Rome for
help Jugurtha used his influence with various Roman families
and very large bribes to prevent Rome from sending in troops
Adherbal used Roman soldiers in his army Many were killed during the course of the war Those who survived were subsequently killed by Jugurtha
Rome was outraged with the killing of its citizens Declared war on Jugurtha in 111BCE Jugurtha used his influence and money to prevent a
battle Accusations of bribery spread throughout Rome
One of the Tribunes of the Plebs began an investigation into bribery charges
The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE) Jugurtha then ordered the assassination of
Adherbal The assassins were caught and confessed to
Jugurtha’s participation Once again, Rome went to war
This time, the Romans were quickly defeated This shocked many Romans When the commanders of the Roman army returned
home, they came back as newly wealthy men There were more cries of scandal and bribery
In 109 BCE, Quintus Caecilius Metellus was put in charge of the army He was a much better general and came from a
respectable family Made very little progress against Jugurtha
Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE)
Marius and the New Roman Army Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE)
One of Metellus’s legates and subordinate commanders In 107 BCE, he decided to run for consul and won
Command of African army Marius was given command by the plebeian assembly For the next two years he began military reforms Wanted to increase the number of men eligible to serve
Originally, the Roman army was made up of a group of conscripted small landowners However, with the decline in the number of small
landowners, there were not enough men eligible to join the army
Marius and the New Roman Army New Roman Army
Marius recruited volunteers from the landless working class
Troops would also get retirement benefits and land They swore an oath to their generals, not the Senate This put a lot of power into the hands of the generals Many people quickly joined the army to get these
benefits Rise of Professional Soldiers
Many new soldiers did not have homes to return to They became career full-time professional soldiers Would serve terms from 20 to 25 years Encouraged promotion from within ranks Created a whole new social class in Rome whose
loyalty was to their generals more than to the state
End of the Jugurthine War End of Jugurthine War
Marius used his new army to fight Jugurtha Roman troops pushed Jugurtha farther and farther
south Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)
One of Marius commanders Was sent down to negotiate with Bocchus, King of
Mauretania Bocchus was an ally of Jugurtha but was more
concerned about the encroaching Roman troops Sulla convinced Bocchus to betray and capture
Jugurtha War ended in 105 BCE
Coin of Sulla (Bocchus on left, Jugurtha on right)
Cimbri and Teutons Threat from the Cimbri and Teutons
Two roaming Germanic tribes In 109 BCE, attacked northern Italy Quickly laid waste to the Roman troops there
Rome had a serious shortage of men to fight in the army Marius was just beginning his reforms Two wars strained the army
Rome continued to lose to the tribes until 102 BCE At that point, the army was ready Led by Sulla and Catulus, the Roman army defeated
the tribes Two of the tribes that joined the battle were almost
wiped out of existence
Decline of Marius Marius was already popular in Rome
Was successful with his army reforms Was also elected consul from 104-99 BCE With this victory he was heralded as the “savior of
Rome” Decline of Marius
Needed to get the land for his soldiers Made some unhealthy alliances
Saturninus (???-100 BCE) One of the Tribunes of the Plebs Wanted to give veterans land in the colonies Was opposed by the Senate
Decline of Marius Saturninus began to use mob tactics and open
street violence to push through his requests Also used his power to have one of his rivals
assassinated, Senate issued a senatus consultum ultimatum
This ordered Marius to use his army to put down Saturninus
The Senate went on to void all the laws passed by Saturninus except for the land grants to veterans
Marius’ political career came to an end He went into a self-imposed exile
Army could now be used to save the Republic But at the same time it showed how it could be
used to destroy it
Marcus Livius Drusus (??? – 91 BCE)
Social War (91-88 BCE) Marcus Livius Drusus (???-91 BCE)
One of the Tribunes in 91 BCE Was considered a champion of the Latin allies Tried to pass a law granting full Roman citizenship to
all allied Italians living south of the Po River Opposition
This law was vehemently opposed by many in all social classes
They did not want the Italians to become citizens Drusus was assassinated soon after
When word of this got out, many of the Italians revolted This becomes known as the Social War; Socius is Latin for "ally"
Social War (91-88 BCE) Italians had fought for Rome but not gotten the
bonuses Wanted the same share of land and bonuses given to
the Roman veterans Put together an army of over 100,000 men
Marius was called in to put down the revolt He was put in charge of the northern army Sulla was put in charge of the southern army Able to put down most of the rebellion by 88 BCE
Concessions Granted full citizenship with voting rights to all free
Italians Drastically altered the voting in favor of populares
Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)
Rise of Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)
Was a member of the nobiles One of the leading generals of the Roman Army Risen up into prominence during the Social War Awarded the Corona Gaminea ("Grass Crown"),
which was awarded by the soldiers for personal bravery in the field
Elected consul in 88 BCE Turn to Pontus
Rome’s next target was Mithridates VI, King of Pontus
He played on the discontent in Anatolia about growing Roman power in the region and taxation
Asia Minor in 90BCE
Rise of Sulla First Mithridatic War (88-85 BCE)
Mithridates ordered the execution of 80,000 Roman citizens
Included anyone else who spoke with a Latin accent Senate responded by putting together as massive
invasion force It gave command of that army Sulla
Marius did not like this He wanted the position for himself even though he
was 69 years old at the time Went to the plebeian assembly Got it to pass a law giving him command instead
Rise of Sulla Sulla’s First Civil War (88-87 BCE)
Sulla responded by raising his legions in southern Italy
He turned his armies on Rome itself Stated the power of the Senate had been nullified
and traditions had been violated His troops captured Rome after long street battle Announced that Marius and his allies were now
“enemies of the state” Marius was forced to flee to Africa
Once in control of the city, Sulla went to Asia Minor Planned bringing an end to the Mithridatic War
Rise of Sulla While Sulla was gone, Marius returned to Rome
This time he brought with him Lucius Cornelius Cinna Marius was able to captured the city with his own
troops He appointed himself Consul for a seventh time Eliminated Sulla's supporters, killing over 100 nobiles A few weeks later Marius died of a massive brain
hemorrhage Cinna used Marius’ troops to remain in power as
consul Sent a second army to Pontus to relieve Sulla of
command Sulla was able to convince many members of the
second army to desert and join his army
Rise of Sulla Battle of Orchomenos (85 BCE)
Sulla defeated Mithridates Also forced the surrender of the Greece states
supporting him Sulla turned his attention back to Rome
Easily defeated the troops throughout Italy Even defeated Marius’ son, Gaius Marius the Younger
In 82 BCE, he seized the city of Rome Temporary Dictator
Senate wanted him to “reconstitute the republic” It did not have a time limit This was ratified by the popular assembly
Sulla’s Dictatorship Taking care of the opposition
Opposition was proscribed and marked “enemies of the state”
Over 1,500 nobiles killed; may have been as high as 9,000
Property and wealth of those proscribed were confiscated
Relatives of the proscribed were forbidden from politics Power back to the Senate
Increased the number of Senators from 300 to 600 Re-instituted the Cursus Honorum Set minimum age requirements for holding office, term
limits, and minimum intervals between terms Eliminated most of the powers of the popular
assemblies and the Tribunes of the Plebs
Sulla’s Dictatorship Sulla resigned as dictator in 81 BCE
He was elected consul for 80 BCE Retired from politics in 79 BCE
Impact: Took power away from the populares Eliminated most of their power in the popular
assemblies Strengthening the power of the Senate and the nobiles Showed that an army could be used to seize power
Sulla died in 78 BCE In the end, his death left a power vacuum
Rome will be divided by civil war for the next fifty years
Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115-53 BCE)
Rise of Crassus and Pompey Using its newly restored power, the Senate went
on to make two key military appointments Crassus (c. 115-53 BCE)
Supporter of Sulla Became wealthy through confiscation of those
proscribed Put down Spartacus in 71 BCE, as part of the Third
Servile War (73-71 BCE) Gnaeus Pompeius “Pompey” Magnus (106-48
BCE) Also a supporter of Sulla Seized control of Iberia from an ally of Marius and
restructured its administration in 71 BCE Took credit for the end of the Third Servile War
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (aka Pompey) (106-48 BCE)
Rise of Crassus and Pompey Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls in 70
BCE They truly hated one another but joined forces
Putting power back into the hands of the populares Undid all of Sulla’s reforms Restored the power of the Tribunes of the Plebes Put equites back on juries Opitimates very suspicious of them, especially Pompey
Pompey received two important military campaigns Successfully led a navy expedition against the pirates
in the Mediterranean (67 BCE) In 66 BCE, Pompey was given command of troops to for
the Third Mithridatic War (75-65 BCE)
Rise of Crassus and Pompey Pompey returned to Rome on September 29, 61
BCE Received a full Triumph (his third) that lasted for two
days He shared his spoils with Rome He also disbanded his army
He expected help from the Senate upon his return Had reorganized the territory in Asia Minor Also promised his veterans land when they retired Senate was not so willing to help Over the past five years the forces of power had
shifted
Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)
Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)
Was threatened with proscription during Sulla’s dictatorship
Joined the army fighting campaigns in Asia until Sulla’s death
Caesar returned to Rome in 78 BCE He became a spokesman for the populares
Political appointments: Quaestor in Iberia (69 BCE) Pontifex Maximus (63 BCE) Praetor of Iberia (62 BCE)
Military commander in Iberia Conquered the Celts and Lusitanians in northern Iberia His troops gave him the title of imperator in 60 BCE
Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE)
The Catilinarian Conspiracy Financial struggles
Many Romans were suffering financial hardships from the wars
By 63 BCE, debt was at an all time high Lucius Sergius Catilina (108-62 BCE)
Ran for consulship in 66 BCE Supported the cancellation of debts He was massive debt as well The optimates were against this policy and he lost the
election Birth of the conspiracy
Hoped to make changes to the Republic through legal means
Realized this could only be done through revolt Got support from different classes as many suffered from
debt
The Catilinarian Conspiracy The conspiracy was uncovered in October 63 BCE
Discovered by Consul Marcus Tullus Cicero Cicero informed the Senate of this plot and its danger
to the Republic Series of speeches known as the Catiline Orations
Roman troops were able to quickly put down the revolt Catiline himself died in battle Those conspirators who did survive were executed
Conspiracy discredited the populares On the other hand, it strengthened the power of the
Senate
The Mediterranean c. 59 BCE
First Triumvirate In 61 BCE, Pompey was annoyed with the Senate
They were enjoying the increase of power after the defeat of the Catilinarian Conspiracy
And they were fearful of Pompey’s popularity with the masses
Refused to ratify the arrangements he requested In 60 BCE, Caesar returned from Iberia
With the new title of imperator Caesar was allowed a Triumph
However, this posed a serious problem for Caesar He could request a Triumph which would keep him as a
soldier and thus ineligible for office He could refuse the Triumph and become a private
citizen and run for office Caesar wanted to do both but the Senate refused him
First Triumvirate Caesar wanted the consulship more than the
Triumph Formation of the First Triumvirate
Caesar knew he needed a strong alliance as the Senate was getting too powerful
Caesar was an ally of Crassus for quite some time Crassus had helped pay off some of Caesar’s debt Pompey was already upset with the Senate Caesar secured Pompey’s help by giving Pompey his
daughter in marriage Formed what historians call the First Triumvirate Their enemies called them the “three headed
monster”
First Triumvirate Caesar as consul (59 BCE)
Used the influence of the other two to win Succeeded in achieving the goals for the
Triumvirate Caesar got the proconsulship of Gaul for five years Crassus was promised a future consulship His allies got a reduction on tax contracts that they
had originally been forced to overbid on Pompey got the land for his veterans and his own
political ambitions In 58 BCE, Caesar left for Gaul
Conquered most of France, Belgium, and parts of Germany by 55 BCE
First Triumvirate Instability in Rome
Publius Clodius Pulcher was elected Tribune in 58 BCE Used mob violence to push through reforms for the
populares Alliance was also unstable
Pompey was siding more and more with the optimates Caesar’s power base in the city was diminishing Pompey and Crassus remembered the importance of
having military commands Reaffirmation of the alliance
Met in northern Italy to renew their alliance in 56 BCE
First Triumvirate As part of the agreement:
Caesar got a 5-year extension in Gaul Crassus and Pompey would be elected consul for 55 BCE Crassus would also receive a military command in Syria Pompey would receive a military command in Spain Caesar also sent 1,000 troops into Rome to quiet things
down In late 55 BCE, Crassus left almost immediate for
Syria He planned on invading the Parthian Empire in Iran He unfortunately is killed in battle in 53 BCE
This left Pompey in charge of running the government Not a good politician and started moving closer to the
optimates
Rise of Caesar Caesar continued his success in Gaul
Defeated an invasion of Germanic tribes attempting to cross the Rhine
Successfully invaded southern Britain in 54 BCE on his second try, but had to abandon it in 52 BCE
By 52 BCE, the provinces of Belgica, Aquitania and Lugdunesis were created
His military successes made Caesar more powerful He acquired enough loot and slaves to pay off all of his
debts He also had a large army who were loyal solely to him This frightened not only the Senate but Pompey as well The Senate sided with Pompey because he was seen as
the lesser threat of the two
Rise of Caesar In 50 BCE, the Senate told Caesar to return to Rome
Supported by Pompey Also would have to give up his armies if he wanted to run
for consul Caesar, of course, refused On January 1, 49 BCE, Caesar was declared a “public
enemy” Caesar then sent troops down towards Rome
On January 11, 49 BCE he stood on the banks of the Rubicon River which would led him into Italy
It is at this point that Caesar told his troops “Alea iacta est” ("Let the die be cast“)
Pompey and his supporters fled to Greece He had planned on amassing his own army to fight Caesar
Caesar’s Civil War Caesar arrived in Rome at the end of March
49 BCE He seized the treasury containing 15,000 bars of
gold, 30,000 bars of silver and 30 million sesterces Only stayed for a week
Campaign in Spain Easily defeated Pompey’s troops there Some troops mutinied from Pompey’s control Caesar now turned to Greece
Battle of Pharsalus (August 9, 48 BCE) Caesar was outnumbered 2:1 Pompey’s troops were not trained Roman legions Pompey was defeated and fled to Egypt
Caesar’s Civil War When Pompey arrived in Egypt he was assassinated
One of Ptolemy XIII’s counselors knew that Caesar would follow after Pompey
He believed this way he could get in good graces with him
Caesar was giving Pompey’s head and ring in a basket He was incredibly upset that they had killed Pompey According to Plutarch, "he turned away…with loathing,
as from an assassin; and when he received Pompey's signet ring on which was engraved a lion holding a sword in his paws, he burst into tears“
Caesar deposed Ptolemy His sister, Cleopatra VII, was put in power
Caesar’s Civil War During the winter of 48/47 BCE, Caesar helped
secure power for Cleopatra In the process, he enjoyed a love affair with her Ordered the Egyptian fleet burnt
Turn towards the east Defeated king of Pontus at the Battle of Zela (Aug. 47
BCE) With the easy defeat, Caesar stated “veni, vidi, vici” (“I
came, I saw, I conquered”) Caesar was named temporary dictator in absentia
Term was for ten years Caesar then went on to defeat King Juba I of
Numidia
Caesar as Dictator In July 46 BCE, Caesar returned to Rome
Four Triumphs were held for him that lasted for ten days Over 300 million sesterce (~$7 billion) were doled out to
his veterans and the population of Rome Caesar used his power to institute numerous
reforms Increased the Senate to 900, filling it with his followers Granted citizenship to his supporters Established colonies of Roman citizens in North Africa,
Gaul, and Spain Pardoned those who opposed him during the civil war Brought in a new calendar based on the Egyptian one
(365 solar days) and renamed the month of Quintilis to Julius, or July
Caesar as Dictator Some were fearful of Caesar’s power
He placed his supporters in positions as high as consul
Many believed that he would try to take the title of king
Dictator Perpetuus Given by the Senate in 44 BCE
Festival of Lupercalia Caesar wanted to find out if the public would accept
him as king Mark Antony, one of Caesar’s co-consuls, attempted
to place a diadem (crown) on top of Caesar’s head When Caesar heard no cheers of support from the
crowd he refused it
Caesar as Dictator Assassination (March 15, 44 BCE)
Put together by a group of leading senators, known as Liberatores
Hooped that the old republican system would return with Caesar’s death
Was lured to the Senate to discuss a petition Instead was stabbed 23 times Involved sixty conspirators, including Marcus
Brutus Caesar chose Gaius Octavius Thurinus
(“Octavian”) as his heir His grandnephew Caesar chose him as his adopted son
Gaius Octavius Thurinus (“Octavian”) (63 BCE - 14 CE)
Octavian (63 BCE – 14 CE) Octavian (63 BCE – 14 CE)
Was serving in Illyria when he heard of Caesar’s death
Rushed back to Rome recruiting some of Caesar’s troops along the way
Also seized funds that were to be used for Caesar’s next campaign
He arrived in Rome on May 6, 44 BCE By this point, most of Caesar’s assassins had been
driven out of Rome Mark Antony had already gained political support
for him
Second Triumvirate Second Triumvirate
Octavian allied himself with Antony and Marcus Lepidus
Lepidus had been commander of Caesar’s cavalry This one was actually legally sanctioned via Lex Titia Allowed them to rule for five years
Their first job was to rid Rome of their opponents They renewed Sulla’s policy of proscription Many of their enemies were killed Including Cicero who had not participated in Caesar’s
assassination but spoke out against Antony numerous times
Second Triumvirate Brutus and Gaius Cassius, the two responsible
for Caesar’s death, escaped They were able to amass an army in the east They were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42
BCE The power of the Triumvirate was now secure
In 40 BCE, the Triumvirate divided the republic into spheres of influence Octavian got the west Antony the east Lepidus got Africa
Second Triumvirate Treaty of Tarentum (38 BCE)
Renewed the Triumvirate for another five years Problems for the Triumvirate
Like its predecessor, this triumvirate was plagued with jealously and instability
Antony wanted to go to war against Parthian Octavian would not send troops to help Antony turned to Egypt for help and fell in love with
Cleopatra Lepidus was accused of trying to seize power in
Sicily in 36 BCE and was subsequently put into exile In 33 BCE, the Triumvirate was not renewed Octavian continued to use the title Triumvir
Mark Antony (83-30 BCE)
Octavian v. Antony Octavian v. Antony
Focused his attention at eliminating Antony Octavian used Antony’s love affair with Cleopatra
for his own propaganda Octavian illegally got a copy of Antony’s will Stated that Antony's children by Cleopatra would
get a good portion of his inheritance Claimed that Anthony was giving away land to the
“whore of the East” Rome was not happy and the Senate declared war
on Cleopatra
Octavian v. Antony Battle of Actium (September 31 BCE)
Octavian’s forces defeated both Antony’s army and navy in Greece
Antony escaped to Egypt but was defeated again in Alexandria
In August 30 BCE, a messenger told Antony that Cleopatra had been captured He committed suicide Cleopatra, who was not captured, killed herself after
hearing the news of Antony’s death With Antony dead, Octavian had sole power for
himself This marks the end of the Roman Republic
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