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http://www.forgottenbooks.com/redirect.php?where=fb&pibn=1000003533http://www.forgottenbooks.com/redirect.php?where=it&pibn=1000003533http://www.forgottenbooks.com/redirect.php?where=es&pibn=1000003533http://www.forgottenbooks.com/redirect.php?where=fr&pibn=1000003533http://www.forgottenbooks.com/redirect.php?where=de&pibn=1000003533http://www.forgottenbooks.com/redirect.php?where=co.uk&pibn=1000003533http://www.forgottenbooks.com/redirect.php?where=com&pibn=10000035337/18/2019 Theory of Music
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THEORY
OF
MUSIC
WITH
INTRODUCTIONS
BY
W. L. HUBBARD
EMIL
LIEBLING
AND
W.
J.
HENDERSON
ARTHUR FOOTE
EDITOR
IRVING SQUIRE
Toledo
New
York
Chicago
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Copyright
1908
by
IRVING
SQUIRE
Entered Stationers'
Hall
LONDON
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CONTENTS
Introduction
1
Development
of
Pianoforte
Technique
7
History
of
Vocal
Music
15
Tonality
25
Harmony
.
53
Counterpoint
.
91
Fugue
133
Subject
152
Answer
155
Counter-subject
...
157
Episode
159
Exposition
.
160
Stretto
163
Coda
164
Form
171
Sonata
Pathetique
.
.
.
,
198
Sonata
quasi
una
Fantasie
202
Waldstein
Sonata
206
Sonata
Appasionata
214
Appreciation
.
.
.
229
The
Orchestra
267
Chamber
Music
277
The
Piano
,
,
280
The
Violin
, . -
89
The
Organ
.
.
.
A|5
The
Opera
298
'
Chorus and
Choral
Music
,
g
ji
,
.
,
.
.
r
.
308
Solo
Singing
319
Th
Practical
Value of
Music
...,.,
325
351
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LIST
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
Court
Theatre
Weimar
Frontispiece.
Georges
Bizet
17
Johannes
Brahams
.......
49
Feliz
Bartholdy
Mendelssohn
.
.
.
.
.
.81
Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart
. .
. . .
.
145
Giacoma
Puccini
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
*
209
JRichard
Strauss
........
241
Carl Marie
Von
Weber
.
373
Fanny
Bloomfield
Zeisler
......
305
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INTRODUCTION
W.
L.
HUBBAtUX
A
lengthy prefacing
of
the
American
History
and
Encyclopedia
of Music
is
scarcely
necessary,
Good
wine
needs
no
bush/*
and
so
a
good
book
needs
no
extended
state-ent
of
the
reason
for
its
making.
It
is
believed
and
hoped
that
the
volumes here
presented
to
the
public
will
contain
within
themselves
ample
justification
for
their
being
and
their
issuance.
If
they
do
not,
then,
no
amount
of
prelimi-ary
explaining-
and
excusing
will win for them favor and
the
right
to
live*
They
must
stand
by
themselves
and
it is
felt
that
they
will
The first
idea
of
the
work
sprang
from
the
desire
of
a
gentleman
to
inform
himself
on
certain
musical
points.
He,
like
a
large
majority
of
the
men
and
women
of
this
country,
is
a
sincere
lover
of
music,
but has
been
able
to
devote
little
or
no
time
to
the
study
of
the science and
the
art
themselves.
Wishing,
however,
one
day
to
learn
concerning
certain
hap-enings
in
musical
history,
and
certain
facts
of musical
theory,
he
consulted such books
as were
at
hand,
and
while
he found that the historical
information
was
obtainable
although
in
several
instances
only
after search
through
varied
and
sometimes
very
rare
volumes
-the
theoretical
parts
when
discoverable
were
as
a
rule couched in
language
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2
THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
so
technical that
It
was
virtually
unintelligible
o
him.
In
his
perplexity
e
addressed
a
letter
to
the
music
department
of the
Chicago
Tribune,
stating
his
dilemma,
and
asking
my
advice
as
to
some
book
on
theory
that
was
in
English
such
as
a
non-musical
person
could
understand.
My
inability
o
refer
him
to
such
a
work,
gave
rise
to
the first
concept
of
the
American
History
and
Encyclopedia
of
Music.
The
need
was
realized
of
creating
a
work
which
would
serve
as
a
means
of
instant
and
satisfactory
reference,
in which
the
information
would
be
immediately
and
conveniently
t
hand
and
in which the
information
when
obtained
would
be
ex-ressed
in
language
that
was
intelligible
o
the
man
who
understands
English
but who
has
not
the
time
to
master
the
technical
phraseology
of
music.
Despite
the
incredulity,
x-ressed
or
implied,
of
certain
learned
authorities,
it
was
believed
that the
English
language
.is
ample
enough,
accurate
enough,
and
clear
enough
to
make
possible
the
stating
of
musical
facts
in
terms
not
technical,
and that
if
musicians
well
enough
informed
concerning
their
art
and
sufficiently
n
command
of
the
English
language
to
write
simply
and
clearly
of what
they
knew
could
be
found,
the
making
of
the
Encyclopedia
would
be
possible.
These,
the
endeavor
was
made
to
discover,
and
gradually
it
was
possible
o
assemble
from
some
half-dozen
cities
and
towns
a
corps
of
researchers
and
writers
such
as were
needed.
The
securing
of
men
to
whom the
directing
of
the
collecting
f
material
could
be
entrusted
then followed
and the
preparation
of
the
work
began.
This
was
more
than
two
years ago
and
since
that
time
from
six
to
twenty
persons
have
been
steadily
engaged
in
gathering
the
facts
and
preparing
the material for
the
Encyclopedia.
As
soon
as
the
plan
began
to
shape
itself,
he
decision
was
reached
to make
the
work
representatively
merican*
While
the
whole
range
of
national
music
and
history
as
to
be
covered
the
Encyclopedia
itself
was
to be
the
product
of
purely
American
labor,
The
introductory
ssays
that
were
to
preface
each
volume
were
to
be
written
by
men
who had
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INTRODUCTION
3
accomplished
practical
esults
in
the
field
of American
music
and who
were
recognized
as
identified
with
the
progress
that
is
being
made
along
all musical lines in this
country.
With
this end
in
view,
arrangements
for
articles
were
made
with
Professor
Frederick Starr
of
the
University
of
Chicago,
whose
knowledge
of the
music
of
barbaric
and
semi-civilized
peoples
is wide
and
authoritative;
ith
George
W.
Chadwick
of
Boston,
who
stands
as
one
of
the
foremost
and
most
significant
f American
composers,
and
whose
familiarity
with the
development
of
creative
music
in
the
United
States
peculiarly
its
him
to
write
of
our
native
composers;
with
Frederick
A.
Stock,
whose
position
s
leader
of
the
Theo-ore
Thomas
Orchestra
of
Chicago
and
whose
compositions
qualify
him
to
speak
with
positiveness
f
the
formation
and
growth
of
the modern
orchestra;
with H. E.
Krehbiel,
music
editor for
many years
of
the
New York
Tribune,
and whose
criticisms,
nnotations,
prefatory
essays,
and
books,
while
covering
the
whole
range
of
music,
have
been
in
many
in-tance
devoted
solely
to
consideration of
opera
and music
drama
and
who
is
peculiarly
uited,
therefore,
to
write
of
opera
and its
development;
with
Dn
Frank
Damrosch
of
New
York,
whose
extended and
in
certain
respects
pioneer
work in connection with the
teaching
of music in the
public
schools
warrants
him
in
writing
authoritatively
n
that
sub-ect;
with
W.
J.
Henderson,
the
New
York
music
editor,
author,
and
pedagogue,
whose
long
research
into
the
history
of
vocal
art
qualifies
im
especially
o
discuss
that
line
of
musical
art
and its
history;
and
with
Emil
Liebling
f Chi-ago,
whose
position
s
teacher,
pianist,
ecturer
and
littera-*
teur
lends
weight
and
positiveness
o
his
statements
relative
to
the
evolution
of
piano technique
and
its
application.
To
these
were
added, as
supervising
ditors
of
certain
volumes,
Arthur
Foote
of
Boston,
whose
compositions
and
whose
book
on
harmony
make
htm
especially
aluable
as
editor
of the
volume which
has
been
prepared
on
musical
theory
and
harmony;
Professor
George
W.
Andrews
of
Oberlin
Conservatory,
who
wa$
chosen
because
of
his
thor-
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4
THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
ough
knowledge
of
instruments
to
superintend
the
prepara-ion
of
the
volume
upon
that
subject;
nd Professor
Edward
Dickinson
also of
Oberlin, Ohio,
whose
writings
on
the
history
and
development
of church
music
fithim
to
direct
the
collecting
of
material
for
the
volume
on
Oratorios
and
Masses.
In
the
gathering
of
material
the
aim
has been
not
so
much to
produce
that
which
is
original
s
to
bring
together
that
which
is
complete,
comprehensive
and
sufficiently
stab-ished
to
be
recognized
s
authoritative,
The
desire has
been
to
make
first
of
all
a
work
of
reference
with
every-hing
so
arranged
and
systematized
hat
any
and all facts
will
be
instantly
obtainable,
to
bring
into
one
set
of books
an
encyclopedic
overing
of
the
whole
range
of music
and
its
history,
and
to
present
all
this
in
language
so
clear,
so
free from
technicality
nd
so
exact
that
every
reader
who
has
a
fair
comprehension
of
English
will
be
able
to
secure
reliable,
efinite
and
reasonably
complete
information
on
any
point
he
may
desire.
That
exhaustive
treatment
of
any
one
branch
or
subject
has been
impossible,
s
of
course
under-tood
the
limits of
the
volumes
and the
scope
of
the
field
covered
render this
out
of the
question,
but
the aim
has
been
to
bring
into the
books all essential and
fundamental
facts
and
so
to
systematize,
rder
and
present
them
that
all
the
informative
matter
that
the
laytnan
or
the
average
student
of
music
may
require
will be
at
their
disposal.
The volume
on
Foreign
Music
will
be found
to
contain
sketches
of
the
development
and
history
of
music in
all
the
principal
countries,
civilized
and
semi-barbaric,
f
the
world,
many
of
the
sketches
having
been
prepared
by
natives
of
those
coun-ries,
and
presenting
facts
and
data
not
contained
in
any
other
works
on
the
subject
In
the
two
volumes
on
Opera
the
endeavor
has
been
to
outline
the
story,
note
the
most
striking
usical
numbers,
and
give
the
date
and
place
of first
production
of
all
the
operatic
works
now
included
in
the
present day
repertory.
A
greater
number
of
operas
are
thus
described
than
are
to
be
found
in
other
volumes
of
similar
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INTRODUCTION
5
nature,
and
several
of
those
most
recently
produced
have
been
given place
in
the
list
The
volume
on
Oratorios
and
Masses is carried
out
on
the
same
lines
as are
those
on
Opera,
and
to
it is
added
a
consideration and
description
of
the
principal
masses
and
anthems
now
in
use
an
undertaking
not
before
attempted.
The
volume
on
Instruments
lists
and
describes
over
six
hundred
musical
instruments,
their
origin,
their
use
and
their
appearance.
In
the volumes
of
Biog-aphies,
the
live facts
have
been
retained,
the
aim
having
been
to
prepare
a
work
that
would
supply
information
con-erning
not
only
the
men
and
women
who
left
their
impress
upon
music
in
the
past
but
also
concerning
those
who
are
active
in the
work
today.
Over
one
thousand
letters of
inquiry
were
sent
to
musicians
and
much
of the
material
contained
in
the
volumes
will be found
to
be
autobiographical
in
character,
and
therefore
accurate
and
authoritative.
In
the volume
on
American Music
it
has
been
the
wish
to
supply
a
complete
outline
of
the
unfoldment
and
progress
of
music
in
the United States,
Much
of
the
material
has
been
obtained
only
after
long
and
difficult
research
through
news-apers,
magazines
and
scattered
volumes
on
the
subject.
It
is believed
that
so
comprehensive
nd
accurate
an
outlining
of
music
in
this
country
has
not
before been
accomplished.
In the
volumes
on
Musical
Terms
and
on
Theory
an
undertaking
whollyunique
has
been made.
To
translate
into
simple,
clear
English
the
many
technical
words
and
phrases
employed
in
music
and to
perform
a
similar
service
for the
various musical forms and
rules
that
go
to
make
up
musical
theory
and
composition
is
a
task
which
no
writer
or
group
of
writers
heretofore
has
had
the
courage
to
attempt.
It has
been undertaken
in
the
present
instance,
and
has
involved
the
solving
of
many
intricate
and
vexatious
problems.
It
has
been
pioneer
work in
the
field,
nd
while
there
are
recognized
shortcomings
in
the
resultant
volumes,
the
task
in
the
main
has
been
performed
even more
successfully
han
the
pro-oters
of
the
work
had
dated
to
hope*
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6
THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
That
the
American
History
and
Encyclopedia
of
Music
will
be
found
to
possess
certain
weak
spots
and
even
faults is
not
unexpected.
It
lies
in the
nature
of
the
work
itself,
but
the
assurance can
be
given
that
every
effort
has
been
made
to
produce
a
work
that
is
reliable,
intelligible
and
dignified
and if
it result in
a
wider
understanding
and
a
keener,
truer
appreciation
of
music
then
its
promoters
and
editors will
be
well
content.
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DEVELOPMENT OF PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
EHIL
LIBELING.
The
practical development
of
the
technique
of
piano
playing,
I
e.,
the successful
mastery
of
all
difficulties
which
the
execution
of
the
most
exacting compositions
for the
instrument
entails,
properly begins
with
the
era
of
Johann
Sebastian
Bach,
and in order
to fully
realize
the
gradual
growth
it
is
necessary
to
connect
the
solution
of
the
problem
with the
corresponding
evolution
in
the
art
of
piano
building,
for the
executants
of
successive
ages
necessarily
depended
upon
the
instrument
for
the
medium
through
which
the
in-reased
possibilities
of
digital
skill
could be
demonstrated*
In
1710
and
1729
Cristofori
and
SchrSter
produced
pianos
which
to
all
intents
and
purposes
represented
our
modern
instruments
in
form
and construction
and
at
the end of the
same
century
the
Silbermanns
of
Freiberg
and
Strassburg,
and
Stein
of
Augsburg
built
excellent
examples
of the
art.
At the
beginning
of
the
Nineteenth
Century
Broadwood of
London,
firard
at
Paris
and the
Viennese
builder,
Streicher,
made
improvements
which
permitted
a
more
musical
and
poetic
tone
quality
and
brought
the
mechanism
to
a
high
state
of
perfection.
Since then
piano
building
has
become
universal and has found its
highest
development
m
the
United
States.
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8
THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
Previous
to
Bach's
advent
the
performer
used
straight
fingers
and
played
at
the
very
edge
of
the
keyboard;
the
thumb was
too
short and
considered
useless;
it
was
either
omitted
or
utilized
very
rarely;
it
remained
for
Bach
to
realize the
enormous
importance
of
the
thumb
as a
pivotal
point
of
all
pianistic
ossibilities
nd
to
give
to
this
most
indispensable
f
fingers
adequate
employment;
by
passing
the
fingers
over
the
thumb
and
vice
versa
the
thumb under the
fingers,
ach thus
became
the
originator
f
pianoplaying
as
we
know
it,
and
gradually
ur
present
hand
position
which
involves
curved
fingers
nd
constant
use
of
the
thumb
was
introduced,
and
by
utilizing
ll
major
and minor
keys
in
the
Well-Tempered
Clavichord
Bach
created
a
new
epoch
in
the
history
of
piano
technique.-
f
his
contemporaries
the
Couperins,
Rameau
and
Marchand
of
France
did much
to
cultivate
a
graceful
and
rhythmical
style
of
perform-nce,
quite
in
contrast
to
the
severity
of
the
German
School.
Handel's
compositions
developed
velocity
in
many
of
his
suites,
and
Domenico Scarlatti
may
be
termed
the
first
virtuoso,
as
he
invented
difficulties
for the
pleasure
of
mastering
them,
instead of
using
them
as a
means
for
higher
purposes
of
artistic
achievement;
thus
we
find
in
Scarlatti's
works
distant
jumps, quickly
Repeating
notes,
swift
trills,
staccato
work and
double
thirds. Neither
Haydn
nor
Mozart
extended
the
scope
of
technique
erceptibly;
eethoven
only
in the
works
commencing
with
the
Sonata
Op.
53;
the
lyrical
style
of
the
preceding
asters
had
changed
to
one
of
dramatic
nteaning
and
the
different
requirements
were
met
by
greater
contrasts
of
dynamics
and
tone
production.
Muzio
Clementi
laid the
foundation for
our
brilliant
modern
style
of
piano
playing
in
his collection
of
studies,
the
Gradtts
ad
Parnassum,
in
which
every
species
of
technical
work
f$
fully
elucidated,
nd
his
great
pupils,
ramer,
Berger
fPtagd,
followed
in his
footettte,
John
Field
of
the
ieflool
cultivated
the
poetic
v$k
and
became
the
pre-
t
of
Chopin's
style.
Carl
Ms fe
Von Weber
wrote
a
series
b
noble
compositions
5ft
wW h the
resources
of
the
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PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
9
piano
and the
performer
find
much
expansion
in the
way
of
brilliant scale
and
arpeggio
work,
successive and
exacting
staccato
passages,
octave
glissandi
and
sonorous
melody
pro-uction.
Carl
Czerny,Thalberg
and
Kullak
also
developed
the
purely
mechanical
element
to
a
high
degree,
the
latter
especially
n his
school
of
octaves,
and
Alexander
Dreyschock
of
Bohemian
origin
amazed
musical
Europe by
the
remark-ble
virtuosity
f
his left
hand. In Frankfort
Aloys
Schmitt
published
five-finger
xercises which
have become
a
necessary
adjunct
of
piano
study,
and Moscheles
forms
a
connecting
link
between
the
purely
classical
style
and
the
modern
roman-ic
period*
By
originating
in the
Gracjus
a
five-finger
xercise
in
continuous
chromatic
modulation
Clementi
suggested
the
entire
series
of
modern
transposingfive-finger
tudes,
cul-inatin
in
the
Tausig
daily
exercises,
and
this feature of
pianistic
evolution
has
revolutionized the
entire
field
of
technique.
Mendelssohn's
art
did
much
for
piano playing.
He
requiresperfect
scale
and
arpeggio
technique, supple
wrist,
cantabile
touch
and
mastery
of
the
polyphonic
style;
some
new
effects
in
the
way
of
extended
chords
and
the
division
of
melody
parts
between the
two
thumbs
were
added
by
Henselt;
and his
master,
Hummel,
also
illustrated
purely
digital
ossibilities
ost
practically
n his
Concertos,
Sonatas
and the
Fantasie
Opus
18.
The
romantic
style,
demanding
more
individuality
n
technique
and
interpretation,
inds
leading
exponents
in
Chopin
and
Schumann. The
fetudes
of
the first
master
give
a
clew
to
his
work
and
abound
in
novel
combinations,
open-ng
up
undreamt-of
resources
of
the
instrument*
In
Schu-ann's
compositions
the
art
of
phrasing,
solid
passage
work
and
effective
chord
playing
are
cultivated.
Franz
Liszt
is
the
master
who
combined
the
excellencies
of
all schools
and
brought
them
to a
dazzling
culmination.
He
introduced
an
elevated
position
f
the
wrist
and
forearm,
made
bold
innovations
in
the
mode
of
fingering,
sed the
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10
THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
fifth
finger
fter
the
thumb
and
vice
versa
played
trills
with
three
or
fpur
fingers,
ivided
trills
in
double thirds
and
sixths between
the two
hands and used the
pedals
with
sur-rising
new
effects.
He
closed
the
chapter
which
Clementi
commenced.
The
great
virtuosos
which
followed
him
de-eloped
their
own
gifts
wonderfully,
but
even
Tausig,
Rubin-tein
and
Von
Biilow
added
but
littleto
the
actual
technical
material
of
pianism.
Efforts
to
improve
technique
by
purely
mechanical
means
have
proved
abortive.
Logier
introduced
a
contriv-nce
in
England
in
1814;
later
on
Bohrer
of
Montreal
in-ente
a
hand
guide,
and
Brotherhood's
Technicon
made
its
appearance.
In
our
own
time
the
Virgil
system
finds
fol-owers.
An
attempt
to
rearrange
the
present
arrangement
of
the
keyboard
was
made
by
Paul de
Janko,
but
met
with
indifferent
success.
The
technical
impossibilities
f
one
period
are
relegated
to
the
kindergarten
f the
next,
and
we
find
in
the
piano
scores
of
Brahms
combinations
of
rhythms
and
difficult
positions
which
even
Liszt
did
not
anticipate;
he
works
of
the
new
Russian
School,
of
Balakirew,
Liapounow,
etc,,
carry
the
requirements
f
execution
to
transcendent
heights
and
the
arrangements
of
Chopin's
fitudes
by Leopold
Godowsky
represent
the
ne
plus
ultra of
seeming
impossibilities*
he
present
state
of
technique
s
one
which
requires
the
swiftest
fingerdevelopment,
perfect
facility
n
double
thirds
and
sixths,
wrist
of
steel,
intuitive
mastery
of
abstruse
poly-honic
problems,
all
softened and
brought
into
one
harmoni-us
entity
by
artistic
taste,
sincerity
f
purpose
and
reverent
devotion
for
the
true
meaning
of
the
composer.
Having
traced the
gradual
development
of the
technique
of
piano
playing
it
will
be
interesting
nd instructive
to
dis-uss
the
pianists
nd artists
who
were
its
practical
xponents.
The
instruments
whtch
preceded
the
modern
pJano
p A ted
the
possibility
f
great
feats
of
execution
or
the
tongs
4e force of later ages,
hence,
the old
English
mas-
Tatlls,
Bird,
Dr.
Bull
Orlando
Gibbons
and
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PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
11
Henry
Purcell,
contented themselves
with
light
scales
and
a
few
chords
and
arpeggios;
the
same
limitations
apply
to
Couperin,
Marchand
and
Daquin
of France and
Pachelbel,
Mattheson
and
Buxtehude
of
Germany.
The
Handel
and
Bach school
cultivated
a
severe
and
solid
style
'of
perform-nce
and
foreshadowed
the characteristics
of
the
subsequent
German
period.
dementi
and
Mozart
delighted
their
audiences
by
their
brilliant
execution
and
rapid running
work,
and
Hummel,
Moscheles and Field
followed
in
their
vein,
combining
sound
musicianship
with
dazzling
effects.
My
old
master,
Heinrich
Dorn,
placed
Mendelssohn
at
the
head
of
the
pianists
of
his
day
and
preferred
him
even
to
Liszt
By
a
singular
irony
of
fate
some
of
the
greatest
performers
have
been
denied
the
ability
o
play
in
public,
mong
them
Kullak,
Henselt,
Chopin
and
Nicholas
Rubinstein.
Thalberg's
daring
virtuosity
seemed
so
fabulous
to
his
audiences
that
the
incredulous
Parisians
climbed
on
chairs
and
benches
in
order
to
convince
themselves
that
only
one
performer
was
playing
and
suspected
him
of
employing
a
confederate
to
assist behind the
stage*
Chopin's
performance,
though
wonderfully
smooth
and
poetic,
lacked the
virility
hich
is
imperatively
ssential
to
public
success*
Some
pianists
have
specialized
o
such
an
extent
that
we
identify
hem
instantly
with
certain
com-osers;
thus
we
look
upon
Carl
Reinecke
as
the
Mozart
player
par
excellence
and consider
De
Pachmann
the ideal
Chopin
interpreter*
Formerly
the
great
pianists
onfined
their
repertory
almost
entirely
o
their
own
compositions,
ut
with
the
advent
of
Liszt's
marvelous
art
the
possibilities
f
the
piano
concert
became
unlimited
and
the
modern
artist
is
supposed
to
produce
the entire
literature
from
Bach
to
Debussy
with
consummate
mastery.
He
must
.present
the
analytical
ach,
lyric
Mozart,
dramatic
Beethoven,
romantic
Schumann,
poetic
Field,
profound
Brahms,
sentimental
Chopin
and
brilliant
Liszt
with
equal
authority.
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12
THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
England
has
produced
but few
pianists
f
note.
Arabella
Goddard
enjoyed
renown,
and
only
of
late
years
some
of
the
younger
artists like
Katherine
Goodson,
Gertrude
Peppercorn
and
Frederick
Lamond have
come
to
the
fore,
the
last
named
especially
s
a
Beethoven
player.
Spain
has
remained
terra
incognita
pianistically
Portugal
boasts
of
de
la
Motta;
France has
always
excelled
in
the
niceties
and
finish
of
piano
playing;
that
most
versatile
of
musicians,
Saint-Saens,
plays
a
scale
of
such
rapidity
and
smoothness
that his
listeners
despair;
Raoul
Pugno
and Diemer
are
masters
of the
jeu
perle,
Edward
Risler
gives
authoritative
readings
of
the
Beethoven
Sonatas
in
their
entirety,
nd
Francis
Plante
and
Theodore
Ritter
presented
the
most
ravishingtechnique
imaginable.
Norway,
the
land
of
fjords
and
mountains,
was
reflected in
the
art
of
Madam
Backer-Grondahl
and
Erika
Lie
Nissen,
both
distinguished
oncert
pianists.Italy
is
ably
represented
by Sgambati
and
Martucci,
but
still
depends
upon
her
vocal
masters
for
musical
pre-eminence.
It
is
interesting
to
note
that
at
the
Imperial
Conservatory
at
Tokio the
works
of
European
masters
are
finding
ready
recognition
nd
figure
largely
in
the
curriculum.
Piano
playing
in America
received
a
powerful
impetus
by
Rubinstein's
visit
in
1872.
He
was
a
colossal
but
uneven
player,
the
victim
of
moods,
unapproachable
hen
at
his
best
His
musical
antithesis,
ans
Von
Biilow,
followed
him
to
our
shores and
his
deliberate and
analytical
per-ormance
proved
high
educational
His
subjectivity
oun-erbalanced
the
great
Russian's
objectiveness.
Joseffy's
impeccable
art
then
came as
a
great
revelation
to
us
and
restored
piano
playing
to true
and
sane
proportions.
Essipoff
was
a
charming
artist,
Carreno
has
dominated
the
concert
stage
for
many
decades,
Fanny
Bloomfield-Zeisler
occupies
a
unique
eminence
both
here
and
abroad,
and
Ad le
Aus
der
Ohe
is
an
artist
of
sterling
ualities,
Hungary
gave
us
Franz
Liszt,
whom
I
frequently
eard
whie
at
Weimar
in
1876,
As
he
originated
he entire
struc-ure
of
modem
technics
every
detail
was,
of
course,
at
his
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PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
13
fingers'
nds;
a
simple
Beethoven
Sonata,
a
Chopin
Prelude
was
given
the
same
finished
performance
as
the
huge
Don
Juan
Fantasie.
The fire
of
youth
never
became
quenched
in
his
veins
and
to
his
last
days
he remained
the
absolute
master.
Carl
Tausig,
born
in
Poland,
died
at
the
very
threshold
of his
art.
His technical
outfit
was
unlimited. His
pupil,
Max
Prinner
of
New
York,
also
promised
well,
but
was
taken
away
by
relentless
fate
at
an
early
age.
Paderewski,
another
great
Pole,
is
still
with
us;
a man
of
striking
er-onalit
strong
magnetism
and tremendous
technical
capabili-ies.
Rosenthal
is
the
giant
of
the
keyboard
and
has
long
since
reached
the
climax. At the
age
of
thirteen
Hanslick,
the
great
Viennese
critic,
aid
of
him,
that
he had
nothing
more
to
learn. This
early
precocity
s
the
happy
lot
of
many
great
pianists
nd
we
all
remember
the
furore
which
Joseph
Hofmann,
also
of
Polish
parentage,
created
at
the
age
of
eight.
He
has
nobly
kept
the
promise
of
his
youth.
The
superlative
n
pianistic
rt
has
been
attained
by
Russian
artists,
nd
one
is
tempted
to
consider the
achieve-
ments
of
Lhevinne
and
Godowsky
as
the
closing
hapter,
he
last word. The cool
bravura
of
the
former and
the
incredi-le
counterpuntal
combinations
of
the latter
approach
wizardry.
A
noble
art
is
that
of
Busoni's,
uissant
nd
convincing
magnificent
n
execution,
musicianship,
roportion
nd
per-pectiv
Among
the
notable
pianists
ho
deserve
mention
are
Rudolf
Ganz,
Hambourg*,
Gabrilowitsch
and
Bauer,
all
of them
gifted
nd
thoroughly
odern
in their
attainments.
Equally
great
as
musician
and
pianist
s
D'
Albert,
a
master
who
has
always
stood for
dignity
n
art,
and
whose
profound
interpretations
re
fullyupported
y
a
great
technique.
The
possibilities
nd
limitations
of
the
instrument
seem
to
have
been
fathomed;
it
has
yielded
its
most
intimate
secrets;
all
problems
have
been
solved
and
it
remains for
future
ages
to
create
new
boundaries
of
the
art.
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HISTORY OF
VOCAL MUSIC
W.
J.
HENDERSON.
Artistic
singing originated
in
the search
after
the
best
method
of
delivering
the
chants
used
in the
early
Christian
church.
These
chants
developed
from
the
materials
used
in
the
worship
of
the
first
followers of
the
new
religion.
Of
the
psalms,
hymns
and
spiritual
songs
mentioned
by
St.
Paul,
the
first
were
taken from the
ancient
Hebrew
ritual,
the
second
were
texts
from
the
Bible
and
not
forming
part
of
the
psalter
(as
the
thanksgiving
of
Hannah)
and
since
called
canticles,
and
the
third
were
rhapsodizings
and
improvised
songs
made
among
the
Christians
themselves.
In
these
rhapsodizings,
described
by
the
apostle
as
the
**
gift
of
tongues,
the
early
Christians
almost
certainly
made
an
adaptation
of
the
Greek
custom
of
caroling
on
vowel
sounds
in
honor
of
the
gods.
These
carolings
consisted of
long,
Undulating*
cadences
on
single
vowel
tones,
such
as one
hears
sometimes
even
now
in
the
final
phrases
of
chtirch
chants.
Thus
entered
the
florid
element,
which
afterward
rose
to
such
artistic
height.
Out
of
these
elements
grew
up
a
chanted
liturgy.
No
general
system
was
possible,
however,
till
the
unification
of
the
Roman
Church
under
Constatitme
(306-337).
Then
carne
the
foundation
of
singing*
schools in
Rome
by
Pope
Sylvester,
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THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
the
entrusting
of
church
singing
entirely
to
the
choirs
by
the
Council of
Laodicea
in
367,
and
other
important steps.
The
building
up of the
vast
and
splendid
treasury
of
Roman
church
music
occupied
centuries,
and
its
history
must
be
sought
elsewhere.
But
through
the
labors
of
the
Benedic-ine
fathers
of
Solesrnes
we
are
able
to
arrive
at
a
knowledge
of
the
amount
of
vocal
culture
which
the
early
church
singers
possessed.
As
the
chant
gained
in
breadth,
dignity
and
fluency
and
as
it
added
to
its
sustained
cantilena
a
richly
florid element the
singers
acquired
a
solid
body
of
funda-ental
technique.
We
find,
then,
that
before
the
middle
of
the
Sixteenth
Century
all the
basic
essentials
of
vocal
art
had
been
ascer-ained
and
were
systematically
aught.
The
ability
o
sing
smooth,
flowing
music
in
long,
beautiful
tones
(legato),
the
importance
of breath
control in
sustaining
one,
and
joining
notes
in
symmetricalphrases,
the value of
pure
vowel
sounds,
the
necessity
of
distinct
enunciation
of
consonants
and the
skill
to
deliver
the
florid
passages
with
elegance
and
agility
were
assiduously
studied,
and
many
singers
excelled
in
these
matters.
Several
treatises
on
voice
and
singing
ap-eared
about the
beginning
of
the
Seventeenth
Century
and
these contained
many
of
the
principles
fterward
incorporated
in
the
modern
Italian
method
These
treatises
dealt
with
the
different
kinds
of
voice,
registers(head
and chest
were
recognized),
mission
of
tone, hygiene
and
deportment.
They
contained
vocalizes
for
each
voice
on
all
the intervals.
When
the
Italian
opera
was
invented
at
the
end
of
the
Sixteenth
Century
its music
differed
in
no
essential
of
tech-ical
requirement
from
that of
the
church,
and
hence
singers
were
prepared
to
deliver
it.
The first
recitatives
were
musi-ally
nothing
other
than
secular
chants.
With
the
advent
of
Claudio
Monteverde
(1567-1643)
the
element
of
dramatic
expression
forged
to
the
front
and
the
chant
began
to
;apprdach
true
recitative.
Rhythm
and
accentuation,
pre-iously
of
small
moment,
now
beg a
to
be
significant,
hile
e.
melodic
phrase
appeared
and
became
th
bridge
between
recitative
and
air.
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GEORGKS
(ALEXANDER
CESAR
LEOPOLD)
BIZKT,
1838-1875
Born
In
Paris.
Ills chief
title
to
fame
as a
com-oser
is
his
opera
Carmen, which,
did
not
meet
with
success
until
after
his- death; in
fact,
overwork
and
dis-ppointment
at
the
reception
met
with
by
*e
Carmen
was
the
cause
of
his
death.
A
short
time
afterward
**
Carmen
was
prodrtced
in
London,
meeting*
with
tmqualiHed
success,
and has
since
been
produced
all
over
the
'world
and
is
considered
the
most
popular
and
dramatic
of all
the
operas
in
the
modern Jprenc'h
rep-rtory.
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17
The
true
aria,
however,
arrived
a
little later
in the
works
of
Cavalli
(1599-1676)
and
in it
the
melodic
basis
of
music
finally
nd
fully
superseded
the
literary
asis
on
which
the
chant
form
had
rested.
The
dramatic
character
of
sing-ng
now
became
defined
and
its
technic
entered
upon
a
period
of
development
embracing
not
only
all
the
essentials de-anded
by
the
old
church
compositions
but
the
added
excel-ences
of
great
flexibility
f
tone,
skill
in
nuance,
taste
in
phrasing
and
a
larger
agility
than
had
previously
been
known.
Monteverde had utilized florid cadences similar
to
those
of the
ornate
chant,
and
his
successors
were
not slow
to
perceive
the
pleasing
possibilities
f
such
writing,
which
they
assiduously
cultivated.
In
1637
the
first
public
opera
house,
the
Teatro
San
Cassiano
in
Venice,
was
opened
and
opera
was
transferred
from
the
exclusive
consideration of
a
cultured
nobility
to
that
of the
general
audience. It
was
now
required
to
appeal
to
popular
taste.
The
result
was
that
in
a
short time
it
became
a
field
for the
display
of
vocal skill.
This
reduction
of
opera
to
a
low
artistic
level
deprived
singing
of
its
dra-atic
sincerity
ut
equipped
it
with
a
remarkable
technique.
The
operas
of
the
closing
years
of
the
Seventeenth
Century,
especially
hose
of
Alessandro Scarlatti
(1659-1725)
showed
a
perfect
demarcation
of the various forms of
recitative,
clearly
defined
aria
forms
and all
possible
vocal
requirements
from
broad
and
sustained
cantilena
to
the
most
brilliant
colorature.
High
voices
were
almost
exclusively
sed,
basses
being
the
only
low
ones.
Tenors
were
employed
sparingly.
Sopranos,
male
as
well
as
female,
reigned,
while
contraltos
were
their
consorts.
In
1700
we
find
fully
equipped
singing
schools
teaching
the
now
completely
codified
Italian
method.
These
were
the
schools
of
Fedi
at
Rome,
Antonio
Pistocchi
at
Bologna,
Joseph
Brevio
at
Modena,
Francesco
Redi
at
Florence,
Joseph
Amadori
at
Rome
and
those of
Porpora,
Leo
and
Egizzio
at
Naples.
Some
of
the
pupils
taught
by
these
mas-ers
were
the
famous
Caffarelli,
arinelli,
Tesi,
Cuzzoni
and
BordonL
These
singers
and
their
contemporaries
ere
heard
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THE
THEORY
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MUSIC
frequently
in the
works
of
Handel,
the
greatest
master of
the
period,
whose
recitatives
and
arias
provide
us
with
the
best
understanding
of
the
character of the music of
the
time. The
breadth
and
dramatic
dignity
of his
recitatives
have
never
been
surpassed,
hile
his
arias demand
of
the
singer
perfectquality
of
tone,
flawless
intonation,
great
breath
support,
command
of
brilliant
floridity,
nd
great
beauty
of
style
in
sustained
cantilena.
They
summarize
the
best
traits
of
the
music
of
the
preceding
century
without
preserving
its
extravagances,
and
for
this
reason are
the
most
admirable
schooling
for
singers.
The
domination
of
great
singers,
however,
led
to
a
rapid
decline
of the
Italian
opera
and
in the
periodimmediately
succeeding
that of
Handel
it became
a mere
parade
ground
for vocal show.
Feats of
agility
nd
breath
sustaining
ere
accepted
in lieu of
beautiful
style
and
expression.
However,
the
time
was
now
at
hand
when
the element
of
nationalism
was
to
make
itself
felt
in
opera,
the
great
field
of
artistic
singing.
Italian
opera
had
ruled
for
a
time
in
France
and
Germany,
but these
countries
were
developing
schools
of
their
own.
In
France
the
labors
of
Lully
(1633-1687)
and
Rameau
(1683-1764)
had
established
a
national
school
in
which
broad,
elegant,
inished
recitative
and
a
classically
suave
and
dignified
delivery,
nown
,as
the
grand
style/'
were
the
imperative
demands.
This
style
was
preserved
in
the
operas
of Gluck
(1714-1787).
The
florid
element
found
littlefavor
with
the French
masters
and
by
centering
tten-ion
upon
the
grandiose
character of their
music
and
the
pompous
style
of its
delivery
they
preserved
French
opera
from
becoming
merely
a
field
for
the
exploitation
f
vocal
agility.
The
problems
thrust
into
vocal
technique
by
the
nature
of the
French
language
early
attracted
the
attention
of
Parisian
singing
teachers
and
as
far back
as
1668
we
find
Bernard
Bacilly
(Remarques
sur
r
Art
de
Bien
Chanter)
ex-laining1
how
the
final
E
in
feminine
rhymes
should
be
pro-ounced
$
giving
directions
for
other
peculiarities
f
skg*
wg
iti
U
native
tongue.
The
au^ve
and
elegant
haractt^ d?
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HISTORY
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VOCAL
MUSIC
19
the
older
French
vocal
music
survives
in
the
graceful
meas-res
of
such
works
as
Gounod's
Faust/'
while
the
most
accomplished
Gallic
singers
of
the
present
possess
a
polish
in
their
melodic
phrasing
and
their
pronunciation
of
the
words
which
is
the
result
of
precepts
laid
down
by
Lully
and
Ranieau.
In
Germany,
as
in
France,
Italian
conceptions
f
singing
at
first
prevailed,
ut
in
the
course
of
time
the
temperament
of
the
people
and
the
exigencies
of
the
national
language
combined
to
produce
a
styleessentially
eutonic. The
taste
of
the
Germans
for musical
plays
was
largely
developed
and
formed
by
the
singspiel,
n
which
song
alternated
with
spoken
dialogue,
as
in
modern
comic
operas
and
in
Beet-oven's
Fidelio,
From
long familiarity
ith the
sing-
spiel
the
German
gained
a
conception
of
the musical
play
which
demanded
a
perfect
understanding
f
what
was
going
forward
on
the
stage.
The result
was
that
when
recitative
began
to
take the
place
of
spoken
dialogue
he
still
expected
to
hear
every
word
of the
text
in order
that
he
might
follow
the
development
of
the
story.
This
public
demand
led
to
a
culti-ation
of
clear enunciation.
But the
character
of
the
German
tongue
easily
betrayed
singers
into
a
sacrifice of
beautiful
vowel sounds and the concomitant
beauty
of vocal
tone
to
forcible
delivery
of
the
consonant.
This
trait
of
German
singing
was
emphasized
by
the
popular
seriousness
toward all
forms
of
drama,
which
forbade
all
sacrifice
of
ihterpretatio
for
the
sake
of
merely
external
polish,
and indeed
on
the
other
hand
rather
called
for
the sacrifice
of
beauty
to
truth
whenever
the
two
seemed
to
be
opposed.
The
exaggerated
treatment
of the consonants
worked
its
way
from
recitative
into
the
cantilena
and
thus
all
lightness
f
style
and
elegance,
such
as
was
prevalent
n the florid
school of
song,
disappeared
from
the
German
manner
of
singing.
The
various
conflicting
lements
of
vocal
art
were more
nearly
harmonized
in
the
works
of Mozart
than
in
those
of
any
other
composer*
In his
operas
we
find
all
kinds
of
reci-ative,
from
the
lightest
nd
airiest
conversational
type
to
the
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THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
broadest
and
stateliest
dramatic
utterance.
His
singers
were
thus
required
to
have
great
elasticity
f
delivery,
hile
in
the
flowing
passages
of his arias Mozart
exacted
from them the
broadest,
smoothest
and
most
musical
manner
of
singing.
He
preserved
in
certain
parts
the
florid
style
of
the
earlier
Italian
operas
(as
in
the
music of
the
Queen
of
the
Night
in
The
Magic
Flute
)
and
he
utilized
also
the
more
dra-atic
style
of
florid
song,
as
in
the
great
airs
of
Donna
Anna
and
Donna
Elvira
in
' Don
Giovanni/'
But in
using
the
latter he
broadened
and
deepened
its dramatic
significance
o
as
to
impose
new
requirements
pon
the
singers
of
his
works.
When,
therefore,
Beethoven
and
Weber,
the first
masters
of
the modern
German
School,
came
to
write
their
operas,
they
built
chiefly
pon
the
foundations
which
they
had
in
the
works
of Mozart.
In
such
episodes
of
their
operas
as
the
Abscheulicher
in
Fidelio
and
Ocean,
thou
mighty
monster in
Oberon,
they
refashioned all
the
elements
prepared
for
them
in such
numbers
as
the
Don
Ottavio,
son
morta
of
Don
Giovanni.
They
employed
the
broad
and
powerfully
accented
recitative,
he
style
half
way
between
recitative and
aria
(called
arioso),
the
sustained
melodic
phraseology
and
the
big,
dramatic kind
of
florid
passage
work,
best described
as
dramatic bravura* This kind of song
abounds in
runs
and
other
difficulties,
ut these
are
treated
with
a
view
to
their
expressive
haracter
and
with
no
regard
for
their
availability
s mere
mediums
for
the
display
of
vocal
skill.
Just
as
Weber
used the
most
brilliant
flashing
of
violins
through
the
range
of the
scale
in his
overtures
so
he
used
the
voice
in
some
of
his
dramatic
scenes,
But this
practise
f the
German
composers,
developed
in
order,
to
meet
the
public
demand for
sincerity
f
expression,
did
not
affect
vocal
style
in
Italy.
Although
the
operas
of
the
Rossinian
period
showed
an
advance
over
.their
prede-essors,
in
some
details
of
dramatic
expression,
hey
preserved
most
of
the characteristics
of
the
older
school,
and
singing
continued
to
be
a
display
f
technical
skill
in
the
delivery
f
.tones
witibqmt
uch
regard
for
the
pronunciation
f
the
text
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HISTORY
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MUSIC
21
or
the
significance
f
the
scene.
At this
time,
however,
the
introduction
of
the
custom
of
writing
operas
with
the
reci-atives
accompanied throughoutby
the
orchestra,
whereas the
harpsichord
had been
previously
used
for
much
of
this
work,
led
to
the
recognition
f
the
need
for
bigger
tone and
greater
volume
in
the
cantilena,
in
order
that
the
recitatives
should
not
become
apparently
the
more
important
parts
of
the
works.
It
was,
therefore,
in
the
first
thirty
or
forty
years
of
the
Nineteenth
Century
that
the school of
combined
florid
and
dramatic
singing
reigned,
of which
Malibran,
Pasta
and
Grisi
were
representative
women,
and
Rubini,
Lablanche
and
Mario
representative
en.
The
singers
of this
school
pre-erved
much
of
the
vocal
technique
of
the Handelian
period,
but
superimposed
upon
it
an
energy,
a
vigor
of
accentuation
and
a
largeness
of
tone
which
naturally
bliterated
some
of
the
elegant
finish
of its
details.
At
the
time
when
the
revolutionary
heories
of
Richard
Wagner
worked
such radical
changes
in
the
character
of the
lyric
drama,
singing
was
hovering
between
the
German
style,
which
placed
force and enunciation before
beauty
of
tone,
and
the
Italian
manner,
which
strove
to
conserve
purely
super-icial
beauty
and
yet
introduce
dramatic
appearance.
Each
school continued
to
use
those
set
forms
of aria which
invited
both
composer
and
singer
to
offer
an
exhibition
of
either
technique
r
expression
o
the
audience,
Wagner,
by
abandon-ng
the
set
forms
and
endeavoring
to
fashion
his
operas
as
plays
in
continuous
dialogue,
threw
out
of
his
entire scheme
the
necessity
for
set
exhibitions
of
singing,
ither
florid
or
dramatic.
His
works
became
long
sequences
of
recitatives,
heavily
orchestrated,
and
here
and
there
broken
by purely
lyric
passages,
conceived
rather
in the arioso
than
the
aria
character.
At
this
same
period
Meyerbeer,
the
most
potent
influence in
the
operatic
orld
up
to
the
time of
Wagner's
final
triumph,
was composing
operas
with
powerful
and
bril-iant
orchestration
and
many
arioso
passages
throughout
Meyerbeer,
however,
strove to
retain
the
more
popular
ele-ents
of
floridity
nd
the
set
vocal
piece.
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THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
The result
was
that
singing
and
the
composition
of
music
for
vocal
plays
moved
steadily
oward
the
conditions
existing
at
the
present
day.
In
Germany
the
study
of
beautiful
tone
and
facile
execution
has
been
superseded
by
a
search
after
volume
of
tone
and
forcible
declamation
of
text.
Florid
music
is
neglected
and the
prolonged
study
of
vocalizes,
such
as was
essential
to
a
command
of
the
music
of
the
Handelian
era,
has
been
abandoned.
At
Bayrcuth,
the
home
of
the
Wagner
family,
it is
taught
that
the
proper way
to
sing
the
music
of
Wagner
is
to
lean
heavily
on
all
consonants
and
to
study
vowel
sounds
not
as
producers
of beautiful
vocal
tone
but
with
regard
only
for
their
conversational character.
In
short,
the
contemporaneous
German
School
of
singing
is
the
last
and
extremest
development
of
the
literary
idea
in
vocal
music,
the
idea
which
lay
at
the
basis
of
the
early
chant,
but
which
was
speedily
superseded
by
the
musical
conception
of
the
art.
In
Italy
the
elegant
and
fluent
style
of
the
school of
Rossini
has
yielded
to
German
influence and
in
the
search
after
truthful
dramatic
expression
he
young
Italian
school
of
composers
has
produced
large quantities
f
music
which
demands of
the
singer
no
skill
in
execution,
but
merely
abundance of rich and
powerful
tone,
ability
o
sustain
long
and
heavy
phrases,
and
vigor
in
declamatory
emphasis.
The
radical difference between
the
contemporaneous
Italian
style
and
that
of
Germany
is
that
the
former
is
founded
upon
a
purely
musical
conception.
The
Italian seeks
rather
for
splendor
and
mass
of
tone
than
for
finish
in
treatment
of
the
text.
The
French
School,
following
he trend
given
to
it
by
Lully
and
Rameau,
continues
to
cultivate
elegance
and refine-ent
of
diction
together
with
suave
and
fluent
delivery
of
tone,
A
modern
development
of
singing
is
found
in
the field
of the
song,
which
form
of
composition
assumed
importance
through
the
genius
of
Franz
Schubert
(1797-1828),
His
works combined
melodic
grace
and
fluency
ith
poetic
em-odiment
of the
moods
of his
texts, The
vocal
technie and
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HISTORY
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VOCAL
MUSIC
23
style
of the Weber
period
more
than
sufficed
for
the
interpretation
of
these
songs.
But
in
later
years
song
became
affected
by
the
literary
idea
to
such
an
extent
that
verbal
emphasis
overbalanced
beauty
of
tone,
and
the
most
recent
songs
show
a
decided
attempt
to
follow
the lines
of dramatic
recitative
as
fashioned
in
German
operas.
Song
singers,
however,
are
able
to
devote
more
attention
to
pure
beauty
of
tone
than
opera
singers
are,
for
the
reason
that
the
latter
are
obliged
to
sacrifice
so
much for the sake of
mere
volume.
It
is almost
wholly
in features of
style
that
singing
has
changed
in the
past
hundred years. The
theory
of
tone
formation,
and the
conception
of the voice
remain
the
same
now
as
they
were
in
the
days
of
Pasta
and
Malibran
and
they
were
the
same
then
as
in the
time
of
Porpora
and his cele-rated
pupils,
Caffarelli and Farinelli. The
physiology
of
the
vocal
organs
is better
known,
but this
knowledge
has
not
disproved
the
correctness
of
the
practise
of the
great
teachers
of
1700.
The
test
teachers
of
the
present
time
are
those
who
strive
to
impart
the
principles
taught
by
the schools
of
Bernacchi
and
Pistocchi,
but
the
cultivation
of
the
higher
refinements
of
those schools
has
been
discouraged
by
the
popularity
of
loud
and
violent
singing,
the
heavily
accentu-ted
declamation
of the
contemporaneous
schools.
7/18/2019 Theory of Music
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7/18/2019 Theory of Music
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TONALITY
All
sound
is
the
result
of
vibrations
in
the
air
occasioned
by
the vibrations
of
some
substance
as
the
vocal
cords,
strings
of
instruments,
columns of
air,
membranes,
or
sonorous
bodies.
The normal
ear
can
perceive
clearly
sound
vibrations
occurring at
a
rate
of
from 16
to
36,500
per
second.
No
possible
statement
can
be
made
of the number
of sounds
produced
between these
two extremes.
The
more
educated
and trained
the
ear
the
more
capable
it
will
be
of
distinguishing
differences
in
pitch.
As
a
result
this
ability
varies
greatly
in
individuals
just
as
some
have
by
inheritance,
environment and education
a
very
finely
developed
sense
of
taste
or
smell.
Sounds
are
contained
in
all
noises of
nature,
such
as
the
wind
blowing
through
the
trees
or
in the
roaring
of
the
waterfall
or
of
waves,
but
although
the
sound
rises
and
falls
in
pitch,
it
is
not music,
for
each
tone
has
no
definite
pitch,
neither does it bear
a
previously
determined
relation
to
the
tones
preceding
or
succeeding
it.
The
tones
which
are
gathered
together
to
constitute
any
musical form
are
selected
from
a
definite
series
whose
individual
tones
progress
in
pitch
by
well defined
degrees.
This series is called
a
scale.
The
name
is
derived
from the
Latin
word
scala,
a
staircase,
in
recognition
of
the
analogy
existing
between
the
progress-ng
series of
tq es and
the
ascending
steps
of stairs.
The
7/18/2019 Theory of Music
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26
THE
THEORY
OF
MUSIC
Germans
further
express
the
comparison
by
using
the
name
Tonleiter,
a
ladder
of
musical
sounds,
and the
French
employ
the
one
word, echelle,
o
designate
both scale and
ladder.
This
arranging
of
musical
tones
into
a
definite
series
has
always
been
done
by
all
races
possessing
music. Helm-
holz
attributes it
to
a
psychological
eason
similar
to
the
natural
feeling
which has
led
to
the
rhythmical
division
in
poetry.
In
other
words,
it
is
due
to
that inherent
quality
of
rhythm
whose
reason
lies
beyond
man's
explanation
but
which is
present
in
everything.
It
is within the
realm of
aesthetics.
A constant factor
in
the
problem
of this
science
of the
beautiful
is
to
discover
what
it
is
in
things
that
makes
them
beautiful
or
ugly,
sublime
or
ludicrous.
The
explana-ion
is
ever
receding
nd
incomplete,
niversal
laws
of
aesthetics
cannot
be
established,
or
beyond
a
certain
point training
loses
its
power
and
each
man
becomes
an
authority
unto
himself,
ndividuals
having
vastly
ifferent
tastes.
The
degrees
of
progression
n
the
scale
are
not
the
same
among
the
various
races,
but
have
differed with
the
epoch,
the
civilization,
he
tastes
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