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WARTON CRAG: RE-APPRAISING AN ‘IRON AGE’ HILL FORT
Kevin Grice with Louise Martin
Abstract
The authors discuss recent research conducted with Morecambe Bay Partnership on the Iron Age
hill fort on Warton Crag. They discuss both the antiquarian and twentieth-century documentary
sources, evaluate the results of recent LiDAR imaging and contrast the different views on the
possible date and function of the monument including modern re-interpretations. They conclude
that its dating may be more complex than previously thought, set out an alternative hypothesis and
suggest further investigations.
General description
Situated 1.5km north of Carnforth, Lancashire, the village of Warton is dominated by Warton Crag,
on top of which there is a monument (at SD 4922 7288) once described by Farrer and Brownbill
(1908, 508) as ‘…situated in a perfect position on a prominent limestone hill…’. It is generally
called an ‘Iron Age hill fort’ and is often connected to the Brigantes (who were the dominant local
tribe in the first century AD) and in particular to their queen Cartimandua whose capital may have
been at Stanwick in North Yorkshire (Haselgrove 2016). The site is defended on three sides by
rocky scarps with steep slopes overlooking the sea to the west, low-lying marshy ground to the
south and the Ingleborough area to the east. The fairly level summit slopes to the north and north-
east. Thick vegetation conceals banks of rough or unworked stone with rubble cores (described
generally as ‘ramparts’) forming three segmented, semi-curvilinear features 40–60 metres apart and
piled up 3 to 7 metres wide and up to 1.3 metres high. These appear to enclose or defend the north-
east and more gently sloping side of the Crag. The inner (southern) and outer (northern) ramparts
are the most substantial, with the former being the best preserved. The area enclosed by the inner
rampart is sub-rectangular measuring about 3.2 hectares (or 7 acres according to Pevsner (Hartwell
and Pevsner 2009, 683) and the area within the outer rampart is about 6 hectares.
The documentary sources
Warton Crag is identified on maps prepared in 1576 for Lord Derby and sent to William Cecil,
different copies of which are now in the British Library (n.d.) and the National Archives (n.d.).
They show only the beacon at the summit, having been prepared regarding defence against Spanish
invasion. Similarly John Lucas (Lucas 1732, 352 & 348) refers only to the beacon as well as to
nearby Fairy Hole Cave (see below). The Crag was the subject of an Enclosure Award in 1740 after
which the ‘Occupation Road’ was built about 200 metres north of the monument on an east–west
alignment and numerous field boundaries were constructed, one of which cuts across the west end
of the outer wall, but without reference to it. Yates (1786) similarly shows the crags which form the
natural outcrop to the south and west as well as the beacon, but nothing else.
The first documentary reference to the monument is in the late eighteenth century. In 1785 William
Hutchinson saw two urns of coarse, poorly baked pottery which were in the possession of Mr.
Jenkinson (see Endnote 1). They had been found separately in circular, conical cairns which were:
...levelled down within his new inclosures on the skirts of Warton Crag. The cairns were
composed of pebble stones foreign to those to be had from the rocky surface of the
adjoining hill and were probably gathered from a stream. Each urn had been found in a
small cist formed of flat stones, covered by a large blue flag. The mouth of each urn,
which contained ashes and burnt bones, was covered with a small flat stone. The urn
illustrated was recovered complete but the other was damaged by the workmen. The
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adjacent grounds at the feet of Warton Crag contain innumerable tumuli of small
dimensions and an oblong feature composed of earth. Many have been opened by Mr.
Jenkinson but nothing was found in them. (Hutchinson 1789, 212)
Jenkinson is named in connection with plots 8, 9, 16 and 17 in the Yealand Conyers Enclosure
Award of 1778 so he was a landowner. Nothing of these items has been seen for many years but
they have been interpreted as Bronze Age cairns, possibly a barrow cemetery. Hutchinson
illustrated his report with a semi-bird’s-eye perspective sketch of the ramparts on Warton Crag and
he included the surviving urn (Figure 1). He associated the encampment with native British
resistance to the Roman conquest, therefore Late Iron Age.
Figure 1 Hutchinson's View of Fortifications on Warton Crag (Society of Antiquaries)
In 1823 Whitaker describes ‘two circumvallations of loose stones’ at ‘Wharton’ (Whitaker 1823
Vol. II, 88) and similarly the first Ordnance Survey (OS) map of 1848 shows only two ‘Old
Ramparts’ (Figure 2). The surrounding area was mostly open rough pasture. This description is
repeated in the OS map of 1891 but the 1913 map shows all three ramparts and describes the
monument for the first time as a ‘Hill Fort’. Later OS maps show it as it is today: the current OL7
Explorer map (2015) simply refers to the monument as a ‘Fort’.
The Victoria County History (Farrer and Brownbill 1908, 508–11) notes that the inner wall appears
to contain a five-foot diameter chamber within its thickness. Possible hut sites are recorded. Pedley
gave the clearest description of the monument prior to recent investigations using modern
techniques (Pedley 1939, 520–7 and Figure 14). He noted the need for ‘artificial defence’ to the
north and concluded that the measures adopted were ‘certainly sufficient’. He noted that, as at
Ingleborough, dry-stone walling was used without ditches but with a different building technique,
including a double facing to the inner wall. He stated that the entrances were simple, with the three
ramparts used in ‘an interesting way to complicate this vulnerable spot’ and thought that the
defences implied ‘a large garrison’. Pedley had no doubt that it was a Brigantian site. Forde-
Johnston (1962 and 1976) describes the fort in similar terms, noting the discovery of huts, barrows
and pottery. He also considered it to be Iron Age.
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Figure 2 Ordnance Survey Map, 1848
The site was scheduled on 30 November 1925 with the most recent amendment being on 3 March
1994 under reference number 1007633 (Historic England 1994). The listing describes the site as a
small multi-vallate hillfort of Iron Age date. The entry goes on to note that within the enclosure
were the boulder foundations of three sub-rectangular huts constructed against a long low rock
escarpment. Immediately outside the inner rampart a further two hut foundations were located
against the same escarpment. To the south, below the main summit of the Crag, faint traces of a
bank and ditch had recently been observed along the edges of a limestone shelf. The alleged oval
tumuli (burial mounds) observed by antiquarian sources to the north of the outer rampart were not
evident as earthworks but it was thought that they might survive as buried remains, perhaps
including any deep burial pits. The summit cairn was noted as of modern construction, as was the
beacon for the 1988 ‘Armada 400’ celebrations.
The monument was flagged in the Arnside and Silverdale AONB Statutory Management Plan in
2009 as being in need of conservation management (Arnside and Silverdale AONB 2009) and it
was visited by a Field Investigator in late 2009 to determine the feasibility of archaeological survey
(Jecock 2009). During this survey elements of both the inner and outer ramparts were located
although no trace of the middle rampart was found. No other internal features were seen although
the ground conditions made survey extremely difficult. The site has appeared in all the Heritage at
Risk Registers for the North West from 2012, described as unsatisfactory with major localised
problems (Historic England 2012). It was part of Elsworth’s analysis of hillforts around Morecambe
Bay, being noted as relatively extensive and having multiple banks (Elsworth 2014, 57).
Adjacent sites
Two adjacent sites and their finds require consideration. Dog Holes Cave is about half a mile west
of Warton Crag summit. It was excavated extensively by Jackson between 1907 and 1912 (Jackson
1909, 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913). The work showed early occupation from the Pleistocene (as
evidenced by the remains of animals such as Irish elk, Siberian vole and Arctic lemming) into the
Neolithic and later. There was a Group 4 polished axe, flint flakes and an antler pick (all Neolithic),
Later Neolithic and Beaker pottery from the Bronze Age of c. 2000BC onwards, first-century AD
Samian ware and fragments of coarse black ware, hand-made and without ornamentation. Other
finds included iron and bronze objects, notably being ‘a blue and red enamelled bronze pendant or
fibula’ and ‘a pair of beautifully patinated bronze scale pans and beam, the pans being decorated on
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the interior with the dot and circle design’, all dateable to between the first and third centuries AD.
There were the usual animal remains, a weaving comb from red-deer antler and a small iron sickle.
The remains of about a score of human beings were unearthed together with a faunal assemblage
(now lost), again dated by Jackson to the Neolithic, although recent examination of the human
remains (now at Lancaster City Museum) suggests they are more modern. All the Roman-era finds
were interpreted by Jackson as domestic in nature although he considered the earlier finds to be
sepulchral with the dead being buried during the Bronze Age (Jackson 1911, 479). These later items
have also been interpreted more recently by others as sepulchral or votive in character (Shotter
1973, 1995). Similar finds were made by Jackson in Fairy Hole Cave (Jackson 1910) and, without
the pottery or human remains, at Badger Hole Cave, both on the flanks of Warton Crag about half a
mile or so from the summit.
In the early nineteenth century the remains of an iron sword with bronze hilt/pommel and
fragmentary copper-alloy scabbard/sheath were found near Warton Crag. It is now in the British
Museum (Registration Number 1857,0223.1). The precise location of its discovery is unclear. The
Lancashire County Archaeology Service Site and Monuments Record (LCASMR), referring to
Kemble (1863 192–3 and Plate), states that it was found near the fortress on Warton Crag.
However, the British Museum database says that it was purchased from Mr S. Pratt of Bond Street
(presumably a dealer) and his Register quotes a label, now lost: ‘Found under a heap of stones at
Wooton near Lancaster. David Campbell, M.D.’. The archaeologist John Garstang reviewed the
evidence in 1906 and gave the provenance as ‘Warton’ and this has been adopted ever since. Pedley
(1939, 520) says that the sword came ‘from this site’ i.e. Warton Crag hill fort. Probably its owner
was connected in some way with the hilltop enclosure.
The date of the sword is uncertain. Pedley (1939, 520) states that it is of the La Tène IV period and
the LCASMR similarly states that the find is classifiable as of the Brigantian type (Group IV)
dateable to c. AD 45–125 referring to Piggott (1950, 17–21, 27 and map at 23). The British Museum
adopts the classification of Piggott Group IV but adds that it is in La Tène Type II/III which places
it between 200 BC and AD 100. It is certainly similar to a sword-pommel found at Brough in 1875
which is now in Tullie House Museum in Carlisle (Cowen 1937) and which is dated from the
Brigantian era of the first century AD. A La Tène decorated bronze fragment was also found in
1907 at Stone Walls, a ‘Romano-British’ settlement near Skelmore Heads near Urswick (see
below). The Warton sword is therefore probably of first century AD origin.
The traditional view of the monument’s date and function
The structures on Warton Crag are most commonly referred to as Iron Age, particularly of the first
century AD and associated with the Brigantes and their queen Cartimandua. The high-status
Brigantian sword and scabbard may support this traditional dating theory, as may the pottery and
other items from that era in the nearby caves. Pedley had no doubt that the site was of the Roman
period, concluding: ‘The evidence is too slight to indicate very reliably the range of occupation in
the Roman period; only the Samian ware has been definitely dated and this proves an occupation at
the beginning of that period.’ (Pedley 1939, 526). He notes the absence of money, personal
ornaments and luxuries, so confirming the paucity of the culture and explains the presence of the
bronze balances as part of the loot from a raid on a neighbouring Roman site. The Brigantian
connection is referred to in many local guides to the area (for example Arnside and Silverdale
AONB 2010, 10). Otherwise the site is described as Iron Age (Lancashire Wildlife Trust 2003).
This is unsurprising because most British hill forts were primarily constructed during the Iron Age,
with only a few dating to the Late Bronze Age. However, the ethnologist James Forde-Johnston
(1976, 103) noted that some Iron Age hill forts had been built close to earlier Bronze Age barrows.
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He thought it possible that this was for defensive protection from the ‘sacred associations of the
burial place’. This would apply to Warton Crag also, if the antiquarian evidence about burial sites
set out above is accepted. Further he also noted that about a third of the Iron Age hill forts in
England and Wales were multi-vallate as at Warton Crag. He thought they were constructed as
defensive positions and Cunliffe’s belief that they were defensive settlements is in part supported by
Warton Crag’s location, size and fortification although there is no evidence for obviously
contemporary hut circles (Cunliffe 2009).
A modern revision
In the last 50 years this interpretation has come under scrutiny. In 1962 Clare Fell (Fell 1962, 346)
argued that Warton Crag Hill Fort might be contemporary with the final phase of the development
at Skelmore Heads (see below) and, without assigning to either a precise date or era, she noted the
finding of the Warton sword pommel and hilt from the first century AD. She was prophetic as the
re-assessment began in earnest in Denise Kenyon’s The Origins of Lancashire (1991). She notes the
line of forts on the north side of Morecambe Bay from Millom to Castlestede (Hornby), including
Warton Crag; that they are located at the upland-lowland interface for optimum access to lowland
arable soils and upland pastures; that at Warton shellfish and sea fish would have supplemented the
diet; and that all are on the east (or lee) side for protection from westerlies.
In 1902 six bronze axe heads were found at Skelmore Heads. They have been identified as Early
Iron Age Sompting-type socketed axes of 800–600 BC (Boughton 2018). A Late Bronze Age hoard
including three gold lock rings was recently found in a hollow covered with a large stone just below
the hill fort at Skelmore Heads (Noon 2018, 13). These finds may be of significance in the dating of
Warton Crag’s monument. This is because there was a small excavation at Skelmore Heads in the
1950s that revealed the remains of a palisaded hilltop settlement succeeded by a hill fort whose
northern limits are marked by a defensive ditch and bank with perhaps some timber revetment to
secure it (Powell 1963). Kenyon argues that the siting of the forts may have been related to the trade
routes for Langdale stone axes along the Irish Sea littoral to the Ribble estuary (Kenyon 1991, 31).
These axes were being traded widely by 2,500 BC and this could make Warton Crag a place of high
significance as a look-out point in the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. By the Late Bronze Age,
around 750 BC, the climate had deteriorated, storms were more frequent and so there was a greater
need to stay near the shore. Sea levels will have been a little higher (Sturt et al. 2013 Figure 6).
Harding (2004) notes the relationship of the forts at Skelmore Heads, Castle Head and Warton Crag
and, believing that the Late Bronze Age finds at Skelmore Heads may be contemporary with the
fort, argues that all three were built in that era. Evans (2004, 124) suggests that Skelmore Heads has
much earlier origins than previously thought and Hoaen and Loney (2004, 48) more specifically
adopt the beginning of the first millennium BC as the start date of its occupation. The current view
is perhaps best encapsulated by Hodgson and Brennand (2006, 52) – ‘…few hilltop sites can be
securely dated to the Iron Age in the northern part of the region.’
Barrowclough (2008; 2010) argues that sites like Warton Crag (which he describes as a defended
hilltop settlement) arose alongside a general resurgence in activity along the northern coast of
Morecambe Bay as evidenced by analyses of metalwork distributions from the Late Bronze Age
(920–750 BC) and Early Iron Age (750–510 BC). Barrowclough (2008, 180) considers that such
sites were by default assumed to be classic Iron Age monuments whereas in fact they originate
earlier – Late Bronze Age or at the latest Early Iron Age. He notes the lack of ‘developed hillforts’
in the region but emphasises the concentration around Morecambe Bay (Barrowclough 2010, 194).
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Denwood is similarly receptive to the possibility that the fort could be Neolithic or Bronze Age in
origin although the drawing by John Hodgson (Denwood 2014, 14) of how the fort at Warton Crag
might have looked, which was originally prepared for a Lancashire Wildlife Trust pamphlet (2003),
appears more Brigantian than earlier, having regard to the stone bases of the huts.
Dan Elsworth (Elsworth 2014, 52–8 and Fig 1) also notes the inter-relationship of the sites around
Morecambe Bay given their inter-visibility and the domination by Ingleborough of the eastern view
from many of them including Warton Crag. He similarly concludes that, where evidence is
available, most have earlier origins than previously supposed.
The 2016 LiDAR survey and field investigations
Warton Crag has changed dramatically since the early twentieth century – less grazing since the
1950s and now a thick vegetation canopy. The site was placed on Historic England’s Heritage At
Risk Register. Attempts by the Historic England (English Heritage) team to survey from the ground
and with traditional aerial photography have been thwarted by this dense vegetation. The site was
mapped from the air in 2013 as part of the Upland Pilot Project within English Heritage’s National
Archaeological Identification Survey (Oakey et al. 2015) but the identification of features was poor.
Accordingly, LiDAR technology (Light Detection and Ranging – see Endnote 2) was proposed as
part of Morecambe Bay’s Landscape Partnership Scheme ‘Headlands to Headspace’ (H2H). LiDAR
can discover sites normally hidden under tree cover. However, the data available for Warton Crag
was collected only at 2-metre intervals and did not show the site with sufficient clarity. In 2014,
Morecambe Bay Partnership was awarded a grant of £1.9 million by the Heritage Lottery Fund to
deliver the H2H Scheme, part of which was to record and conserve some of the most significant
heritage sites around the Bay. Warton Crag is one of the key sites in the portfolio of projects,
needing improved understanding and site management. In February 2016, Bluesky International
was commissioned to undertake a very detailed LiDAR survey at 25cm intervals, funded by the
H2H Scheme, with a significant contribution from Historic England. The LiDAR data for Warton
was received in March 2016 and the teams processed the data, creating a Digital Terrain Model
(Figure 3) where the vegetation is removed giving a clear view of the ground. Clear images of the
site were obtained by David Ratledge.
Aerial-survey experts from Historic England’s Historic Places Investigation Team also processed,
interpreted and mapped the newly flown LiDAR (Figure 4) along with historic aerial photographs
and maps of the site. This team commented that the new LiDAR survey had given the ‘clearest view
of the monument yet, with the survey clearly revealing the enclosure, defined by three circuits of
bank’ (Evans, Jecock and Oakey 2017). A hollow in the middle of the enclosure is enigmatic and its
date and function remain unknown. It may have collected or stored fresh water, because the site
lacks a natural spring or other source of fresh water. More recent activity was identified, including
medieval or post-medieval stock enclosures and extensive limestone quarrying. The data collected
is contributing to the knowledge, understanding and management of this important site. However,
there is still much more to discover about what is beneath the trees.
The White Cross Archaeology Group, a voluntary group led by archaeologist John Trippier,
independently undertook an extensive Level 1 survey of the monument between 2014 and 2016.
The photographic dataset coupled with co-ordinates of features (c. 5m accuracy) and feature
descriptions were undertaken as part of the Atlas of Hillforts Project (Lock and Ralston 2017). The
findings and the dataset were shared with Morecambe Bay Partnership and Historic England.
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Figure 3 2016 LiDAR Processed Digital Terrain Model (DTM) looking east (copyright David
Ratledge)
Figure 4 Warton Crag 2016 LiDAR Processed Digital Terrain Model (DTM) with archaeological
interpretation by Historic England (copyright Historic England).
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Warton Crag was also targeted for follow-on ground investigation by Historic England’s Historic
Places Investigation Team (Evans, Jecock and Oakey 2017) using the LiDAR data to guide a walk-
over survey and field assessment of the monument. The LiDAR survey was used to locate
archaeological features, often obscured by dense vegetation (Evans, Jecock and Oakey 2017, 20).
The team mapped the features identified using a Global Navigation Satellite System device, which
located features, identified to between 1 and 5m accuracy. Their report combines the aerial survey,
LiDAR and field-survey data and considers the historic evidence. It concludes that it is clear that
Warton Crag is not an Iron Age hill fort nor an enclosure constructed with defensibility as its main
consideration (Evans, Jecock and Oakey 2017, 43). The authors consider it is far more credible that
it was a kind of meeting place for local communities, probably constructed and used in the final
centuries of the second millennium BC.
An alternative dating hypothesis
Might both arguments as to the date of Warton Crag Hill Fort be correct?
There was clearly extensive use of the area surrounding Warton Crag in the Neolithic and
particularly the Bronze Age, as evidenced by the finds detailed above. The height above sea level of
Warton Crag (163m) is significantly greater than either Skelmore Heads (105m) or Castle Head
(20m) but it has some similarities with each in terms of size, particularly if only the smaller area
enclosed by the middle rampart is considered. It is much nearer sea level and smaller than
Ingleborough or Carrock Fell, which would be large, seasonal inland tribal centres. It seems likely
that Warton Crag was occupied as a defensive enclosure in the Bronze Age given that other less
suitable places were so developed. Kenyon, Barrowclough and others are probably right in finding
its origins in this period.
It is reasonably likely that the site was used as a look-out by the Brigantes in the first century AD in
view of the finding of the sword and scabbard. The finding of Samian ware and other items from
the same period in nearby caves forming part of the same outcrop appears to support this
proposition. Warton Crag would have formed a perfect place from which to monitor commercial
and other activity in the area including the sea route for trade north. The absence of specifically
Roman finds suggests that the Brigantes would have been the occupiers rather than the Romans
themselves. Pedley’s theory (Pedley 1939, 527) that the bronze scales were the product of a raid by
a tribe on a nearby Roman settlement is an attractive one. When hostilities commenced in this area
between the Brigantes and the Romans after AD 70, the same site could equally fulfil a defensive
purpose if sufficiently robust.
This analysis of the development of the site is consistent with the interpretation by Tom Mace and
Dan Elsworth (of Greenlane Archaeology) of Castlesteads Hill Fort on the summit of The Helm
near Oxenholme (Mace and Elsworth 2012, 10; Elsworth 2014). This is only about 11 miles from
Warton Crag but shares the similarity of being atop a prominent geological feature, unlike those
around the northern shore of Morecambe Bay itself, particularly Castle Head. The authors
(following detailed measured survey but without excavation) hypothesize a sequence of
development at Castlesteads beginning with a timber palisade of Bronze Age or earlier origin
followed by construction in the Early Iron Age of outer ramparts on the north side (which
themselves may not have been constructed in a single event). These features combined with the
naturally steep slopes of The Helm to the east, west and south would have formed a roughly oval
enclosure on the summit. In the Late Iron Age or Romano-British period smaller earthworks were
built inside this original enclosure with possible small hut circles then added within.
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At Warton Crag the underlying limestone would have made erection of a timber palisade difficult if
not impossible so I believe a simple, modest stone structure was initially raised, perhaps along the
line of the present middle rampart, which is clearly less substantial than those inside and outside it.
This was then developed, used and re-used with the incorporation of the other, more extensive,
ramparts in a similar sequence to Castlesteads, the occupation again concluding in the Romano-
British period of the first century AD. However dating the Warton Crag structure based upon
structures and finds elsewhere cannot be definitive. The above is based upon examples where no or
only limited excavation has taken place and without modern expertise and dating techniques.
Conclusion
The Historic England Report (Evans, Jecock and Oakey 2017, 43) concludes: ‘The date of the
monument will only finally be determined (if at all) by excavation.’ Along with core sampling this
may yet provide a final answer but until then the debate as to its date and function will continue. We
should also respect the quality of Hutchinson’s depiction of the site in 1785 (Figure 5).
Figure 5 Comparison of Figures 1 (Hutchinson 1785) and 4 (LiDAR 2016, Historic England)
Acknowledgements Our thanks are due to all at Morecambe Bay Partnership and the Heritage Lottery Fund for giving the
community the opportunity to carry out this research. Morecambe Bay Partnership would like to thank the
landowners and tenants (Leighton Hall, Lancashire Wildlife Trust and the RSPB) for permitting the aerial
survey. The contributions of Arnside and Silverdale AONB Partnership, Historic England, the White Cross
Archaeology Group, Dan Elsworth, Bill Shannon and David Ratledge are gratefully acknowledged.
Endnotes
1.Hutchinson was a solicitor in Barnard Castle and a keen antiquary who published on the history of Durham
and Cumberland as well as topographic works on northern England generally. His Warton Crag findings
were first given in a letter to a fellow solicitor, George Allan, in January 1788 which was communicated to
the Society of Antiquaries (of which they were both members) in November 1788 and published in their
journal in 1789. He visited the area at the invitation of Robert Gibson who owned local copper mines and
was shown the encampment by Jenkinson, a local schoolmaster and also an antiquary.
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2 LiDAR uses an aircraft-mounted laser to record landscapes in 3D and can be used to discover and record
archaeological features. One of its advantages is that the data can be processed to ‘see through’ trees and
vegetation.
Author profiles
Kevin Grice is a Morecambe Bay Community Archaeology Volunteer, retired lawyer, Secretary of Kendal
Historical and Archaeological Society and a member of the Council of the Cumberland and Westmorland
Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. He has a particular interest in the prehistory of Cumbria and North
Lancashire. Email: [email protected].
Louise Martin is the Morecambe Bay Partnership’s Cultural Heritage Officer. She is an archaeologist who
graduated from the University of Bradford in 1996. She delivers the Partnership’s cultural heritage projects,
including the Heritage-Lottery-Funded Headlands to Headspace Landscape Partnership Scheme (H2H). A
major element of the Scheme was to take forward research on sites identified as ‘at risk’ such as Warton
Crag, alongside engaging with and training members of the community in historical and archaeological
research. Email: [email protected].
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