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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?RodneyHarrison
Thischapterintroducestheconceptofheritageandexaminesitsvarioususesincontemporarysociety.Itthenprovidesabackgroundtothedevelopmentofcriticalheritagestudiesasanareaofacademicinterest,andinparticularthewayinwhichheritagestudieshasdevelopedinresponsetovariouscritiquesofcontemporarypoliticsandcultureinthecontextofdeindustrialisation,globalisationandtransnationalism.DrawingonacasestudyintheofficialdocumentationsurroundingtheHarryS.TrumanHistoricSiteinMissouri,USA,itdescribestheconceptofauthorisedheritagediscourses (AHD)insofarastheyareseentooperateinofficial,state-sanctionedheritageinitiatives.Wheretheotherchaptersinthebookcontainsubstantialcasestudiesaspartofthediscussionofthedifferentaspectsofthepoliticsofheritage,thischapterfocusesinsteadonkeyconcepts,definitionsandideascentraltounderstandingwhatheritageis,andonheritagestudiesasafieldofinquiry.Thechaptersuggeststhatcriticalheritagestudiesshouldbeconcernedwiththeseofficiallysanctionedheritagediscoursesandtherelationshipsofpowertheyfacilitateontheonehand,andthewaysinwhichheritageoperatesatthelocallevelincommunityandidentitybuildingontheother.Itprovidesanumberofexplicitideasandreferencepointstowhichtheauthorsoftheotherchapterswillreturnthroughthecourseofthebook.
IntroductionThischapterbeginswithtwophotographs:apictureoftheGreatBarrierReefinAustralia(Figure1.1)andapictureoftheMirCastlecomplexinBelarus(Figure1.2)Thephotographsappeartoshowverydifferenttypesofplace,inlocationsthatarewidelygeographicallyspaced.Oneoftheseisanaturalplace,theotherishumanlymade(abuilding,albeitaverygrandone).Inwhatwaysmightwecharacterisethesimilaritiesbetween thetwoplaces?Whatqualitiescanwefindthatlinkthem?Although theyareverydifferent,bothoftheseplacesareconsidered tobeheritage,indeedWorldheritage,andbotharelistedontheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)WorldHeritageList.Laterinthisbook(Chapter4)TheWorldHeritageListandtheorganisationthatrunsit,theInternationalCouncilonMonumentsandSites(ICOMOS),willbediscussedinmoredetail.Thisfirstchapterconcentrateson
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
6
A bird s-e ye vie w of the lin e ofth e ree fst re tch ingd ia go na llyu p ward s fro mthe lo wer le ftco rn er of the ph oto gra ph .A bo ve isa vis ta of po ols an dsa nd ba nks, w ith a cha nn elcr oss in git rig htt o left ,st re tch ing in toth e dist an ce .Th ere isa sma llc lu ster of ple asu re bo ats moo red byt h ee dge of th ere ef, an da no the rb oa ta littl e furt he ra way.
Figure1.1 TheGreatBarrierReef,WhitsundayCoast,Queensland,Australia.PhotographedbyWalterBibikow.Photo:JonArnoldImagesLtd/Alamy.
thewaysinwhichthesetwoverydifferententities, intwoverydifferentplaces,canbothbeunderstoodasheritage.TheGreatBarrierReefistheworldsmostextensivestretchofcoralreef.Thereefsystem,extendingfromjustsouthoftheTropicofCapricorn tothecoastalwatersofPapuaNewGuinea,comprisessome3400individualreefs,including760fringingreefs,whichrangeinsizefromunder1ha toover10,000haandextendformorethan2000kmofftheeastcoastofAustralia.TheGreatBarrierReefincludesarangeofmarineenvironmentsandformations,includingapproximately300coralcaysand618continentalislandswhichwereoncepartofthemainland.Thereefishometoanumberofrareandendangeredanimalandplantspeciesandcontainsover1500speciesoffish,400speciesofcoral,4000speciesofmolluscand242speciesofbirdsplusalargenumberofdifferentsponges,anemones,marinewormsandcrustaceansandothermarineinvertebrates.Thereefincludesfeedinggroundsfordugongs,severalspeciesofwhalesanddolphins,andnestinggroundsofgreenandloggerheadturtles(UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWorldConservationMonitoringCentre,2008).
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
A summer day peo ple a rein sh irt sle eve s w ith larg e cro wd sa rou nd th emass ive co mple xo fM irC ast le.T h eca stl ea pp ears to b ere sid en tia lra the rth an d efe nsiv e, bu iltr ou nd asq u are en clo sed co urt ya rd, wit hch u nk ysq ua re bast io ns att he co rne rss urmo un ted byo ct ago n alto w erst o ppe d bys qu ats pir es. In th efo re gro un d,o n the ed ge of the gra ss an db esid e the pa th ,ve nd ors off er pict ure s and so uve nir sf or sale .
Figure1.2 TheMirCastlecomplex,RepublicofBelarus,2003.Unknownphotographer.Photo:UllsteinBildRussianPictureService.TheMirCastlecomplexissituatedonthebankofasmalllakeattheconfluenceoftheriverMiryankaandasmalltributaryintheGrodnoRegionofwhatisnowknownastheRepublicofBelarus.ThecastlewasbuiltinthelatefifteenthorearlysixteenthcenturyinastylethatarchitectsfamiliarwiththeformittookincentralEuropewouldrecogniseasGothic. It was subsequentlyextendedandreconstructed,firstinRenaissanceandtheninBaroquestyles.ThecastlesustainedseveredamageduringNapoleonsinvasionofRussiain1812andwasabandonedasaruin.Itwassubsequentlyrestoredattheendofthenineteenthcentury,atwhichtimethesurrounding
parklandreceivedextensive landscaping.MirCastleisconsidered tobeanexceptionalexampleofacentralEuropeancastle,reflectinginitsdesignandlayoutsuccessiveculturalinfluences(Gothic,RenaissanceandBaroque)aswellasthepoliticalandculturalconflicts thatcharacterise thehistoryoftheregion(UNESCO,2008).Whatmakestheseplacesheritage?Andwhatmakesthempartoftheworldsheritage?Theprocessofnominatingaplacefor inclusionontheWorldHeritageListinvolvesanassessmentofthewaysinwhichaplacemeetsa
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
particularsetofcriteriaforinclusion.Thisargumentisdevelopedbyabodyrepresentingthesovereignstateoftheterritoryinwhichthesiteexistsandissubmittedtoacommitteeinchargeofassessingthenominations(seefurtherdiscussioninChapter4).Althoughitwouldbepossibletolookindetailatthecriteriaforinclusion,andatthevaluesimplicitinthecriteria,itisclearthatthesesitesaredefinedasheritagebythesheerfactthattheyhavebeenclassifiedassuchthroughinclusiononaheritageregister.Thisprocessbywhichanobject,placeorpracticereceivesformalrecognitionasheritageandisplacedonaheritageregistercanbetermedanofficialheritageprocess.Onceplacesbecomestatutoryentitiesandarerecognisedasbelongingtoheritagebytheirinclusiononanofficialheritagelist,theyarecreatedasofficialheritageandsubjecttoaseriesofassumptionsabouthowtheymustbetreateddifferentlyfromotherplaces.Forexample,officialheritageplacesmustbeactivelymanagedandconserved,andthereisanexpectationthatfundingmustbeallocatedtothemsothatthiscanoccur.Althoughbothoftheseplacesarerecognisedthroughtheir listingasbelongingtotheworldsheritage,theyhavearangeofdifferentmeaningsforthelocalpeoplewhointeractwiththemonaneverydaybasis.Forexample,theBarrierReef,whichisunderstoodtobeWorldHeritageonthebasisofitsbiodiversityandrecreationalvalues,isasourceofsustenance, livelihoodandspiritual inspirationfor themanydifferentgroupsofIndigenousAustralianswholivealongtheQueenslandcoastline.Theywouldtraditionallyunderstandtheirrelationshipwiththereefasoneofcustodianshipand therighttocontrolaccess,hunt,fishandgatherinitsenvirons.ClearlythereefspromotionasaWorldHeritagesiteimplies thatitisowned(at leastculturally)notonlybylocalpeoplebutalsobytheworldcommunity.Sothereisthepotentialforarangeofdifferentwaysofrelatingto,understandingthesignificanceof,andgivingmeaningtoheritageobjects,sitesandpractices.Thisrangeofvaluesofheritagemaynotbewellcateredforwithintraditionalwesternmodelsofheritageandofficialdefinitionsofheritage.In thiscase,suchdifferencesmaygiverisetoconflictoverwhohastherighttodetermineaccessandmanagementofdifferentpartsofthereef.Indeed,inmostcasestheofficialandthelocalwouldbethoughtofascompetingformsofheritage.Heritageitselfisadynamicprocesswhichinvolvescompetitionoverwhoseversionofthepast,andtheassociatedmoralandlegalrightswhichflowfromthisversionofthepast,willfindofficialrepresentation inthepresent.Thisbriefexampleembodiesthetwointer-relatedunderstandingsofheritagethatformthecentralfocusofthisbook:thelargelytopdownapproachtotheclassificationandpromotionofparticularplacesbythestateasanembodimentofregional,nationalorinternationalvalueswhichcreatesofficialheritage;andthebottomuprelationshipbetweenpeople,objects,placesandmemorieswhichformsthebasisfor thecreationofunofficialformsofheritage(usually)atthelocal level.Criticalheritagestudies, inits
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
mostbasicsense,involvesthe investigationofthesetwoprocessesandtherelationshipbetween them.Heritagestudies isanexcitingnewinterdisciplinaryfieldof inquirywhichdrawsonarangeofacademicdisciplinesandskillsincludinghistory,archaeology,anthropology,sociology,arthistory,biology,geography,textualanalysisandvisualdiscrimination, tonamebutafew.Theaimofthisbookistoformanintroductiontoheritageasaglobalconcept,andcriticalheritagestudiesasafieldof inquiry.
Whatisheritage?TheOxfordEnglishDictionarydefinesheritageaspropertythatisormaybeinherited;aninheritance,valued thingssuchashistoricbuildingsthathavebeenpasseddownfrompreviousgenerations,andrelatingtothingsofhistoricorculturalvaluethatareworthyofpreservation.Theemphasisoninheritance
and
conservation
is
important
here,
as
is
the
focus
on
property
,
thingsorbuildings.So(according totheOxfordEnglishDictionary,anyway),heritageissomethingthatcanbepassedfromonegenerationtothenext,something thatcanbeconservedorinherited,andsomethingthathashistoricorculturalvalue.Heritagemightbeunderstood tobeaphysicalobject:apieceofproperty,abuildingoraplacethat isable tobeownedandpassedontosomeoneelse.Inadditiontothesephysicalobjectsandplacesofheritagetherearealsovariouspracticesofheritagethatareconservedorhandeddownfromonegenerationtothenext.Languageisanimportantaspectofwhoweunderstandourselves tobe,anditislearnedandpassedfromadult tochild,fromgenerationtogeneration.Theseinvisibleorintangiblepracticesofheritage,suchaslanguage,culture,popularsong,literatureordress,areasimportantinhelpingustounderstandwhoweareasthephysicalobjectsandbuildingsthatwearemoreusedtothinkingofasheritage.Anotheraspectofthesepracticesofheritageisthewaysinwhichwegoaboutconservingthingsthechoiceswemakeaboutwhattoconservefromthepastandwhattodiscard:whichmemoriestokeep,andwhichtoforget;whichmemorialstomaintain,andwhichtoallowtobedemolished;whichbuildingstosave,andwhichonestoallowtobebuiltover.Practicesofheritagearecustomsandhabitswhich,althoughintangible,informwhoweareascollectives,andhelptocreateourcollectivesocialmemory.Weuseobjectsofheritage(artefacts,buildings,sites,landscapes)alongsidepracticesofheritage(languages,music,communitycommemorations,conservationandpreservationofobjectsormemoriesfromthepast)toshapeourideasaboutourpast,presentandfuture.Anotherwayofthinkingaboutthisdistinctionbetweenobjectsofheritageandpracticesofheritageistoconsider thedifferentperspectives throughwhichheritageisperceived.Foreveryobjectofheritagetherearealsoheritage
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practices.Howeveronegroupofpeople(say,professionalheritagemanagers)respondtoheritage,otherpeoplemayresponddifferently.Thus,aroundanobjectofheritage,theremaybevaluejudgementsbasedoninherentqualities(whichmayindeedplayadeterminingroleindesignatingtheobjectandconservingit),buttheremaywellbeothervalueswhichdrivetheuseoftheobject(associationsofpersonalornationalidentity,associationswithhistory,leisureetc.,asintheexampleofdesignationofHarryS.TrumansotherwisehumbledwellingasaNationalHistoricSitediscussed later inthischapter).Foreveryobjectoftangibleheritagethereisalsoanintangibleheritage thatwrapsarounditthelanguageweusetodescribeit,forexample,oritsplace insocialpracticeorreligion.Objectsofheritageareembeddedinanexperiencecreatedbyvariouskindsofusersandthepeoplewhoattempttomanagethisexperience.Ananalogoussituationexistsintheartworldinunderstandingaesthetics.Thereisnoartwithoutthespectator,andwhatthespectator(andcritic)makesoftheartworksitsalongsidewhattheartistintendedandwhatofficialculturedesignatesinadiscursiveandoftencontestedrelationship.Soinadditiontotheobjectsandpracticesofheritagethemselves,wealsoneedtobemindfulofvaryingperspectives, or subjectpositionsonheritage.ThehistorianandgeographerDavidLowenthalhaswrittenextensivelyontheimportantdistinctionbetweenheritageandhistory.Formanypeople,thewordheritageisprobablysynonymouswithhistory.However,historianshavecriticisedthemanyinstancesofrecreationofthepastintheimageofthepresentwhichoccurinmuseums,historichousesandheritagesitesthroughouttheworld,andhavesoughttodistance themselvesfromwhattheymightcharacteriseasbadhistory.AsLowenthalpointsoutinTheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory,heritage isnothistoryatall:itisnotaninquiry intothepast,butacelebrationofit...aprofessionoffaithinapasttailoredtopresent-daypurposes(Lowenthal,1997,p.x).Heritagemustbeseenasseparatefromthepursuitofhistory,asitisconcernedwiththere-packagingofthepastforsomepurposeinthepresent.Thesepurposesmaybenationalisticones,asdiscussedinChapters3and4ofthisbook,oroperateatthelocal level,forexampleinthecaseofthelocalKenyanmuseumdiscussedin thecasestudyinChapter7.Heritagealsohasaseriesofspecificandclearlydefinedtechnicalandlegalmeanings.Forexample,thetwoplacesdiscussedearlier inthischapteraredelineatedasheritagebytheirinclusionontheWorldHeritageList.AsJohnCarman(2002,p.22)notes,heritageiscreatedinaprocessofcategorising.Theseplaceshaveanofficialpositionthathasaseriesofobligations,bothlegalandmoral,arisingfromtheir inclusiononthisregister.AsplacesontheWorldHeritageList theymustbeactivelyconserved,theyshouldhaveformaldocumentsandpoliciesinplacetodeterminetheirmanagement,andthereisanassumptionthattheywillbeable
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
tobevisitedsothattheirvaluestoconservationandtheworldsheritagecanbeappreciated.Therearemanyotherformsofofficialcategorisation thatcanbeappliedtoheritagesitesatthenationalorstatelevel throughout theworld.Indeed,heritageasafieldofpracticeseems tobefulloflists.Theimpulsewithinheritagetocategorise isanimportantaspectofitscharacter.Themomentaplacereceivesofficialrecognitionasaheritagesite,itsrelationshipwiththelandscape inwhichitexistsandwiththepeoplewhouseitimmediatelychanges.Itsomehowbecomesaplace,objectorpracticeoutsidetheeveryday.Itisspecial,andsetapartfromtherealmofdailylife.Evenwhereplacesarenotofficiallyrecognisedasheritage,thewayinwhichtheyaresetapartandusedintheproductionofcollectivememoryservestodefinethemasheritage.Forexample,althoughitmightnotbelongonanyheritageregister,alocalsportsarenamightbethefocusforcollectiveunderstandingsof
alocal
community
and
its
past,
and
amaterialisation
of
local
memories,
hopesanddreams.Atthesametime,theprocessoflistingasiteasheritageinvolvesaseriesofvaluejudgementsaboutwhatisimportant,andhenceworthconserving,andwhatisnot.Thereisadialecticalrelationshipbetweentheeffectoflistingsomethingasheritage,anditsperceivedsignificanceandimportance tosociety.Someauthorswoulddefineheritage(oratleastofficialheritage)asthoseobjects,placesandpracticesthatcanbeformallyprotectedusingheritagelawsandcharters.Thekindsofheritagewearemostaccustomedtothinkingaboutinthiscategoryareparticularkindsofobjects,buildings,townsandlandscapes.Onecommonwayofclassifyingheritageistodistinguishbetweenculturalheritage(thosethingsmanufacturedbyhumans),andnaturalheritage(thosewhichhavenotbeenmanufacturedbyhumans).Whilethisseemslikeafairlyclear-cutdistinction,itimmediatelythrowsupaseriesofproblemsindistinguishingthesocialvaluesofthenaturalworld.ReturningtotheexampleoftheGreatBarrierReefdiscussedearlierinthischapter,fortheIndigenousAustralianswhosetraditionalcountryencompassesthereefandislands,thenaturalworldiscreatedandmaintainedbyculturalactivitiesandceremoniesinvolvingsomeaspectsofintangibleactionsuchassonganddance,andothermorepracticalactivitiessuchascontrolledburningofthelandscapeandsustainablehuntingandfishingpractices.ItwouldobviouslybeextremelydifficulttocharacterisethesevaluesofthenaturallandscapestoIndigenousAustraliansusingasystemthatdividesculturalandnaturalheritageandseesthevaluesofnaturallandscapesasbeingprimarilyecological.Heritageisinfactaverydifficultconcepttodefine.Mostpeoplewillhaveanideaofwhatheritageis,andwhatkindsofthingcouldbedescribedusingthetermheritage.Mostpeople, too,wouldrecognise theexistenceofanofficialheritagethatcouldbeopposedtotheirownpersonalorcollectiveone.For
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example,manywouldhavevisitedanationalmuseuminthecountryinwhichtheylivebutwouldrecognisethattheartefactscontainedwithinitdonotdescribeentirelywhattheywouldunderstandastheirownhistoryandheritage(seealsoChapters6and7).Clearly,anyattempttocreateanofficialheritageisnecessarilybothpartialandselective.Thisgapbetween,ononehand,whatanindividualunderstands tobetheirheritageand,ontheotherhand,theofficialheritagepromotedandmanagedbythestateintroducesthepossibilityofmultipleheritages.Ithasbeensuggestedearlierthatheritagecouldbeunderstoodtoencompassobjects,placesandpracticesthathavesomesignificanceinthepresentwhichrelates tothepast.In2002duringtheUnitedNationsyearforculturalheritage,UNESCOproducedalistoftypesofculturalheritage(UNESCO,n.d.).Thisisonewayofdividingandcategorisingthemanytypesofobject,placeandpracticetowhichpeopleattributeheritagevalue.Itshouldnotbeconsideredanexhaustive
list,
but
it
gives
asense
of
the
diversity
of
things
that
might
be
consideredtobeofficialheritage:l culturalheritagesites(includingarchaeologicalsites,ruins,historic
buildings)l historiccities(urbanlandscapesandtheirconstituentpartsaswellas
ruinedcities)l culturallandscapes(includingparks,gardensandothermodified
landscapessuchaspastorallandsandfarms)l naturalsacredsites(placesthatpeoplerevereorholdimportantbutthat
havenoevidenceofhumanmodification,forexamplesacredmountains)l underwaterculturalheritage(forexampleshipwrecks)l museums(includingculturalmuseums,artgalleriesandhousemuseums)l movableculturalheritage(objectsasdiverseaspaintings,tractors,stone
toolsandcamerasthiscategorycoversanyformofobjectthat ismovableandthatisoutsideofanarchaeologicalcontext)
l handicraftsl documentaryanddigitalheritage(thearchivesandobjectsdeposited in
libraries, includingdigitalarchives)l cinematographicheritage(moviesandtheideastheyconvey)l oraltraditions(stories,historiesandtraditionsthatarenotwrittenbut
passedfromgenerationtogeneration)l languagesl festiveevents(festivalsandcarnivalsandthetraditions theyembody)l ritesandbeliefs(rituals,traditionsandreligiousbeliefs)l musicandsong
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
l theperformingarts(theatre,drama,danceandmusic)l traditionalmedicinel literaturel culinary traditionsl traditionalsportsandgames.Someofthetypesofheritageareobjectsandplaces(physicalormaterialheritage)whileothersarepractices(intangibleheritage).However,manyofthesecategoriescrossbothtypesofheritage.Forexample,ritualpracticesmightinvolveincantations(intangible)aswellasritualobjects(physical).Soweshouldbecarefulofthinkingofthesecategoriesasclearcutordistinct.Inaddition,this listonlyincludesculturalheritage.Naturalheritageismostoftenthoughtaboutintermsoflandscapesandecologicalsystems,but itiscomprisedoffeaturessuchasplants,animals,naturallandscapesandlandforms,oceansandwaterbodies.Naturalheritageisvaluedforitsaestheticqualities,itscontributiontoecological,biologicalandgeologicalprocessesanditsprovisionofnaturalhabitatsfortheconservationofbiodiversity.Inthesamewaythatweperceiveboth tangibleandintangibleaspectsofculturalheritage,wecouldalsospeakof thetangibleaspectsofnaturalheritage(theplants,animalsandlandforms)alongsidetheintangible(itsaestheticqualitiesanditscontributiontobiodiversity).Anotheraspectofheritageistheideathatthingstendtobeclassifiedasheritageonlyinthelightofsomeriskoflosingthem.Theelementofpotentialorrealthreattoheritageofdestruction, lossordecaylinksheritagehistoricallyandpoliticallywiththeconservationmovement.Evenwhereabuildingorobjectisundernoimmediate threatofdestruction,itslistingonaheritageregisterisanactionwhichassumesapotentialthreatatsome timeinthefuture,fromwhichitisbeingprotectedbylegislationorlisting.Theconnectionbetweenheritageandthreatwillbecomemoreimportant inthelaterpartofthischapter.Heritageisa termthatisalsoquiteoftenusedtodescribeasetofvalues,orprinciples,whichrelatetothepast.So,forexample,itispossibleforafirmofestateagentstousethe terminitsnamenotonly tomeanthatitmarketsandsellsheritageproperties,butalsosimultaneously to invokeaseriesofmeaningsabouttraditionalvalueswhichareseenasdesirable inbuyingandsellingproperties.Wecanalsothinkhereaboutthevalueswhichareimplicitinmakingdecisionsaboutwhattoconserveandwhatnottoconserve,inthechoiceswemakeaboutwhatwedecidetolabelheritageandwhatviewassimplyoldoroutdated.Thesevaluesare implicitinculturalheritagemanagement.
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
Governments,heritageregistersandthe canonOneaspectofunderstandingheritageisappreciatingtheenormousinfluenceofgovernmentsinmanagingandselectivelypromotingasheritagecertainaspectsofthephysicalenvironmentandparticular intangiblepracticesassociatedwithculture.Oneway inwhichgovernmentsareinvolved inheritageisthroughthemaintenance,fundingandpromotionofcertainplacesastouristdestinations.Wearealsoremindedhere,forexample,ofthemanywaysinwhichgovernmentsandnationsareinvolvedinthepreservationoflanguageasawayofpreservingheritageandculture.Languageispromotedandcontrolledbygovernments throughofficiallanguagepolicieswhichdetermine thestate languageandwhichoftenspecifycertaincontrolsontheuseoflanguagesotherthanthestatelanguage.Forexample,inFrance, theToubonLaw(Law94-665,whichcameintoforcein1994andisnamedfortheministerofculture,JacquesToubonwhosuggestedandpassedthe lawthroughtheFrenchparliament)specifiestheuseoftheFrenchlanguageinallgovernmentpublications,printadvertisements,billboards,workplaces,newspapers,state-fundedschoolsandcommercialcontracts.WemightalsothinkofthesuggestionbyFrenchpresidentNicolasSarkozy(president2007)in2008thatthecorrectmethodsforpreparingclassicitemsofFrenchcuisinemightbeconsideredforprotectionaspartoftheUNESCOWorldHeritageList.Atthetimeofwriting,thenominationisstillinpreparationforpresentationtotheUNESCOWorldHeritageCommittee.Inadditiontosuchpolicieswhichensurethepreservationofintangibleaspectsofculturalheritage,governmentsplayamajorroleinthemaintenanceandpromotionof listsordatabasesofheritage.Mostcountrieshaveanationalheritagelistofphysicalplacesandobjectswhichare thoughttoembodythevalues,spiritandhistoryof thenation.Inaddition,governmentsmayhavemulti-layeredsystemsofheritagewhichrecogniseahierarchyofheritageplacesandobjectsofnational,regionalandlocalsignificance.Theselists(andindeed, theWorldHeritageListdiscussedearlier)mightbe thoughtofasoffshootsoftheconceptofthecanon. The word canonderivesfrom theGreekwordforaruleormeasure,andthetermcametomeanthestandardbywhichsomethingcouldbeassessed.Theideaofacanonofworksofartdevelopedintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiestodescribeabodyofartistic
works
that
represent
the
height
of
aesthetic
and
artistic
merit
works
ofartjudgedbythosewhoarequalifiedinmattersoftasteandaestheticstobegreatworksofart.Similarly,a literarycanondescribesthosewritersandtheirworksthataredeemedtobegreat literature.Thecanonisaslipperyconcept,asitisnotdefinedspecifically,butthroughaprocessofpositioningthecanonisrepresentedbythoseworksofartthatareheldinartgalleriesandmuseumsanddiscussedinartbooks,andthoseworksofliteraturethatarecitedinliteraryanthologies.
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Whenwestarttothinkofalistofheritageasasortofcanonitraisesanumberofquestions.Whoarethepeoplewhodeterminewhatisonthelistandwhatisnot?Whatvaluesunderliethejudgements thatspecifywhichplacesandobjectsshouldberepresented?Howdoweassesswhicharethegreatheritageobjectsandplacesandwhicharenot?Howdoescreatingsuchalistincludeandexcludedifferentmembersofsociety?Itisnowwidelyrecognisedthattheideaofacanonislinkedcloselywiththatofnation(Mitchell,2005),andthatcanonsmightbeunderstoodtorepresentideologicaltoolsthatcirculatethevaluesonwhichparticularvisionsofnationhoodareestablished.Creationofaclassofthingsthatareseentobethegreatestexpressionsofculture
promotes,inturn,narrativesaboutthesetofvaluesthatareseentobethemostworthyinthepreservationofaparticularformofstatesociety.Theheritagelist, likethe literaryorartisticcanon,iscontrolledbyputtingthepowertoestablishthecanonintothehandsofexpertswhoaresanctionedbythestate.It
is
important
to
point
out
that
heritage
is
arather
strange
kind
of
canon.
It
is
unlike the canon of modern art as it is usually understood, for example, since thecriteriathatconstituteitarediverseratherthanunified.Modernartisdefinedbycurrentcanonsoftasteandthesecreateseparatecanonsfordifferentideologies,suchasafeministcanon,orasocialhistoryofartcanon.Thesecanco-exist,buteachmaintainsitsownconsistentidentity.Theheritagecanon,ifmeasuredbytheWorldHeritageList(oranationalheritagelist)finishesupasasinglelist,butonewhichisdeterminedbyawiderangeofconsiderations.Itisalsoimportanttomakethepointthatheritageisfundamentallyaneconomicactivity.This iseasilyoverlookedincriticalapproachesthatfocusontheroleofheritageintheproductionofstateideologies(Ashworthetal.,2007,p.40).Muchofwhatmotivatestheinvolvementofthestateandotherorganisationsinheritageisrelatedtotheeconomicpotentialofheritageanditsconnectionswith tourism.Therelationshipbetweenheritageandtourism isexaminedlaterinthischapter,butitwouldberemisstoneglectamentionhereoftheeconomic imperativeofheritageforgovernments.
ThereisnosuchthingasheritageThefirstpartofthischapterpresentedarangeofdefinitionsofheritagethatderivefromeverydayandtechnicalusesoftheterm.Hereaseriesofapproachestoheritageareintroducedbywayofaparticularacademicdebateaboutheritage.Giventhefocusonpreservationandconservation,heritageasaprofessionalfieldhasmoreoftenbeenaboutdoingthanthinking;ithasfocusedmoreontechnicalpracticesofconservationandprocessesofheritagemanagementthanoncriticaldiscussionofthenatureofheritageandwhywethinkparticularobjects,placesandpracticesmightbeconsideredmoreworthythanothersofconservationandprotection.Butmorerecentlyscholarshave
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beguntoquestionthevalueofheritageanditsroleincontemporarysociety.ArchaeologistLaurajaneSmith,whohaswrittenextensivelyinthefieldofcriticalheritagestudies,writesthereis,really,nosuchthingasheritage(2006,p.11).Whatcouldshemeanbythisstatement?Howcantherebelegislation toprotectheritageifitdoesnot,insomeway,exist?Inmakingthisboldstatement,Smithisdrawingonamucholderdebateaboutheritagethatbegan intheUKduringthe1980s.Thisdebatehasbeenveryinfluentialinformingthefieldofcriticalheritagestudiesasitexiststoday,notonlyintheUK,butthroughoutthepartsoftheworldinwhichwesternformsofheritageconservationoperate,andintheincreasingly largenumbersofnon-westerncountrieswhoareengagedinaglobalbusinessofheritagethrough theroleoftheWorldHeritageListinpromotingplacesofnationalimportanceastouristdestinations.Thenextsectionoutlinesthisdebateandtheideasthathavebothfedintoanddevelopedfromit,asanintroductiontocritical
heritage
studies
as
afi
eldof
academic
research
(this
characterisation
of
thedebateisstronglyinfluencedbyBoswell,1999).Theheritage industryInthelate1980sEnglishacademicRobertHewisoncoined thephraseheritageindustrytodescribewhatheconsidered tobethesanitisationandcommercialisationoftheversionofthepastproducedasheritageintheUK.Hesuggested thatheritagewasastructurelargelyimposedfromabovetocaptureamiddle-classnostalgiaforthepastasagoldenageinthecontextofaclimateofdecline.Hewisonbelievedthattheriseofheritageasaformofpopularentertainmentdistracted itspatronsfromdevelopinganinterest incontemporaryartandcriticalculture,providingtheminsteadwithaviewofculturethatwasfinishedandcomplete(andfirmlyinthepast).HepointedtothewidespreadperceptionofculturalandeconomicdeclinethatbecameafeatureofBritainsperceptionof itselfasanationinthedecadesfollowing theSecondWorldWar:
Inthefaceofapparentdeclineanddisintegration,itisnotsurprisingthatthepastseemsabetterplace.Yetit isirrecoverable,forwearecondemnedtoliveperpetuallyinthepresent.Whatmatters isnotthepast,butourrelationshipwithit.Asindividuals,oursecurityandidentitydependlargelyontheknowledgewehaveofourpersonalandfamilyhistory; thelanguageandcustomswhichgovernoursociallivesrelyfortheirmeaningonacontinuitybetweenpastandpresent.Yetattimesthepaceofchange,anditsconsequences,aresoradicalthatnotonlyischangeperceivedasdecline,butthere isthethreatofrupturewithourpast lives.
(Hewison,1987,pp.435)
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Thecontext inwhichHewisonwaswritingwasimportantinshapinghiscriticismofheritageasaphenomenon.HisbookTheHeritageIndustryisasmuchareflectiononthechangesthatoccurwithinasocietyasaresultofdeindustrialisation,globalisationand transnationalism(inparticular,theimpactofrapidandwidespreadinternalmigrationandimmigrationonthesenseofrootednessthatpeoplecouldexperience inparticularplaces intheUKinthe1980s,andthenostalgiathathesawasaresponsetothissenseofuprootedness)asitisacriticismofheritageitself.HenotedthatthepostwarperiodintheUKcoincidedwithaperiodofgrowthintheestablishmentofmuseumsandinawidespreadsenseofnostalgia,notforthepastasitwasexperiencedbutforasanitisedversionofthepastthatwasre-imaginedthroughtheheritageindustryasautopia,inopposition totheperceivedproblemsofthepresent:
Theimpulse topreserve thepast ispartofthe impulsetopreserve theself.
Without
knowing
where
we
have
been,
it
is
diffi
cultto
know
wherewearegoing.Thepastisthefoundationofindividualandcollectiveidentity,objectsfrom thepastarethesourceofsignificanceasculturalsymbols.Continuitybetweenpastandpresentcreatesasenseofsequenceoutofaleatorychaosand,sincechangeisinevitable,astablesystemoforderedmeaningsenablesus tocopewithbothinnovationanddecay.Thenostalgicimpulseisanimportantagency inadjustmenttocrisis, it isasocialemollientandreinforcesnationalidentitywhenconfidenceisweakenedorthreatened.
(Hewison,1987,p.47)TheacademicPatrickWrighthadpublishedabooksome twoyearsearlierthanTheHeritageIndustry titledOnLivinginanOldCountry(1985).LikeHewison,WrightwasconcernedwiththeincreasingmuseumificationoftheUK,andthewaysinwhichheritagemightactasadistractionfromengagingwiththeissuesofthepresent.Wrightarguedthatvariouspiecesofheritagelegislation thatwereputforwardbytheConservativegovernmentcouldbereadastherevivalofthepatriotismoftheSecondWorldWar,andconnectedthisConservativepatriotism totheeventsoftheFalklandsconflict.LikeHewison,hewasalsocriticalofthetimelessnessofthepresentationofthepastformedaspartofthe interpretationofheritagesites:
Nationalheritageinvolves theextractionofhistoryoftheideaofhistoricalsignificanceandpotentialfromadenigratedeverydaylifeand itsrestagingordisplayincertainsanctionedsites,events,imagesandconceptions.Inthisprocesshistoryisredefinedasthehistorical,anditbecomestheobjectofasimilarly transformedandgeneralisedpublicattention...Abstractedandredeployed,historyseemstobepurgedofpoliticaltension;itbecomesaunifyingspectacle,
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thesettlingofalldisputes.Liketheguidedtourasitproceedsfromsitetosanctionedsite,thenationalpastoccursinadimensionofitsownadimensioninwhichweappeartorememberonlyinordertoforget.
(Wright,1985,
p.
69)
ThesecritiquesofheritageintheUKcentredonthewaysinwhichheritagedistractedpeoplefromengagingwiththeirpresentandfuture.Bothauthorsemployedabreadandcircusesanalogyinarguingthatheritage, likethepopularmedia,wasadiversionwhichpreventedpeoplefromengagingwiththeproblemsofthepresent:
Heritage ...hasenclosedthe latetwentiethcenturyinabelljarintowhichnoideascanenter,and,justascrucially,fromwhichnonecanescape.TheanswerisnottoemptythemuseumsandselluptheNationalTrust,buttodevelopacriticalculturewhichengagesinadialoguebetweenpastandpresent.Wemustridourselvesoftheideathat thepresenthasnothingtocontributetotheachievementsofthepast,rather,wemustacceptitsbestelements,andimproveonthem...Thedefinitionofthosevaluesmustnotbelefttoaminoritywhoareablethroughtheiraccesstotheotherwiseexclusiveinstitutionsofculturetoarticulatetheonlyacceptablemeaningsofpastandpresent.Itmustbeacollaborativeprocesssharedbyanopencommunitywhichacceptsbothconflictandchange.
(Hewison,1987,p.144)We
need
to
pause
to
make
adistinction
between
two
criticisms
of
heritage
whichseemboundtogetherhere.Thereisacriticismoffalseconsciousnessofthepastthepresentationofthepastinaninaccuratemannerwhichcanbecorrectedorremediedbybetteruseofhistoryinheritageinterpretation.Thereisalsoacriticismofnostalgiaandanxietythatmaybeproducedbyanaccurateunderstandingofpasthistoricalevents(worldwars,lossofempireanditsinfluenceetc.)butthatdirectattentionawayfromthefuture.Itneedstobekeptinmindthatnostalgiaisseparatefromfalseconsciousness.Nomatterhowaccuratelyhistoryisrepresentedbyheritage,itcanalwaysbedirectedtowardsparticularends.Theproblemwithofficialformsofheritageisnotsomuchthatitisbogushistorybutthatitisoftendirectedtowardsestablishingparticularnationalnarrativesinreactiontotheinfluenceofglobalisationontheonehand,andthelocalontheother.Wecanseethegrowthofheritageinthesecondpartofthetwentiethcenturyas,atleastinpart,areactiontothewayinwhichglobalisation,migrationandtransnationalismhadbeguntoerodethepowerofthenation-state.Inthisguise,heritageisprimarilyaboutestablishingasetofsocial,religiousandpoliticalnormsthatthenation-staterequirestocontrolitscitizens,throughanemphasisontheconnectionbetweenitscontemporaryimpositionofvariousstatecontrolsandthenationspast.
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HeritageaspopularcultureHewisonspositionwascriticisedbyaseriesofcommentators.TheBritishMarxisthistorianRaphaelSamuelnotedinTheatresofMemory(1994)that thescaleofpopular interestinthepastandtheroleofthatinterestinprocessesofsocialtransformationarguedagainstHewisonsconnectionofheritagewithConservative interests.HecriticisedHewisonsconnectionofheritagewithConservativepoliticalinterests,arguingcogentlythatheritageandthepast hadbeensuccessfully lobbiedasacatch-cryforarangeofpoliticalpositionsand interests; inparticular,heritagehadservedtomakethepastmoredemocratic, throughanemphasisonthe livesofordinary people.Healsosaw therootsofpopularinterestinthepastasstretchingbackfarearlier thanthepoliticaleraofdecline suggestedbyHewison:
Thenewversionof thenationalpast,notwithstanding theeffortsoftheNationalTrust topromoteacountry-houseversionofEnglishness,isinconceivablymoredemocratic thanearlierones,offeringmorepointsofaccess toordinarypeople,andawiderformofbelonging.Indeed,eveninthecaseofthecountryhouse,anewattentionisnowlavishedonlifebelowthestairs (theservantskitchen)whiletheownersthemselves(orthelive-in trustees)areatpainstoprojectthemselvesasleadingprivatelives ordinary peopleinfamily occupation.Familyhistorysocieties,practisingdo-ityourselfscholarshipandfilling therecordofficesandthe localhistorylibrarywithsearchers,havedemocratizedgenealogy,treatingapprenticeshipindenturesasasymbolicequivalentofthecoatofarms,baptismalcertificatesasthatof titledeeds.Theyencouragepeopletolookdownratherthanupinreconstituting theirroots,not toestablishlinkswiththenobleandgreat...
(Samuel,1994,p.160)Samuelwasquicktoemphasiseheritagenotonlyasapotentiallydemocraticphenomenon,butalsotoseeinthesocialpracticessurroundingheritage thepossibilityforpromotingsocialchange.Anadvocateofthepotentiallytransformativepowerofhistory,andoftheroleofheritageinproducingdiversityandscaffoldingmulticulturalism insociety,Samueldescribedheritageasasocialprocess:
Conservation isnotaneventbutaprocess,thestartofacycleofdevelopmentratherthan(oraswellas)anattempt toarrestthemarchoftime.Themerefactofpreservation,evenifitisintendedtodonomorethanstabilize,necessarily involvesawholeseriesofinnovations,ifonlytoarrestthepleasingdecay.Whatmaybeginasarescue
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operation,designedtopreservetherelicsofthepast,passesbydegreeintoaworkofrestoration inwhichanewenvironmenthastobefabricatedinordertoturnfragmentsintoameaningfulwhole.
(Samuel,1994,p.303)ItisdifficulttoarguewithSamuelspointaboutthepopularinterestinheritage,asitiswiththegrass-rootsinvolvementofpeopleandcommunitiesinappealstoconserveparticularformsofheritage.Forexample,SAVEBritainsHeritage,aninfluentialcampaigningbodywhichworkstoconserveBritisharchitecturalheritage,wasformedasadirectresultofthepublicreactiontotheexhibitionTheDestructionof theCountryHouseheldat theVictoriaandAlbertMuseum(V&A)ofdecorativeartsanddesignin1974.However,itisnotreallyenoughtosaythat itwasformed inresponse topublicoutcryweneedtothinkaboutwhothispublicis.Inthiscase,itisprobablyfairtosaythatthepublicwhoattendedtheexhibitionattheV&Awerewelleducated,middle-classpeoplewithaninterestinarchitecture.Butthisphenomenonofthemovementofheritageintothepublicsphereasaformofpopularentertainmentoutsideofthemuseumandintopublicspacescautionsagainstseeingheritageasentirelysomethingthatisimposedfromabove.HeritageandtourismJohnUrrys(1990)criticismsofHewisonsTheHeritageIndustrytookanotherform,providingausefulcorrectivetothewayinwhichbothWrightandHewisonhadcriticisedheritageasfalsehistory.Focusingparticularlyonmuseums,hesuggestedthattouristsaresociallydifferentiated,soanargumentthattheyarelulledintoblindconsumptionbytheheritageindustry,ashadbeensuggestedbyHewison,couldnotholdtrue.UrrydrewananalogywithFrenchphilosopherMichelFoucaultsconceptofthegazetodevelop theideaofatouristgaze.Thetouristgazeisawayofperceivingorrelatingtoplaceswhichcutsthemofffromtherealworldandemphasises theexoticaspectsofthetouristexperience.Itisdirectedbycollectionsofsymbolsandsignstofallonplacesthathavebeenpreviouslyimaginedaspleasurablebythemediasurroundingthe tourist industry.Photographs,films,booksandmagazinesallowtheimagesoftourismandleisuretobeconstantlyproducedandreproduced.Thehistoryofthedevelopmentofthetouristgazeshowsthatitisnotnaturalortobetakenforgranted,butdevelopedunderspecifichistoricalcircumstances, inparticular theexponentialgrowthofpersonaltravelinthesecondpartofthetwentiethcentury.Nonetheless,itowesitsrootstoearlierconfigurationsoftravelandtourism,suchastheGrandTour(thestandarditineraryoftravelundertakenbyupper-classEuropeansintheperiodfromthe lateseventeenthcenturyuntil themid-nineteenthcenturywhich
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wasintendedtoeducateandactasarightofpassageforthosewhotookit),andinBritain,theloveaffairwiththeBritishsea-sideresortwhichhaditshey-dayin themid-twentiethcentury.Tourismandheritagemustbeseentobedirectlyrelatedaspartofthefundamentallyeconomicaspectofheritage.Atvarious levels,whetherstate,regionalorlocal, tourismisrequiredtopayforthepromotionandmaintenanceofheritage,whileheritageisrequiredtobringinthetourismthatbuysservicesandpromotesastates,regionsorlocalitysbrand.Heritagethereforeneedstourism,justasitneedspoliticalsupport,anditisthisthatcreatesmanyofthecontradictionsthathaveledtothecritiquesoftheheritageindustryrelating toissuesofauthenticity,historicalaccuracyandaccess.Theconnectionbetweenheritageandtravelmightbeseentohaveamuchdeeperhistory.Thefifth-centuryBCEGreekhistorianHerodotusmadealistoftheSevenWondersoftheWorld,thegreatmonumentsoftheMediterraneanRim,whichwasreproducedinancientHellenicguidebooks.Herodotus originallistwasrediscoveredduring theMiddleAgeswhensimilarlistsofwonders werebeingproduced.WhatisdifferentabouttheWorldHeritageLististhat,asaphenomenonofthelaterpartofthetwentiethcenturyreflectingthe influenceofglobalisation,migrationandtransnationalism,itspreadaparticular,westernideal ofheritage.Thisimageofheritage,andparticularlyWorldHeritageasacanonofheritageplaces,begantocirculatefreelyandtobecomewidelyavailablefortheconsumptionofpeoplethroughout theworld.Another importantdifference istheaccelerationintransformingplacesintoheritage whatHewisonandWrightreferredtoasmuseumification whichinvolvesthealmostfetishisticcreationofdozensofdifferent listsof typesofheritage.Hewisonconnectedthisgrowthinheritageanditscommodificationwiththeexperienceofpostmodernityandtheconstantrateofchangeinthelaterpartofthetwentiethcentury.Thegrowthinheritageasanindustrycanbedocumentedatabroadlevelbygraphingthenumberofculturalheritagepolicydocumentsdevelopedbythemajorinternationalorganisationsinvolved inthemanagementofheritage inthewesternworld.Theseorganisationsinclude theCouncilofEurope,theInternationalCouncilofMuseums(ICOM),theInternationalCouncilonMonumentsandSites(ICOMOS), theInternationalCommitteeonArchaeologicalHeritageManagement(ICAHM,acommitteeofICOMOS),theInternationalFederationofLibraryAssociationsandInstitutions(IFLA),theOrganizationofWorldHeritageCities(OWHC), theUnitedNationsEducation,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)andtheWorldMonumentsFund(WMF).Thegraphofnumbersofpolicydocumentsoverthecourseofthetwentiethcentury,as theorganisationscame intobeing,showsamajorperiodofgrowthafterthe1960sand1970s(seeFigure1.3).
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
Ab lo ckgr a ph de mo nstr ati ngt h ein cre asi ngv o lu me of cu ltu ralh e rita ge po licy d ocu ments fro mth e1 87 0st o the 19 90 s.O ne isr eco rd ed in th efir st de cad e; no ne in the 18 80 sa nd 18 90s; o ne in the firs t deca d eo fth etw e ntie th ce ntu ry (1 900 1 909 );n o mo re un tilt he 19 30 sw he nfo ur po licy d ocu ments a re note d ;n one in th e1 94 0s; in the fift ie sa retu rn to th ele ve lo fth e thir tie s;a nd a ste ad yris e to7 in th esi xti es, 12 in th ese ve ntie s,1 3 in the e igh ties; th en a hu ge rise to 34 in th en ine tie s.
Figure 1.3 Cultural heritage policy documents by decade, 18702000, adapted from Getty Conservation
Institute (2008) (see full list in the Appendix)
Urrywasinterestedinexplainingthepoweroftheconsumertotransformthesocialroleofthemuseum.Hesuggestedthattheconsumerhasamajorroleinselectingwhatworksandwhatdoesnotinheritage.Itisnotpossibletosetupamuseumjustanywhereconsumersareinterestedinauthenticityandinotherthingsthatdictatetheirchoices,andtheyarenotblindly ledbyatopdowncreationofheritagebythestate:
Hewison ignorestheenormously importantpopularbasesof theconservationmovement.Forexample,likePatrickWrightheseestheNationalTrustasonegiganticsystemofoutdoorrelieffortheoldupperclasses tomaintaintheirstatelyhomes.Butthisistoignorethewidespreadsupportforsuchconservation.IndeedSamuelpointsoutthattheNationalTrustwithnearly1.5millionmembersisthelargestmassorganisationinBritain...moreover,muchoftheearlyconservationmovementwasplebeianincharacterforexamplerailwaypreservation, industrialarchaeology,steamtractionralliesandthe likeinthe1960s,wellbefore themoreobviousindicatorsofeconomicdeclinematerialised inBritain.
(Urry,1990,p.110)TheoutcomeofUrrysdiscussionofheritagewastoshiftthebalanceofthecritiqueofheritageawayfromwhetherornotheritagewasgoodhistorytotherealisationthatheritagewastoalargeextentco-createdbyitsconsumers.
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24
Th elo fty sp ace w ith in the D omea tth e entr an ce to th eT uta nk hamu nE xhib iti on .Th e sho pe xito cc u pie sth e low er thir d ofth e imag e.A bo ve ita hu ge po ste r(t he w idth o fth esh o p)d isp la ysa n ima ge of Tu tan k h amun sfa ce an d the da teso f th ee xhib iti on .A glimp se of the str uct ure o fth eD o me is visib le to th erig h t.
Figure1.5 EntrancetotheTutankhamunandtheGoldenAgeofthePharaohsexhibitionattheO2Dome,London,2008.PhotographedbyRodneyHarrison.Photo:RodneyHarrison.Notethattheexhibitionposterhasbeenmadetoresembleamovieposter.Ironically,itwastothissamecommercialisationofheritageandthepastthatarchaeologistKevinWalsh(1992)turnedinsupportoftheideasputforwardbyHewison inTheHeritageIndustry.WalsharguedinhisbookTheRepresentationofthePastthattheboominheritageandmuseumshasledtoanincreasingcommercialisationofheritagewhichdistancespeoplefromtheir
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
ownheritage.Hesuggestedthatthedistancingfromeconomicprocessesasymptomofglobalmassmarketsthathasbeenoccurringsince theEnlightenmenthascontributedtoalossofsenseofplace,andthat theheritageindustry(anditsroleinproducingformsofdesirerelating tonostalgia)feedsoffthis.Lossofasenseofplacecreatesaneedtodevelopandconsumeheritageproductsthatbridgewhatpeopleperceive tobeaneverincreasinggapbetweenpastandpresent.WalshusedanargumentsimilartooneemployedbyDavidLowenthalinThePastisaForeignCountry(1985)andlaterinTheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory(1997).Lowenthalsuggestedthatparadoxicallythemorepeopleattempttoknowthepast,thefurthertheydistancethemselvesfromitastheyreplacetherealityofthepastwithanidealisedversionthatlooksmoreliketheirownreality.Heritage isnotinherentIwanttoreturntoSmithscontentionthatthereisnosuchthingasheritage.Inarguingthatthereareonlyopinionsanddebatesaboutheritageand thatheritageisnotsomethingthat isself-defining,Smithischallengingamodelthatseesheritageasanintrinsicvalueofanobject,placeorpractice.Anintrinsicvalueisonethatisbuilt-intoanobject,practiceorplace;itbelongstothebasicandessentialfeaturesthatmakesomethingwhatitis.Undersuchamodelofheritage,heritageobjects,placesandpracticesareattributedparticularvaluesbytheprofessionalswhoareinvolved inassessingandmanagingheritage,suchasarchitects,archaeologists,anthropologists,engineersandhistorians.Withtime,thesevaluesbecomereasonablyfixedandunquestioned.Thisknowledge,aswellastheweightofauthoritygiventoheritageprofessionals,givestheimpressionthat theprocessofassessingheritagevalueissimplyoneofuncoveringtheheritagevaluesthatalreadyexistinanobject,placeorpractice.Wemightthinkofsuchamodelofheritageastaxonomic:itassumesthatthereisapre-existingorderedhierarchyofheritageobjects,placesandpracticesintheworld.Theideathatheritageisinherentandthatitssignificanceisintrinsictoitleadstoafocusonthephysicalfabricofheritage.Ifvalueisinherent,itfollowsthatheritagemustbecontainedwithinthephysicalfabricofabuildingorobject,orinthematerial thingsassociatedwithheritagepractices.Theimplicationofthis taxonomicviewpointwhichholdsthatheritage isintrinsictoanobject,placeorpracticeisthatadefinitivelistofheritagecanbecreated.Thisideaiscloselylinkedtotheideaofanartisticorliterarycanonaspreviouslydiscussed.Mostpractitionerswouldnowrecognise thatheritagevalueisnotintrinsic;valueissomethingthatisattributedtoanobject,placeorpracticebyparticularpeopleataparticular timeforparticularreasons.Smithischallengingaprocess thatattachespermanent legalconditionstocertainplacesorthings.Sheisarguingthatallobjectsofheritageneedtobe
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constantlyre-evaluatedandtestedbysocialpractices,needsanddesires.Herargumentisessentiallythatheritageisculturallyascribed,ratherthanintrinsictothings.Whilethismightatfirstglanceappeartobearatheracademicpoint,itisalinchpinofcriticalheritagestudies.Throughoutthesecondpartofthetwentiethcenturytheincreasedrecognitionofculturaldiversityandthecontributionofmulticulturalism towesternsocietiescreatedaconundrum.Howcouldtheoldideasaboutafixedcanonofheritage,whichwasestablished torepresentnationswithclosedborders,cometostandforincreasingnumbersofdiasporiccommunitiesofdifferentethnicoriginwhowereforced,orwhoelected,torelocatetoareasawayfrom theirsettled territoriesandwhonowmadesuchacontribution tothecharacterandmake-upofnation-statesinwesternsocieties?(See,forexample,Anderson,2006.)Thischallenge,coupledwitharecognitionthatheritagevaluescouldnotbeseenasintrinsic, led tothedevelopmentoftheconcept
of
representativeness,
and
ashift
away
from
the
idea
of
asingle
canonofheritage.Representativeness inheritagerecognises thatthoseinpositionsofpowercannotalwaysanticipatetheplacesthatthediverserangeofmembersofsocietywillfindimportant.However,throughconservingarepresentativesampleofthediverserangeofplaces,objectsandpractices thatcouldreasonablybycalledheritage,wesafeguardtheprotectionofasampleofplacesandthingswhichmayberecognisedasheritagenoworinthefuture.Arepresentativeheritageplaceorobjectderivesitsvaluesfromtheextenttowhichitcanactasanexemplarofaclassofplaceortypeofobject.However,itneedstobeunderstoodthatthiswasnotatotalshiftinideals,andthatbothofthesewaysofunderstandingheritagearestilltaxonomicinnatureandstillinvolve theproductionoflistsofheritage.Amorefundamentalchallenge,whichwillbetakenupinsubsequentchaptersofthisbook, isthatofnon-westerncultureswhichemphasise theintangibleaspectsofheritage.Thishasledtoamodelofmanagingandassessingvalues,rather thanlistsofheritage items.Therecognition thatit isimpossibletoconserveanexampleofeverythinggeneratesashifttowardsathresholds-basedheritagesystem,wherethingsmustbeassessedagainstaseriesofcriteriatoqualifyforheritagestatus.Theinfluencesofthesechangingsystemsofheritagewillbecomeclearasyouworkyourwaythroughthechaptersofthisbook.
Heritageandcontrol:theauthorisedheritagediscourseAnythingthatanauthority(suchasthestate)designatesasworthyofconservationsubsequentlyentersthepoliticalarena.Alongsideanythoughtorfeelingwemighthaveasindividualsaboutanobject,placeorpractice there
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willbeapowerfulandinfluentialsetofjudgementsfromthisauthoritywhichimpactsonus.Smithsargumentisthatthereisadominantwesterndiscourse,orsetofideasaboutheritage,whichshereferstoasanauthorised(orauthorising)heritagediscourse,orAHD.WewillbereturningtotheconceptoftheAHDthroughoutthisbook.TheAHDisintegrallyboundupinthecreationof liststhatrepresent thecanonofheritage.Itisasetofideas thatworkstonormalisearangeofassumptionsabout thenatureandmeaningofheritageandtoprivilegeparticularpractices,especially thoseofheritageprofessionalsandthestate.Conversely,theAHDcanalsobeseentoexcludeawholerangeofpopularideasandpracticesrelatingtoheritage.SmithdrawsoncasestudiesfromtheUK,AustraliaandtheUSAtoillustrateherarguments.ThispartofthechapterlooksindetailattheconceptoftheAHDasdevelopedbySmith toillustratehowthisparticularsetofideasaboutheritageismademanifest:thewaysinwhichheritageconservationoperatesatalocalorregionallevelthroughthedocuments,protocols,lawsandchartersthatgovern thewayheritage isassessed,nominatedandprotected.Smithsuggests thattheofficialrepresentationofheritagehasavarietyofcharacteristics thatservetoexcludethegeneralpublicfromhavingaroleinheritageandemphasiseaviewofheritage thatcanonlybeengagedwithpassively.Sheseestheofficialdiscourseofheritageasfocusedonaestheticallypleasingormonumentalthings,andthereforefocusedlargelyonmaterialobjectsandplaces,ratherthanonpracticesortheintangibleattachmentsbetweenpeopleandthings.Shesuggeststhatthedocumentsandchartersthatgovernheritagedesignateparticularprofessionalsasexpertsandhenceasthelegitimatespokespeopleforthepast; theytendtopromotetheexperiencesandvaluesofelitesocialclasses,andtheideathatheritageisboundedandcontainedwithinobjectsandsitesthatareabletobedelineatedsothattheycanbemanaged.Wecanseehowthesediscoursesofheritagearemadeconcrete inheritagepracticebylookingattheInternationalCharterfortheConservationandRestorationofMonumentsandSites(1964)(knownastheVeniceCharter).TheVeniceCharter,adoptedbytheSecondInternationalCongressofArchitectsandTechniciansofHistoricMonuments,meetinginVenicein1964,wasaseriesofinternationalprinciplestoguidethepreservationandrestorationofancientbuildings.ThephilosophybehindtheVeniceCharterhashadamajorimpactonallsubsequentofficialdefinitionsofheritageandtheprocessesofculturalheritagemanagement.AtthecentreoftheVeniceCharter lie theconceptofauthenticityandanunderstandingoftheimportanceofmaintaining thehistoricalandphysicalcontextofasiteorbuilding.TheCharterstates thatmonumentsaretobeconservednotonlyfortheiraestheticvaluesasworksofartbutalsoashistoricalevidence.Itsetsdowntheprinciplesofpreservation,whichrelateto
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therestorationofbuildingswithworkfromdifferentperiods.Initsemphasisonaestheticvaluesandworksofart,itmakesimplicitreferencetotheideaofheritageasmonumentalandgrand,aswellastotheideaofacanonofheritage.TheCharterbeginswiththesewords:Imbuedwithamessagefromthepast,thehistoricmonumentsofgenerationsofpeopleremaintothepresentdayaslivingwitnessesoftheirage-oldtraditions.Peoplearebecomingmoreandmoreconsciousoftheunityofhumanvaluesandregardancientmonumentsasacommonheritage.Thecommonresponsibility tosafeguardthemforfuturegenerations isrecognized.Itisourdutytohandthemoninthefullrichnessoftheirauthenticity.
(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)ItispossibletoseethelineageofawholeseriesofconceptsaboutheritageintheVeniceCharter.ThisquoterevealsaveryimportantaspectoftheAHDinvolvingtheabstractionofmeaningofobjects,placesandpracticesofheritagethatcome tobeseenasrepresentativeofsomethingaestheticorhistoricinarathergeneralisedway.TheAHDremovesheritageobjects,placesandpracticesfrom theirhistoricalcontextandencouragespeopletoviewthemassymbolsof thenationalcharacter,ofaparticularperiodinhistory,orofaparticularbuildingtype.Indoingso,theyarestrippedoftheirparticularmeaningsandgivenaseriesofnewlycreatedassociations.TheCharterestablishes theinherentvaluesofheritage,andtherelationshipbetweenthevalueofheritageanditsfabricthroughitsemphasisonauthenticity.InArticle7itgoesontoreinforcethisnotion:
ARTICLE7.Amonumentisinseparablefrom thehistorytowhich itbearswitnessandfromthesettinginwhichitoccurs.Themovingofallorpartofamonumentcannotbeallowedexceptwhere thesafeguardingof thatmonumentdemands itorwhereitisjustifiedbynationalorinternational interestofparamount importance.
(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)IdeasabouttheinherentvalueofheritagearerepeatedinArticle15throughthefocusonthevalueofheritagewhichcanberevealedsothatitsmeaningcan
be
read
:
everymeansmustbe taken tofacilitate theunderstandingofthemonumentandtorevealitwithouteverdistortingitsmeaning.
(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)TheCharterisfocusedalmostexclusivelyonparticularkindsofmaterialheritage,namelybuildingsandmonuments,andonthetechnicalaspectsof
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
architecturalconservation.Onceagain,weseeanemphasisonspecialistsastheexpertsinheritageconservationandmanagement:
ARTICLE2.Theconservationandrestorationofmonumentsmusthaverecoursetoallthesciencesandtechniqueswhichcancontributetothestudyandsafeguardingofthearchitecturalheritage.ARTICLE9.Theprocessofrestorationisahighlyspecializedoperation.Itsaimistopreserveandrevealtheaestheticandhistoricvalueofthemonumentandisbasedonrespectfororiginalmaterialandauthenticdocuments.Itmuststopatthepointwhereconjecturebegins,andinthiscasemoreoveranyextraworkwhichisindispensablemust
bedistinctfromthearchitecturalcompositionandmustbearacontemporarystamp.Therestorationinanycasemustbeprecededandfollowedbyanarchaeologicalandhistoricalstudyofthemonument.
(ICOMOS,[1964]1996)TheideasaboutheritagethatSmithdescribesusingtheconceptoftheAHDcirculatenotonlyatthenationalorgloballevelbutfilterdowntoimpactonthewayinwhichheritageismanaged,presentedandunderstoodasaconceptatthelocallevel.Thenextpartofthechaptershowshowtheseabstractconceptsaremadeoperational inheritagemanagementinNorthAmericathrough thecasestudyoftheHarryS.TrumanNationalHistoricSiteinMissouri.
Casestudy:
Harry
S.
Truman
National
Historic
Site,
Missouri,USAHarryS.TrumanNationalHistoricSitewasgazetted(listedontheregisterofhistoricproperties)on23May1983andopenedtothepublicasahousemuseumon15May1984afterMrsBessTruman(neWallace)donated thehometotheUSnationinherwill.BessTrumansgrandfather,GeorgePorterfieldGates,built thefourteen-room, two-and-a-halfstoreyQueenAnnestylehouseover theperiod186795.Itwasthehouseinwhichthethirty-thirdUSpresidentHarryS.Trumanlivedduring theperiodfromhismarriage toBessWallaceon28June1919untilhisdeathon26December1972.ThehistoricsiteoriginallyincludedjusttheTrumanHome,howeveraseriesofotherpropertiesknownas theTrumanFarm,theNolandHomeandthetwoWallaceHomesassociatedwiththelifeofTrumanwereaddedtothesiteintheyearsthatfollowed(seeFigures1.61.8).TheheritagevaluesofthissiteareexpressedbytheUSDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkService, theownersandmanagersofthesite,inthisway:
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TheHarrySTrumanHistoricSite ...contains tangibleevidenceofhislifeathomebefore,during,andafterhispresidencyplaceswhereforcesmoldedandnurturedhim.ThesignificanceofHarrySTrumanNationalHistoricSite isderivedfromthetimeHarryTrumanservedasthethirty-thirdpresidentoftheUnitedStates,from19451953.Yettheparkincludesphysicalevidenceofaperiodlastingfrom1867through1982.ThisspanoftimerepresentsnearlytheentirecontextofHarryTrumanslife,andencompassesallmajorparkstructures:Trumanhome,Nolandhome,WallacehomesandTrumanfarmhouse ...Mostofhis idealsconcerningreligion,socialresponsibility,financialstabilityandpoliticswerederivedfromthepeoplewholivedhere,aswellasfromhisownexperiencesin thesesurroundings.Therefore, theparksstorycanbeextendedbackwards to the1867date,so longasanyinterpretationofthese
times
has
direct
bearing
on,
and
gives
the
visitor
insight
into,
HarryTrumanaspresidentoftheUnitedStates.
(NationalParkService,USDepartmentoftheInterior,1999,p.6)
30
A sub sta nti al thre e -sto re ycl ap bo ard ho use ,ir reg ula rin p lan ,w ith ve ran da s,a pro je ctin g ba yo nth e rig ht,a n dta ll,n arr ow sa sh w ind ow s.T he en tra nce isu n de rth efr on tv era nd au pa fli gh to ffo ur bro ad ste ps. Th eh ou se is surr ou nd ed by law n san d shru b s,w ith a lamp-p o stin th ele ft fo reg rou nd .
Figure1.6 TheHarryS.TrumanHome,219N.DelawareStreet,Independence,Missouri.Unknownphotographer.Photo:DavidR.FrazierPhotolibrary,Inc./Alamy.
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
Thisplacemightbeunderstoodasaclassofheritageplaceknownasahousemuseum asitemaintainedasitwas togivethepublicaninsightintothelifeofapersonorpersonsperceivedtohavebeenhistoricallyimportant.And,indeed,thestatementofsignificancereproducedinpartabovecertainlymakesitclearthatthesignificanceofthepropertyliesentirelyinitsabilitytogivethevisitor insight intoHarryTrumanaspresidentoftheUnitedStates. The statementofsignificancegivestheimpressionthatthesignificanceofthesiteisembodiedwithinthephysicalmaterialof theplaceanditscontents:itcontainstangibleevidence of thepresidentandhislife,andthismaterialevidencehastheabilitytoprovideaninsightintohisideasandtheeventsofhispresidency.Thisfocusonthetangibleandmaterial,alongwiththeratherpleasingsettingof thehomeanditscontents,seemsconsistentwithSmithscontention thatthedominantwesterndiscourseofheritage isfocusedonmaterial thingsratherthanintangiblepractices.
A la rge ,co mfort ab lesi tti ng roo mwit h pro ject in gb ayw in do ws at the fa ren d, furn ish e dw ith armch a irs, ase tte e, smalle r cha irs, occ asi on al tab les an da p atte rn ed rug. A lon g-c ase cl ock sta n dsi nth e corn e ro fth ero om. The fu rn iture is tra dit io nali n styl ew ith so mea ntiq ue pie ce s.L igh tin gi sb yw all- moun te dlig h tsa nd tab le lamps.
Figure1.7 ThesittingroomoftheTrumanHome,asinterpretedtothesitevisitor.PhotographedbyJackE.Boucher,HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey.LibraryofCongress,PrintsandPhotographsDivision,HABSMO,48INDEP,3.
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
32
Atw o-s to reyc la pb oa rdh ou se of thre e bays , rect an gu lari n pla n,w ith a ve ran da sha din gt he fro ntd o or and tw o gro un d-flo o rw ind ow s.M rs Yo un gis se ate din a ro ckin gc ha iro n the gra ss be low th eve ra nd a, with h er dau gh ters ta nd ing on h erri gh ta nd Ha rryT ru man be hin dh er an dto h erle ft.
Figure1.8 GrandviewFarm,Missouri,c.19069.Unknownphotographer.Photo:Corbis.Lefttoright:MarthaEllenTruman,hermotherHarrietLouisaYoung,andHarryTruman.WhileTrumanhimselfdidnotbelongtotheupperclasses,hecanbeseenasbelongingtotheelite classesthroughhisverypowerfulroleasthepresidentoftheUSA.AsyouwillseefromthephotographsinFigures1.6and1.7,theTrumanHome isaratherhumbledwellingforapresident.Nonetheless,theTrumanHomedoesdemonstrate thefeatures thatSmithoutlines,aseventhoughthestructureitselfisreasonablyhumble,itgainsitssignificancethrough itsassociationwithpowerandcelebrity.Itderivesitsstatusasaheritagesite through itsassociationwiththebiggestandbest importanthistoricalfiguresandgreatevents.Thehomeanditscontentsarepresentedinamannerthat isbothaestheticallypleasingandfamiliar tovisitorsasahousemuseum.AnotherwayinwhichtheTrumanHomeconforms toSmithsmodelisthroughthenotionthatthereissomeinherentvirtuetothisplacethatshapedTrumanscharacterandthatcannowberead bythevisitor.Theassociationofthehomewithagreathistoricalfigure isconsistentwiththeconceptoftheAHD.Butanotherkeypointwhichemergesfromaclosereadingofthetextisthatthewordassociated signifiesintangible heritage.Itwouldbeimpossible toreadthisbuildingasTrumanshomewithouttheinterpretive
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
textsthattellusabouttheconnectionbetweenTrumanandthehouse.Sothereisarathersubtle interplaybetween thetangibleandintangibleaspectsofheritagethataredisplayedin thetext.TheAHDbalancestheideaof theinherentsignificanceofthefabricofthebuildingagainstassociation, inthiscase,withTrumanaspresidentandwhathisrelativelymodestoriginsmeanforcurrentnotionsofUSdemocracy.TheUSDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkServiceGeneralManagementPlan(1999)specifiesaseriesoffurtherstudiestobecarriedouttoassistwiththeunderstandingandmanagementoftheHarryS.TrumanHistoricSite.Theseincludeanarchaeologicaloverviewandassessment,culturallandscapereports,historicresourcesstudies,long-terminterpretiveplan,andwildlifeandvegetationsurveys.Thesereportswouldbeprepared,inthisorder,byanarchaeologist,aculturalgeographerorlandscapearchitect,ahistorian,aninterpretationspecialist,andazoologistandbotanist.Inspecifyingtheformofplanning
documents
required,
the
management
plan
establishes
the
expertise
ofparticularprofessionalsinassessinganddocumentingtheheritagesignificanceofthesite.Inthisway,thegeneralmanagementplanexcludestheviewsofthegeneralpublic.Itgivespreferencetotheworkofparticularacademicdisciplinesovermembersofthepublicorother(non-heritage)specialistswhomightformanopinionofthesignificanceofthesite;andthisisdespitethefactthatthesiteisbeingconservedforthegeneralpublicwhoneedtoknowasmuchabouttheirleadersaspossible;thetypeofpeopleweelecttothepresidencytellsusagreatdealaboutourselves(1999,p.7).Again,itispossibletoseeheretheexclusionofthegeneralpublicandtheemphasisonheritageastherealmofprofessionalsthatSmithsuggestsarefeaturesoftheAHD.TheseideasaboutheritageattheTrumanHomedonotexistinisolation,butflowdownfromvariousotherdocumentswhichcirculateparticular ideasaboutheritagethatmakeupwhatSmithreferstoas theAHD.TheNationalHistoricPreservationAct1966,asamended(NHPA),isthekeypieceofFederallegislationinfluencingthewayinwhichheritageismanagedandlistedintheUSA.AlthoughthepropertywasactuallylistedundertheHistoricSitesAct1935,theNHPAisthelegislative toolthatgovernstheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesonwhich thebuildingsitsalongsideover76,000otherheritageplacesorobjects.TheNHPAdefinestheregisterascomposedofdistricts,sites,buildings,structures,andobjectssignificantinUShistory,architecture,archaeology,engineering,andculture(Section101(a)(1)(A)).Thisdefinitionimmediatelydefinesheritageasmaterial,andthevalueofheritageasinherentinadistrict,site,building,structureorobject.Inthissense,theActcanbeseenasfulfillingthefirstofSmithscharacteristicsoftheAHD,thatheritageisseenascontainedwithinmaterialthings.ThefirstsectionoftheNHPA,which
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
setsoutitspurpose,doesmoretorealisemanyoftheofficialideasaboutheritagethatSmithdescribesascomprising theAHD:
(b)TheCongressfindsanddeclares that(1) thespiritanddirectionoftheNationarefoundeduponand
reflected initshistoricheritage;(2) thehistoricalandculturalfoundationsoftheNationshouldbe
preservedasalivingpartofourcommunitylifeanddevelopmentinordertogiveasenseoforientation totheAmericanpeople;
(3) historicpropertiessignificanttotheNationsheritagearebeinglost or substantially altered, often inadvertently, with increasingfrequency;
(4) thepreservationofthisirreplaceableheritageisinthepublicinterestso that itsvital legacyofcultural,educational,aesthetic,inspirational, economic, and energybenefits willbe maintainedandenrichedforfuturegenerationsofAmericans...
(NHPA,Section1(b))TheNHPAdeclares theintegralrelationshipbetweenheritageandthenation,andtheinherentcorrectnessofconservingheritage,whichisseentohaveaseriesofbenefitstothewell-beingoftheAmericanpeople.Italsointroduces theideathatheritage isbeinglostwith increasingfrequency,whichnotonlygivestheactofconservationasenseofurgencyinthelightofthisthreat,butsuggestsacompletelistofheritage(oracanonofheritage)thatisbeingerodedbythisloss.TheActspecifiesarangeofheritageprofessionalsas theexpertsondetermining thevaluesofheritageandthepastthroughitsexplicitreferencetohistory,architecture,archaeology,(and)engineering. It alsoplacestheultimateresponsibilityforthecategorisationandmanagementofheritageinthehandsoftheFederalgovernment,whichfurtherexcludesthegeneralpublicfromdecisionsaboutdeterminingthesignificanceofheritage.Thetermhistoricpropertyitselfseemstopresupposenotonlythatheritageisphysicalbutthatitwillbeaboundedentitysuchasabuildingorplace,ratherthanapracticeoraseriesofcharacteristicscontainedwithinabroaderlandscape.ThecriteriaforentryontotheNationalRegisterarestandardsagainstwhichplacesnominatedforinclusionontheregisterareassessed.ThesecriteriaarelaidoutinPart60oftheNationalRegisterFederalProgramRegulations.
NationalRegistercriteriaforevaluationThequalityofsignificanceinAmericanhistory,architecture,archaeology,engineering,andcultureispresentindistricts,sites,buildings,structures,andobjectsthatpossessintegrityoflocation,design,setting,materials,workmanship,feeling,andassociationand
34
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
(a) thatareassociatedwitheventsthathavemadeasignificantcontributiontothebroadpatternsofourhistory;or
(b) thatareassociatedwiththelivesofpersonssignificantinourpast;or
(c) thatembody thedistinctivecharacteristicsofatype,period,ormethodofconstruction,orthatrepresenttheworkofamaster,orthatpossesshighartisticvalues,orthatrepresentasignificantanddistinguishable entity whose components may lack individualdistinction;or
(d) thathaveyielded,ormaybelikelytoyield,informationimportantinprehistoryorhistory.
(AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,2008)Theemphasisinthesecriteriaisonthearchaeological,architecturalordesignvaluesofahistoricproperty.Clearly,adeterminationofwhatconstituteshigharchaeological value can onlybe carried outbyan archaeologist. Similarly,architectsandengineerswouldbe involved indetermining thevaluesof thedesign and technical accomplishment inso far as these issues relate tohistoricproperties.Theuseofcomplexthresholdcriteriaalsoestablishestheneedforprofessionals toactasexperts inundertakingaheritageassessmentto determine whether or not a historicproperty meets the threshold.TheNationalHistoricPreservationAct1966waspassedtwoyearsaftertheVeniceCharter.AlthoughtheUSAhadsignificanthistoricheritagelegislationasearlyas1906withtheAntiquitiesAct1906,whichprotectedhistoricorprehistoric
remains
on
sites
of
scienti
ficvalue
on
federal
lands
and
made
unauthoriseddestructionorremovaloftheseremainsillegal,the1964VeniceCharterhadamajorinfluenceonthewayinwhichheritagewasconceivedandpresentedin the1966Act.
ReflectingonthecasestudyItispossibletorepresentthisflowofideasaboutheritageattheTrumanHomeschematically,asinFigure1.9.ThiswholesystemrepresentsSmithsAHD.Ideasaboutwhatheritageis,andwhoshouldbeinvolvedindeterminingwhichaspectsofheritagetoconserveandinwhatway,areimplicitatalllevelsofdocumentationguidingthemanagementoftheTrumanHome.ItisinthiswaythatSmithsAHDcanbeunderstoodasatotalsystemthatconstantlyreinforcesitsownphilosophiesandideals.AuthorsinthechapterswhichfollowwillcontinuetoconsiderthewaysinwhichtheAHDmightbeseentobemanifestedintheexamplestheydiscuss.WehopethatyouwilllookcloselyattheseandotherexamplesofwhichyouareawareandbegintonoticeinstancesinwhichtheAHDapplies,andotherinstancesinwhichitmaynot.
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36
A seri eso f bo xes, lin ke db ya rro ws, ill ust rati ngt h ele ga la nd do cumen ta ryin flu en ce so nth e ma nage men ta nd inte rp reta tio n of the Tru man Ho use .In d ire ctse q uen ce ,ru nn ing to pto b otto mof the d iagr am:fi rst, th eV en ice Ch arte r; se con d, the Na tio na lH isto ricP re se rva tio nA ct;t h ird, th eN atio na lR egi ste ro fH isto ric Pla ce sE valu ati on Cri te ria ,an d,f ee din gin to th isit emfro mth ele ft of the dia gra m,th ein p ut fromh eri tage p ro fessi on als an d orga n isati on s;f ou rth ,th eG en era lM an age ment Pla n; an dfi na llyt he Tru man Ho me.
Figure1.9 Schematicdiagramshowingthestatutoryanddocumentaryinfluenceofcharters, lawsanddocumentsontheinterpretationandmanagementoftheTrumanHomeasheritage
Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
HeritageandtheproductionofcultureAnother
way
of
thinking
about
heritage
is
to
view
it
not
simply
in
terms
ofphysicalthingsbutasaformofsocialandculturalaction.Mostanthropologistsnowagreethatculturesarenotsimplyanaccumulationofthingsandpeoplebutarebetterunderstoodintermsofaseriesofprocessesbywhichnewandoldpracticesareadaptedandadoptedwithinaculturalsystem.Theseprocessescanbethoughtofasformsofworkwhichhelptoproduceaculture.Intheseterms,culture(andbyextension,heritage)canneverbethoughtofasbeinglost,becausecultureisalwaysproducedinthepresenttodealwiththecircumstancesofeverydaylife.DrawingontheworkofanthropologistArjunAppadurai(1996,[2001]2008),archaeologistDenisByrne(2008)discussesthewaysinwhichcommunitiesuseheritageasapartoftheworkwhichmaintainstheirconnectiontoparticularplacesandtoeachother.Appaduraicallsthiswork theproductionoflocality.Aformalexampleof theuseofheritageintheproductionoflocalityandcommunity isdiscussedfurther inChapter7inthecasestudyofthelocalheritagemuseumsinKenya.Suchapproachestoheritageshareafocusonthelocalandonestablishingasenseofconnectionbetweenpeopleandplaces.Anexampleofaheritagepracticethatisconcernedwiththeproductionoflocalityandcommunityfromacontemporarydevelopednationisthetraditionaltug
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
ofwarthatisheldbetweentheBullHotelandtheFeathersHoteleachyearinLudlowtowncentre(England)onBoxingDay(Figure1.10).Here,hundredsoflocalsgathertoeatanddrinkinthestreetswhilecheeringontheteams
Ou tsid e the B ull Ho tel, a den se thro n go fp eop le surr ou nd ingy o un gste rse n gage d in atu go f wa r,w ith much la ugh te ra nd goo d humo urin e vid en ce.T h ero pe ru nsd ia go nall yo ut of the pic tu re att he left -h an dco rn er.
Figure1.10 LocalsgathertocheeronthetwoteamsduringtheBoxingDaytugofwarinLudlowtowncentre.Unknownphotographer.Photo:courtesyoftheShropshireStar.
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
representingthese twopubslocatedonoppositesidesofthemainstreet.Thefocusonthisparticularplaceandoncommunaleatinganddrinkingdemonstratesclearlythewaysinwhichsuchdiscreteheritagepracticescanhelpindividualsexpressasenseofconnectionbetweenpeopleandplace.Thefabricofthebuildingsandthestreetare irrelevant tothisheritagepractice,whichdemonstrates theactiverolethatheritagecantakeinacommunitybybringingpeopletogethertoemphasisesharedvalues.Beingabletoconnectonesselftothepast,andtothecollectivepastofothersviatherecollectionorrecreationofspecificmemoriesandhistories,isaformofculturalcapitalthatrelatestoheritage.Forexample,ifanindividualcanmakeaconnectionbetweentheirpastandtheheritagethatispromotedasanaspectoftheircommunityspast,itgivesthemaconnectiontheycanusetopurchaseprivilegeinsocialinteractions.InPierreBourdieusconceptofculturalcapital(see,forexample,BourdieuandPasseron,1990)theskillsandknowledge
that
people
accumulate
in
the
course
of
their
lives
can
be
employed
culturallyinawaythatissimilartoeconomiccapital.Culturalcapitalmightbeunderstoodtobesimilartoprestigeorknow-how:theabilitytogetalongandacquiremoreinfluenceandstatus.Educationisthekeymeansofacquiringdistinctionthroughculturalcapital.Inthismodel,heritageisnotsomethingimposedfromabove,butsomethingthatpeoplecreateanduseactivelytomaintaintheconnectionsbetweenthemselvesandotherplacesandthings.Thismodelofheritageassocialactionisfarbetterataccommodatingtheintangibleaspectsofheritagesuchassong,languageandtraditionthoseformsofheritagedescribedearlierinthischapterasheritagepractices.Ifheritagecanbeaformofculturalcapitalandawayofconnectingpeoplewitheachotherandwiththeenvironmentthatsurroundsthem,thepromotionofheritageorinvolvementinheritagecanbeconsideredtobeaformofsocialaction.Bydrawingonthepastandcreatinganewsignificancefor itstracesandmemories,peoplecantransformandrefigurethewaysinwhich theirsocietiesoperate.Suchamodelofheritagedoesnotnecessarilycriticiseheritageforcreatingalternativeversionsofhistory,butseestheroleofthiscreationofcollectivememoriesasboththeproductionandthetransformationofsocietyandculture.
ConclusionThischapterhasexplored ideasaboutwhatconstitutesheritagefromacanonicallistofplacesandobjectstocommunitypracticesandsocialaction.Intheintroductiontothischapteritwassuggestedthatheritagestudiesasanacademicdisciplinewasconcernedwiththestudyoftwoprocessesandtherelationshipbetweenthem.Thefirstoftheseprocessesconcernsthewaysinwhichideasaboutofficialheritage,orAHD,areinvolvedintheproduction
38
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
ofaheritageindustrywhichgrantsthepowertocontrolheritageand,byextension,itsmessages,toexpertsandthestate.Criticshavedisapprovedofaspectsoftheheritage industryforproducingsanitisedandunrealisticreconstructionsof thepast,aswellasfordistractingpeoplefromthecontemporaryandcreativeaspectsofculturethatcouldtransformit.TheAHDmodelpresentsheritageascomplete,untouchableandinthepast,andembodiedwithintangiblethingssuchasbuildingsandartefacts.Suchamodelofheritage isbasedontheideathatthevaluesofheritageareinherentandunchanging.Ontheotherhand,scholarshavepointedtoalternativeaspectsofheritagethatinvolvetheproductionofidentityandcommunity,thatrelate toofficialandunofficialpracticesofheritage,andthathavethepotentialtotransformsociety.Therelationshipbetweenlocalactionandglobalnetworkshasbeenhighlightedasimportanttothisprocess.Thismodelofheritageassocialaction
could
also
be
characterised
as
a
bottom
up
approach,in
opposition
to
thewayinwhichheritageasanindustryoperatesfromatopdownposition.Heritageassocialactionismoreconcernedwithpracticesorwiththeintangibleaspectsofheritage thanwithobjectsofheritageor tangibleheritage.It isinvolved intheproductionofbothcollectiveandindividualmemoryandperformssocialworkwhichhelps tobuildcommunityandidentity.Thechapters thatfollowincludemorethoroughexaminationsofaspectsofthesetwoprocessesandtherelationshipbetweenthemthroughdetailedcasestudiesanddiscussion.
WorkscitedAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(2008)NationalRegister
EvaluationCriteria[online],www.achp.gov/nrcriteria.html(accessed10October2008).
Anderson,B.(2006)ImaginedCommunities:ReflectionsontheOriginandSpreadofNationalism(revisededn),LondonandNewYork,Verso.
Appadurai,A.(1996)ModernityatLarge,MinneapolisandNewYork,UniversityofMinneapolisPress.
Appadurai,A.([2001]2008)Theglobalisationofarchaeologyandheritage:adiscussionwithArjunAppaduraiinFairclough,G.,Harrison,R.,Jameson,J.H.JrandSchofield,J.(eds)TheHeritageReader,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge,pp.20918.
Ashworth,G.J.,Graham,B.andTunbridge,J.E.(2007)PluralisingPasts:Heritage,IdentityandPlaceinMulticulturalSocieties,London,PlutoPress.
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
Boswell,D.(1999)IntroductiontoPart2inBoswell,D.andEvans,J.(eds)RepresentingtheNationAReader:Histories,HeritageandMuseums,LondonandNewYork,Routledge,pp.11115.
Bourdieu,P.andPasseron,J.C.(1990)ReproductioninEducation,SocietyandCulture,London,SagePublications.
Byrne,D.(2008)HeritageassocialactioninFairclough,G.,Harrison,R.,Jameson,J.H.JrandSchofield,J.(eds)TheHeritageReader,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge,pp.14973.
Carman,J.(2002)ArchaeologyandHeritage:AnIntroduction,LondonandNewYork,Continuum.
GettyConservationInstitute(2008)CulturalHeritagePolicyDocuments[online],www.getty.edu/conservation/research_resources/charters.html (accessed8September2008).
Hewison,R.(1987)TheHeritageIndustry:Britain inaClimateofDecline,London,Methuen.
ICOMOS([1964]1996)TheVeniceCharter:InternationalCharterfortheConservationandRestorationofMonumentsandSites[online],www.icomos.org/docs/venice_charter.html(accessed8September2008).
Lowenthal,D.(1985)ThePastisaForeignCountry,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.
Lowenthal,D.(1997)TheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.
Mitchell,W.J.T.(2005)CanoninBennett,T.,Grossberg,L.andMorris,M.(eds)NewKeywords:ARevisedVocabularyofCultureandSociety,Malden,MAandOxford,BlackwellPublishing,pp.202.
NationalParkService,USDepartmentoftheInterior(1999)HarryS.TrumanNationalHistoricSiteGeneralManagementPlanRevision,WashingtonDC,NationalParkService,USDepartmentof theInterior.
Samuel,R.(1994)TheatresofMemory:Volume1,PastandPresentinContemporaryCulture,LondonandNewYork,Verso.
Smith,L.(2006)UsesofHeritage,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge.UNESCO(n.d.)Thedifferenttypesofculturalheritage[online],http://portal.
unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=1907&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC& URL_SECTION=201.html(accessed31January2008).
UNESCO(2008)MirCastleComplex [online],http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/625(accessed8September2008).
40
http://portal/http://portal/7/27/2019 Understanding the Politics of Heritage Chapter 1
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Chapter1 Whatisheritage?
UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWorldConservationMonitoringCentre(2008)GreatBarrierReefWorldHeritageAreaDatasheet[online],www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html (accessed8September2008).
Urry,J.(1990)TheTouristGaze:LeisureandTravelinContemporarySocieties,London,Sage.
Walsh,K.(1992)TheRepresentationofthePast:MuseumsandHeritage inthePostModernWorld,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.
Wright,P.(1985)OnLivinginanOldCountry:TheNationalPastinContemporaryBritain,LondonandNewYork,Verso.
FurtherreadingAplin,G.(2002)HeritageIdentification,ConservationandManagement,
Melbourne,OxfordUniversityPress.Carman,J.(2002)ArchaeologyandHeritage:AnIntroduction,Londonand
NewYork,Continuum.Corsane,G.(ed.)(2004)Heritage,MuseumsandGalleries:AnIntroductory
Reader,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.Fairclough,G.,Harrison,R.,Jameson,J.H.JrandSchofield,J.(eds)(2008)
TheHeritageReader,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge.Fowler,P.(1992)ThePastinContemporarySociety:Then,Now,Londonand
NewYork,
Routledge.
Graham,B.,Ashworth,G.J.andTunbridge,J.E.(2000)AGeographyof
Heritage:Power,Cultureand theCommunity,London,Arnold.Graham,P.andHoward,P.(eds)(2008)TheAshgateResearchCompanionto
HeritageandIdentity,Aldershot,Ashgate.Harvey,D.(2001)Heritagepastsandheritagepresents:temporality,meaning
and thescopeofheritagestudies,InternationalJournalofHeritageStudies,vol.7,no.4,pp.31938.
Hewison,R.(1987)TheHeritageIndustry:BritaininaClimateofDecline,London,Methuen.
Howard,P.(2003)Heritage:Management,Interpretation,Identity,London,Methuen.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett,B.(1998)DestinationCulture:Tourism,MuseumsandHeritage,Berkeley,UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
Lowenthal,D.(1997)TheHeritageCrusadeandtheSpoilsofHistory,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.
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Understandingthepoliticsofheritage
Merriman,N.(1991)BeyondtheGlassCase:ThePast,theHeritageandthePublic inBritain,London,LeicesterUniversityPress.
Merriman,N.(ed.)(2004)PublicArchaeology,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.
Pearce,S.M.(1998)Theconstructionandanalysisoftheculturalheritage:somethoughts,InternationalJournalofHeritageStudies,vol.4,no.1,
pp.19.Samuel,R.(1994)TheatresofMemory:Volume1,PastandPresentin
ContemporaryCulture,LondonandNewYork,Verso.Smith,L.(2006)UsesofHeritage,AbingdonandNewYork,Routledge.Walsh,K.(1992)TheRepresentationofthePast:MuseumsandHeritagein
thePostModernWorld,LondonandNewYork,Routledge.Wright,P.(1985)OnLivinginanOldCountry:TheNationalPastinContemporaryBritain,LondonandNewYork,Verso.
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