2014
Deborah S. Thompson
Boise State University – MET
Program
12/12/2014
Waldrop Farms Homeowners Association
Program Evaluation Completed By:
ThomDeSco Consulting Firm, Inc.
0123 Consulting Blvd
Atlanta, Ga. 30303
Page 1 of 15 EdTech-505: Deborah S. Thompson
Table of Contents SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 2
PROGRAM OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................ 3
Program Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 3
Program Components ................................................................................................................................ 3
EVALUATION METHOD .......................................................................................................................... 4
Participants ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Procedures ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Data Sources ............................................................................................................................................. 8
RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................. 10
PROJECT COST ........................................................................................................................................ 10
APPENDIX A: Interview Questions........................................................................................................... 11
APPENDIX B: Property Management Transition Checklist ...................................................................... 12
APPENDIX C: Board Past Decision-Making ............................................................................................. 13
APPENDIX D: Invoice for Payment .......................................................................................................... 15
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SUMMARY Waldrop Farms, a covenant community, located just 15 miles east of downtown Atlanta, Ga.
The community has 92 homes and is managed by a Homeowners Association (HOA). The HOA
is managed by a Board of Directors (4 volunteers who live in the community). The operation of
the Board of Directors, has been in existence since 2002, and is defined as a non-profit
organization called Waldrop Farms Homeowner’s Association Inc. The non-profit organization
is responsible for managing and maintaining the overall community. However, over the past few
years, the Board of Directors has experienced internal issues. Therefore, a request was made to
solicit the assistance of a program evaluator. The program evaluation’s role is to identify the
organizations current state; expected outcomes; and recommend solutions.
The purpose of this report is to provide Waldrop Farms HOA – Board of Directors with a
recommended solution that should resolve lingering internal organization issues and hopefully
rebuild the trust of all homeowners within the community. During the initial stages of this
evaluation, the evaluator chose to follow the program cycle (Missions/Goals; Needs Assessment;
Program Planning; Formative Evaluation; Summative Evaluation). The evaluation began by
identifying missions and goals of the organization. Once mission & goals were identified, a
detailed needs assessment was performed. During the needs assessment phase, the evaluator
documented organization goals; the current state of the organization; and the desired future state.
The needs assessment was followed by program planning. During the program planning phase,
the evaluator documented action plans to accomplish each goal. Throughout each phase,
meetings were held to provide formative evaluations.
The overall evaluation was very beneficial to everyone involved. The results, however, proved
the Waldrop Farms HOA – Board of Directors needed to make critical changes in the following
areas: (Financial Documentation Management, Financial Reporting; Defined Board Roles &
Responsibilities; HOA Dues Management, Defined Rules & Regulations; on-time Bill Payment;
Filing Income Taxes).
EVALUATION FINDINGS
GOALS CURRENT STATE (Area of Improvement)
Financial
Management
Financial documentation is not properly maintained and therefore is not
always available to support income and expenditures
Financial Reporting No annual financial statements or operating budgets provided to the
community
Roles &
Responsibilities
Board members have never reviewed roles & responsibilities for each
position
Checks and Balances No defined checks and balances exist to reduce conflicts of interest or
unethical behavior/conduct
HOA Dues Some homeowners do not pay dues because of internal issues that exist on
the Board of Directors
Rules & Regulations A rules and regulations document does not exist
Monthly Bills Board members lacks skills and/or time to properly manage monthly bills
Income Taxes Since 2003, the Board of Directors have not filed Income Taxes for the
HOA
Communication Board does not communicate with homeowners in a timely manner
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PROGRAM OVERVIEW Waldrop Farms is a covenant community that consists of 92 homes which is managed by a
Homeowners Association (HOA). Each homeowner, who signed a deed during their home
closing process, is considered to be a member of the HOA and is expected to abide by the rules
and regulations as defined in the covenant and bylaws. The Homeowner’s Association is
managed by a Board of Directors (a team of 4 volunteers who live in the community). The
operation of the Board of Directors, has been in existence since 2002, and is defined as a non-
profit organization called Waldrop Farms Homeowner’s Association Inc.
The purpose of the WF Homeowners Association, Inc. is to provide for the enforcement of the
protective covenants; the collective maintenance of community property; beautification of the
subdivision’s grounds, amenities and homes; civic awareness and social outlets and any other
purposes consistent with maintaining a healthy, harmonious and prosperous communal
environment.
However, for the past several years, the Executive Board for Waldrop Farms HOA has been
experiencing internal issues. Therefore, the Board of Directors agreed that the HOA program
needed to be evaluated in order to identify areas in need of improvement along with possible
resolutions.
Program Objectives
As a non-profit organization that is responsible for managing the operations of the Waldrop
Farms Community, there are specific goals and objectives that must be accomplished. Below is
a list of goals/objectives the Board of Directors must adhere to per the covenant & bylaws.
Financial Management Plan, direct, organize, monitor and control the financial resources of the HOA
Maximize Community profits and minimize expenses
Financial Reporting
Provide timely and accurate Financial Statements and Operating Budgets
Roles & Responsibilities
Each board member must adhere to the duties of his/her position as defined in the
covenant & bylaws
Homeowners Dues
Collect annual homeowner dues by following the process defined in the covenant &
bylaws
Communication
Provide timely and informative communication to homeowners
Program Components
The Waldrop Farms Homeowners Association (HOA) must choose to operate under provision of
the Georgia Property Owners Association Act (Article 44-3-220) of the Georgia State Code.
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Therefore, the Board of directors is expected to provide various services to the community and
abide by a defined set of rules and regulations defined in their covenant and bylaws.
EVALUATION METHOD
For the Waldrop Farms HOA evaluation project, the evaluator is also a staff member and
actively participated in the overall evaluation process. Therefore, the evaluator chose to utilize
the transaction model. This model allowed the evaluator to combine monitoring with process
evaluation through a continuous back-and-forth between evaluator and staff. As a result of using
the transaction model, the evaluator was able to incorporate the qualitative. The qualitative
technique was implemented throughout most phases of the evaluation. During the initial phase,
the evaluator made firsthand observations to understand the present situation. Afterwards, the
evaluator collected qualitative data using different data sources.
Participants
Waldrop Farms is a medium-sized community. Considering the organization is an HOA, the
evaluation participants were assigned categories.
Category One: Board of Directors
Because the Board of Directors manages the overall operation of the HOA, they were selected to
be the main participants. For this evaluation, each position on the board is equally important
and everyone participated in the data collection process. The Board of Directors consists of 4
team members which are:
1. President
The President supervises the executive affairs of the HOA and makes an annual report to the
general membership.
2. Vice-President
The Vice-President shall assume direct supervision over the responsibility and functions of
the committees assigned by the President. This role performs other duties and assumes the
role of President in his/her absence.
3. Secretary
The Secretary is the recording officer of the association and custodian of its records. This
individual keeps a record of all proceedings of the Association, keep on file all committee
reports, and to keep the association’s membership rolls.
4. Treasurer
The Treasurer shall receive and disburse all funds of the Association and supervise a standing
committee assigned by the President. The Treasurer pays all bills on order by the Executive
Board. In addition, the Treasurer bill members for their dues and maintain a ledger of each
member’s account.
Category Two: Members in the Community
There are a total of 92 homes in the Waldrop Farms Community and each homeowner is a
member of the HOA. Based on the covenant & bylaws, the board of directors is responsible for
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providing services to the community. Therefore, during the initial stage of the evaluation, a
letter was mailed (via USPS) to inform each homeowner about the evaluation. Also, to gain
insight regarding how satisfied homeowners were with services provided by the Board of
Directors, an optional online survey was provided. Refer to the “Results section” for survey
questions.
Procedures
To evaluate the Waldrop Farms HOA, the evaluator chose to follow the program life cycle. The
evaluation began by first evaluating the HOAs covenant & bylaws to identify missions and
goals. After ascertaining an understanding of the organizations missions & goals, each member
of the Board was interviewed to ascertain different perspectives regarding areas of concern. A
one-on-one interview was conducted with the President, Vice-President, Treasurer, and
Secretary. The same list of questions was asked during each interview and the results were
documented for further review. During the interviewing sessions, members identified different
concerns and some appeared to be very frustrated with the overall operation of the HOA. It was
apparent, from the interviews, a high level of tension and divisiveness existed between board
members. As a result, this behavior had a negative impact on the community. This type of
behavior was not normal and the evaluator assumed it may be a contributor to the issues and
problems that needed to be resolve. Refer to Appendix A for interview questions.
During the needs assessment phase of the HOA evaluation, the evaluator noticed a change in the
attitudes of board members. Board members were beginning to realize how the evaluation
would be very beneficial to the HOA organization. This change of attitude had a positive impact
on the overall evaluation process.
Needs Assessment
Second, a needs assessment was performed to determine the actual need for the program and
how vital it is to the customers. Using the covenant & bylaws as a base, the evaluator
documented all tasks the board is required to perform for the community. The results of this
information were used to document high-priority goals that should serve as the FUTURE
STATE of the revised program/organization. Also, the evaluator held community and board
meetings to discuss the current state of the organization and areas of improvement. After
reviewing the results of community/board meetings, bank statements/emails, and
interviews/surveys, the evaluator documented the CURRENT STATE of the organization.
Below is a summary of the organization’s high-priority goals; current state; and desired outcome.
GOALS CURRENT STATE (Area of
Improvement)
DESIRED/FUTURE STATE
Financial Management Financial documentation is not
properly maintained and therefore is
not always available to support
income and expenditures
At year-end have all required
documentation to support income and
expenditures in order to produce timely
year-end financial statements and budget
reports
Financial Reporting No annual financial statements or
operating budgets provided to the
community
Annually, provide timely financial
statements and an operating budget to all
homeowners
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GOALS CURRENT STATE (Area of
Improvement)
DESIRED/FUTURE STATE
Roles & Responsibilities Board members have never reviewed
roles & responsibilities for each
position
All board members fully understand the
responsibilities for each board position
Checks and Balances No defined checks and balances exist
to reduce conflicts of interest or
unethical behavior/conduct
All board members adhere to a defined set
of checks and balances.
HOA Dues Some homeowners do not pay dues
because of internal issues that exist on
the Board of Directors
Have 100% of homeowners pay dues on
time within the next 2-3 years
Rules & Regulations A rules and regulations document
does not exist
Complete a rules & regulations document
that is approved & adhered to by all board
members
Monthly Bills Board members lacks skills and/or
time to properly manage monthly bills
Hire a Property Management Company to
manage HOA monthly bills
Income Taxes Since 2003, the Board of Directors
have not filed Income Taxes for the
HOA
Have all back taxes, (2003-2013), filed by
end of year 2015. Also file 2014 taxes by
end of year 2015.
Communication Board does not communicate with
homeowners in a timely manner
Provide HOA updates to the community
once per quarter (minimum 4 times per
year)
Program Planning
Third, the evaluator performed the program planning phase to determine the means for achieving
previously selected goals. Below are a summary of activities to achieve stated goals and
objectives.
GOALS GAP ACTION PLAN
Financial Management &
Reporting
Board members lack
skills to properly manage
finances
Hire a Property Management Company to manage the
financial operations of the organization. This includes
creating and distributing required financial reports to
the community on a yearly basis.
Roles & Responsibilities Roles & Responsibilities
for each board position
are not documented
Create a document that explains specific roles and
responsibilities for each board position. Review and
discuss position requirements at board meeting to
ensure everyone understands and accepts their role.
Checks and Balances To prevent conflict of
interest, specific
guidelines for checks and
balances are not defined
Create a document that defines all scenarios that
constitutes a conflict of interest within the
organization. Create a process that must be adhered
to when performing duties that require funds (making
purchases, selecting contractors etc.)
HOA Dues Board leaders do not have
a process in place to
follow-up with
homeowners who are
delinquent paying dues
Hire a Property Management Company to manage
homeowner HOA dues process
Rules & Regulations No document exist that
defines specific rules and
regulations the board
members & homeowners
must adhere to
Create a Rules & Regulations document that defines
specific guidelines that must be adhered to. Review
& discuss document at board meeting to receive
approval and sign-off from all members
Monthly Bills Board Treasurer and other In addition to defining roles & responsibilities, each
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key leaders do not review
and discuss monthly bills
at board meetings
board member will be responsible for managing a
specific area within the organization. For example: a
member will be responsible for one of the following:
(upkeep of the community; foreclosed homes;
reviewing monthly bills etc.)
Income Taxes Board have not looked for
a CPA to file taxes
Hire a CPA to file 2003-2014 taxes for the HOA
Communication The Board does not
exercise open
communication with the
community
Establish guidelines that require the Board to have
one HOA Community meeting per quarter. This is a
minimum of 4 HOA Community meeting per year.
Program Implementation
The program evaluation for Waldrop Farms Community - HOA began in Jun-2014. After 6-
months of collecting, reviewing, and analyzing information, one of the action plans is ready for
implementation. However, all other action plans are currently a work-in-progress. Below is an
update on the implementation process for the defined action plans.
1. Hire a Property Management Company to manage financial operations
In Sept-2014, the evaluator and other board members began the search for a reputable HOA
Property Management Company (PMC). Two neighboring communities recommended the
PMC that manages their community. The Board scheduled a meeting with both PMC’s to
discuss the needs of Waldrop Farms and learn about services they provide. After careful
review of the PMC’s proposal, in Oct-2014, Waldrop Farms sign a 1-year contract with
Dekalb Property Management Company. Since Oct-2014, the evaluator and members of the
Board have been working diligently to gather financial information required by the PMC. As
of Dec-2014, Waldrop Farms officially completed the transition process and will be managed
by a Property Management Company starting 1-Jan-2015. Refer to Appendix B for the
Property Management Company Transition Checklist.
2. Create a Roles and Responsibilities document
In Dec-2014, the evaluator met with board members to begin the process of creating a roles
and responsibilities document. By 31-Dec-2014, a document will exist that clearly explains
the roles and responsibilities of all board positions. Therefore, this action plan is scheduled
to be implemented in Jan-2015.
3. Create a Conflict of Interest document
In Jan-2015, the evaluator will begin the process of working with board members to create a
conflict of interest document. By 31-Jan-2015, a document will exist that clearly define
scenarios that constitute a conflict of interest. Therefore, this action plan is scheduled to be
implemented in Feb-2015.
4. Create a Rules & Regulations document
In Jan-2015, the evaluator will begin the process of working with board members to create a
Rules & Regulations document. The first version of this document is scheduled to be
completed by 31-Jan-2015. However, after 31-Jan-2015, the evaluator will turn this
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document over to a board member. The assigned board member will be responsible for
updating the Rules & Regulations document.
5. Hire a CPA to manage Income Tax filing
In 2015, the hired PMC will utilize services of their in-house CPA to file 2014 Income
Taxes. The Board will also need to work with the CPA to file all back taxes (2003- 2013).
This activity will be implemented by Apr-2015.
6. Improve Communication with homeowners
In Jan-2015, the evaluator and board members will have an HOA Community meeting. The
HOA Board hopes to begin the New Year by updating the community with pertinent
information in a timely manner.
Formative / Summative Evaluation
Throughout the evaluation, HOA Board meetings were held twice a month to review and discuss
the evaluation process. During these meetings, formative evaluations were held. The formative
evaluation consisted of reviewing and discussing all information gathered during each phase of
the evaluation lifecycle. Each board member was responsible for providing feedback on the
evaluations progress. This feedback was used to determine if changes needed to be made to
certain or all components of the evaluation process.
A summative evaluation will be implemented for each action item once the procedures and
methods are fairly stable and no changes are required.
Data Sources
For the program evaluation, qualitative data was collected using the following data sources.
Observations: During the initial phase, firsthand observations were performed to understand the
present situation of the HOA organization. During board meetings, the evaluator sat and
observed the following characteristics while board members discussed HOA issues: (body
language; tone of voice; attitude; willingness to cooperate; candidness etc.). Through
observation, the evaluator was able to collect personality/character data about each board
participant. Throughout the evaluation, all board members were willing to participate when
asked to provide ideas and suggestions. However, when actual work/research had to be done to
find out information, board members were reluctant to get involved. It appeared that board
members would rather someone else do the work. The evaluator strongly believes that board
members must be more active in performing tasks. Hopefully, members will be more responsive
and take ownership of assigned tasks once roles and responsibilities are clearly defined.
Survey: An online survey was available to allow homeowners to answer questions regarding the
HOA and Board of Directors. The optional survey was available to homeowners for a 3-week
period.
Bank Statements: The evaluator reviewed all bank statements from 2012-2014. Information
from bank statements was used to create financial income & expense statements for 2012-2014.
The income & expense statements provided a visual financial picture of how the board managed
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funds over the past 2-3 years. The financial statements were also provided to the new Property
Management Company.
Invoices: The evaluator searched through all emails to review paid invoices for the past 2-years.
This information was used to determine estimates on the 2015 Operating Budget. This data was
also collected, documented and provided to the new Property Management Company.
RESULTS
The primary data source for the Waldrop Farms evaluation was a survey for homeowners to
complete. The results of the survey were not very positive. After reviewing and discussing the
survey results, it allowed the evaluator and board members to come to a mutual agreement that
changes needed to be made to improve how the Board of Directors are managing the operations
of the HOA.
Survey
Total Homeowners: 92
No# of homeowners who participated in Survey: 47
No# of homeowners who did not participate in Survey: 45
SURVEY QUESTIONS YES NO DON’T CARE
Do you have concerns about the operations of the HOA
Board
38 4 5
Do you understand what the Board does 6 34 7
Do you receive timely board communication 0 47 0
Do you receive timely financial reports 0 47 0
Do you have concerns about how the HOA funds are used 38 6 3
Do you pay your annual dues 39 8 0
If no to the above (annual dues) question, is it because of
the operations of the Board
7 0 1
Do you attend community meetings 25 22 0
Do you believe information presented at community
meetings is informative
13 12 22
Have you considered volunteering on the HOA board 6 41
Interviews
Total Board Members: 4
Total Board Members participated in Interviews: 4
Total Homeowners: 92
Total Homeowners who participated in Interviews: 10
Bank Statements
Total Bank Statements Reviewed: 30
Year 2012: 12
Year 2013: 12
Year 2014: 06
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Invoices
Total Supplier/Vendor Invoices Reviewed: 9
DISCUSSION
In May-2014, it was brought to the attention of the evaluator that the Board of Directors was
experiencing internal issues. These internal problems were having a negative impact on the
management and operations of the HOA. Therefore, the purpose of the Waldrop Farms HOA
evaluation is to: identify the organizations current state; areas of improvement; and expected
outcomes.
The results of the evaluation allowed the evaluator and board members to see the actual problems that exist. After identifying the problems and identifying solutions, the board can
begin the process of implementing the recommended changes.
The one thing that stood out throughout the evaluation is: The community continues to vote the
same leader (President) in office although this is the second time the Board has experience a
setback under this Presidents leadership. The evaluator communicated this concern to Board
Members (including the President) and made recommendations regarding the Presidents
decision-making skills. Refer to Appendix C for a summary of poor decision making performed
by the President.
The overall evaluation went very well. Needless to say it took a great deal of work to gather the
necessary information. But now that the evaluation is nearing the end, the following
recommendations were made to improve the management and operations of the HOA.
1. Hire a Property Management Company to manage the financial aspects of the business
2. Define specific job descriptions for each board position and assign tasks to each position.
The job description document can be used to hold board members accountable for tasks.
3. Create a Rules & Regulations document that must be adhered to by current and future board
members. This document will be used as a guideline when certain decisions need to be
made. Once this document is finalized, updates can only be made with approval from all
board members.
4. Create a check and balance process to identify areas considered to be a conflict of interests
and/or unethical behavior
PROJECT COST
The evaluation project for Waldrop Farms HOA began in May-2014 and lasted for 7-months. A
daily rate of $500 was charged throughout the life of this project. The evaluator worked a
minimum of 30 hours per week. Refer to Appendix D for Customer Invoice.
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APPENDIX A: Interview Questions
Board Members
1. How long have you volunteered on the board
2. When did you first notice problems on the Board of Directors
3. What type of problems have you observed
4. Do you believe changes need to be implemented
5. Do you believe other board members are committed to doing what is best for the
community?
6. What areas within the organization do you believe needs to be evaluated
7. Do you plan to continue volunteering on the Board
8. Do you have any suggestions for improvement? Is so, what?
9. Explain the duties/responsibilities of your board position
10. Since you have been on the board, have there been any discussions at board meetings to
address what each board position does
11. Do board members review financial records at each board meeting
12. Do you know who maintains supporting documentation for finances
13. Can you give me an example of a situation that you would consider to be a conflict of
interest
14. Is there a ‘Rules & Regulations’ document to provide guidance to the community and
board
Community / Homeowners
1. Are you pleased with the performance of the HOA Board of Directors
2. What areas within the HOA are you displeased with
3. Are there any changes you would like to suggest for the HOA
4. Are you willing to participate on the Board
5. Would you rather have the Board of Directors hire a Property Management Company
6. When was the last time you received a financial statement and/or operating budget from
the Board
7. How many HOA Community meetings have you attended over the past 2 years
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APPENDIX B: Property Management Transition Checklist
NO# ITEMS LISTED IN HERITAGE EMAIL
1 Income Tax Return (2012 & 2013)
2 HOA Federal Tax ID#
3 Startup funds to open Association's Operating Account at BB&T
4 Owner Property Address List
5 Bank Statements (2013 & 2014)
6 Monthly Balance Sheet Statements (2013 & 2014)
7 Monthly Income Expense Statement (2013 & 2014)
8 Operating Budget (2014)
9 Assessment Information
a) Assessment Amount
b) Assessment Frequency
c) Late Fee and Interest
d) Due Date
e) Late Date
f) Collections/Lien Information
g) Initiation fee / Capital Contribution
h) Special Assessments (if applicable)
i) Payment Options (if applicable)
j) Loan Information (if applicable)
10 Delinquency Report & Prepaid Report thru end of month (if applicable)
11 Copies of Paid Invoices
12 Copies of Checks
13 Deposit History (2013/2014)
14 General Ledger Transaction History (January - November 30, 2014)
15 Homeowner Payment History
16 Vendor Information (contracts, vendor history etc.)
17 HOA Copy of Insurance Policy (with contact information)
18 Recorded Documents
a) Covenant & Bylaws
b) Rules & Regulations
19 Plats, Site Maps
20 Heritage Property Set-up Form
21 P.O. Box Address and Owner
22 List of Board Members
23 A/R History Payment Record
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APPENDIX C: Board Past Decision-Making
Past actions taken by President that HAVE NOT BEEN beneficial to the Board or Community
1. Making decisions apart from Board Meeting (where all members are engaged)
Sending delinquent homeowners to attorney (without having board discussions)
Not following-up with attorney regarding delinquent account (overcharged by
attorney)
Requesting community landscaping services (before discussing needs with board
members)
A landscaping company has provided services for community (over 5 years) and the
board does not know the exact amount that is charged. Board has never requested a
yearly contract - listing a breakdown of cost and services
Past President and Treasurer making critical decisions (apart from the board)
Unauthorized payments to the President (Not approved by Community)
Not providing community with 2-3 quotes when selecting contractors / suppliers
2. Making decisions that are definitely a conflict of interest and/or unethical
Giving treasurer permission to maintain front entry floral (without board approval)
Giving treasurer authority to write checks to herself (signed by President)
Signing blank checks
Giving treasurer permission to repair front entry fence (without board approval)
Writing and signing checks to various board members (without proper
documentation)
Unethical handling of Community Day funds and Front Entry fence repair funds
3. Being Reactive vs. Pro-Active
When a homeowner notices a problem in community, if it is not an emergency that
needs to be addressed ASAP, the issue should be brought before the board. An
example of an emergency would be (squatters in a vacant home, water leak at front
entry etc.). In my opinion, a light that is out at the front entry is not an emergency.
4. Overall Management of the HOA
This is a business that is still performing critical tasks manually
No Financial Statements or Budget Reports
Bank Account (too many names on checking account)
Tracking homeowner dues, Finances (no accountability), no online banking, bank
deposit documentation not available etc.
Inadequate payment history for homeowner dues (No follow-up letters for unpaid
dues)
The President approaches homeowners regarding annual dues and /or infractions (in
lieu of mailing letter)
Board members lack key skills to operate and manage the HOA
No Check and Balance process exist
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Payment of bills (not ALL board members know what has to be paid and how the
funds are distributed).
Monthly Financial Statements are not reviewed at board meetings.
Unauthorized names left on HOA accounts (Ga. Sec. of State, Bank account etc.)
Hand-delivering information to homeowners (in lieu of mailing)
Infraction Notices (Board needs to exercise fairness when distributing infraction
citations. The President exercises unfair practices.
No income taxes filed since inception of the HOA Board
5. Bias Treatment of some homeowners (need to be non-bias in ALL decision making)
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APPENDIX D: Invoice for Payment
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