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address the ways in which the Ba(i revolt in Badasht introd)ced a r)$t)re in
&sla!ic history. #ried o$en (y the )nveiled a$$earance of 1)rrat al-2yn in the
$)(lic and !ale do!ain of the Badasht gardens, the historical disco)rses on
&sla!ic s$ace are reconfig)red and disartic)lated, affecting the very heart of
&sla!ic notions of selfhood and identity. By $ositioning the reading of this
!o!ent of )nveiling on the $ro(le!atic fig)re of 0hay/h () ")ra( in Na(ils
Narrative, & will disc)ss how the necessary config)ration of h)!an agency in
an effective history reintrod)ces contin)ity into the historicity of revolt. &n
doing so, & arg)e, h)!an agency $ro(le!atizes the relation (etween the
discontin)o)s character of revol)tions and the 4$atient and contin)o)s4
develo$!ent of history.
Foucault, Genealogy and Effective History.
Writing in *56* 3ichel Fo)ca)lt ela(orated his $osition on traditional
historiogra$hic $ractices in an ho!age to his !entor 7ean Hy$$olite in an essay
called 4Nietzsche, 8enealogy, History4. &n for!)lating his tho)ghts a(o)t thedirection of his own historiogra$hic $ractice, Fo)ca)lt refers to Nietzsches
conce$tion of genealogy as an 4effective history4. Drawing on Nietzsches )ses
of the notion of origin, Fo)ca)lt !aintains that the fo)ndation of any event
de$ends not on a single orginary gest)re, ()t on a discontin)o)s !)ltit)de of
events and attit)des for its e!ergence. History writing therefore !)st ta/e a
second loo/ at the (edroc/ for its clai!s. For if events are not for!ed on the
(asis of contin)o)s $rogress and develo$!ent, historiogra$hy can in no way
s)$$ort its c)rrent $ractice which $)r$orts to (e a dry affir!ation of facts and
fig)res, which !erely recognize s$ecific originary !o!ents and !irror the! so
to ena(le !an/inds rediscovery of a lost and )nifor! self. Fo)ca)lt writes that9
"he traditional devices for constr)cting a co!$rehensive view of history
and for retracing the $ast as a $atient and contin)o)s develo$!ent !)st
(e syste!atically dis!antled. Necessarily, we !)st dis!iss those
tendencies that enco)rage the consoling $lay of recognitions. :nowledge
even )nder the (anner of history, does not de$end on 4rediscovery,4 and
it e!$hatically e;cl)des the 4rediscovery of o)rselves.4 History (eco!es
4effective4 to the degree that it introd)ces discontin)ity into o)r very
(eing-- as it divides o)r e!otions, dra!atizes o)r instincts, !)lti$lies
o)r (ody and sets it against itself.
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"he writing of history, according to Fo)ca)lt, !)st ta/e on new for!s. For!s
that @)estion in their very conce$tion notions of the )nitary s)(ect, that
interrogate the affir!ations of sta(ility at the (ase of nat)re and c)lt)re, and
that disr)$t $ractices $reocc)$ied with the tracing of )ninterr)$ted $rogress in
h)!an history. n effective history !)st therefore @)estion the )nity of
a)thorshi$ and a)thority (ehind the for!)lation of c)lt)ral life, (eca)se it
recognizes chance as the originator of intent. &ra@?, a $lace which was a !aor center for 0hi2ite religio)s
training. "he 0hay/hi school, associated 0hay/h h!ad hsai, was /nown forits $rogressive teachings and refor!ist attit)des.
significant n)!(er of the early adherents of the Ba( had received si; to nine
years of for!al religio)s training at the school. &ndeed !)ch of their thin/ing
a(o)t the day of es)rrection, the advent of the &!a! 3ahdi and the theory of
$ro$hetic cycles ca!e fro! their contact with the instr)ctor and later leader,
0ayyid :azi!. >C?fter the death of 0ayyid :azi!, !any of the! fo)nd the
f)lfill!ent of their teachers $ro!ises of the ret)rn of the &!a! 3ahdi >as the
a(rogator of the &sla!ic dis$ensation, the 1)r an and the 0hari2ah? in the
teachings and the $ersonage of the Ba(. "y$ically the 0hay/hi-Ba(is o$$osed
the corr)$tion of 0hiite doctrine within 0hi2ite orthodo;y and had a strong
awareness of the way in which it acco!!odated for the needs of the 1aar r)le.
Fro! the $ers$ective of effective history, 0hay/h () ")ra(s recollections of
the )nveiled Ba(i $oetess 1)rrat al-2yns a$$earance in a garden in Badasht
e!erge as significant when !eas)red in the (alance of this historical force
field. For in their very for!)lation, these recollections introd)ce a r)$t)re
within the traditional historical &sla!ic disco)rses on s$ace. --0$atial
disco)rses which $)r$ort to (e the very fo)ndation for &sla!ic notions of
selfhood and identity.
&t is $recisely on the (asis of () ")ra(s recollections that & arg)e that theBa(i revolt at the Badasht conclave constit)ted an event which in Fo)ca)lts
own for!)lations was neither 4a decision,4 4a treaty,4 4a reign,4 or 4a (attle,4
()t 4the reversal of forces,4 4the )s)r$ation of $ower,4 4the a$$ro$riation of a
voca()lary t)rned against those who once )sed it4 and ironically, 4the entry of
a !as/ed other,4 into the real! of traditional history.>?
The Babi Revolt in Badasht
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"he Ba(i onference in Badasht was held for three wee/s (etween 7)ne and
7)ly of *++. 3)lla 3)ha!!ad 2li Barf)r)shi >1)dd)s?, one of the first
$eo$le to oin the Ba(i !ove!ent and his co!$anions >who were a!ong the
onferences $artici$ants? had intended on raising the Blac/ 0tandard in
3ashhad. >E?"hey were, however, forced o)t of the city of 3ashhad d)e to
heightened anti-Ba(i fervor and were wandering on horse(ac/ in the North
"he #)re One? at the onference. "he
second was assigned to 1)dd)s. "he third garden 3irza H)sayn 2li, later
/nown (y the title Baha, and who had rented the $ro$erties, reserved for
hi!self.>6? "he rest of the $artici$ants ca!$ed on the gro)nds s)rro)nding
these Ba(i leaders.
"he narratives and histories of the events differ slightly in the !anner in which
the events too/ $lace. 3ost agree on the following $oints9 *? that the
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$oetIleader 1)rrat al-2yn a$$eared )nveiled (efore the conference
$artici$ants= A? that she arg)ed for a definite (rea/ with the tradition of &sla!=
C? that conf)sion and contention followed, leading to the denial of Faith on the
$art of several of the $artici$ants= and ? that the gathering effected the f)rther
develo$!ent of the !ove!ent and affected a radical change in the rit)als and
actions )nderta/en (y its $artici$ants.
1)rrat al-2yn, the $oetess, too/ on the leading role at the conference, arg)ing
for a definitive (rea/ with the old &sla!ic traditions. 0o!e so)rces !aintain
that 1)dd)s reected her as a radical and 4the a)thor of heresy4. 0he, on the
other hand, @)estioned 1)dd)s clai!s to leadershi$, having failed to raise the
(anner of Ba(i revolt in 3ashhad. >+?"his radical s$lit (etween the two leaders
is clai!ed (y !ost $arties to have deter!ined the dyna!ics of the Badasht
onference.
Shaykh Abu Turab recollects !urrat al"#Ayn$s unveiling
0hay/h ()-")ra(, who the Ba(i historian Na(il introd)ces as the 4(est-
infor!ed as to the nat)re of the develo$!ents in Badasht,4 is re$orted to have
related the following incidents9
&llness, one day confined BahJ)llah to His (ed. 1)dd)s, as soon as he
heard of His indis$osition, hastened to visit Hi!... "he rest of the
co!$anions were grad)ally ad!itted to His $resence and gro)$ed
the!selves aro)nd Hi!. No sooner had they asse!(led than...the
!essenger of K1)rrat al-2yn...s)ddenly ca!e in and conveyed to
1)dd)s a $ressing invitation fro! K1)rrat al-2yn to visit her in her
own garden. & have severed !yself entirely fro! her, he (oldly anddecisively re$lied. & ref)se to !eet her.
...K0)ddenly the fig)re of K1)rrat al-2yn , adorned and )nveiled
a$$eared (efore the eyes of the asse!(led co!$anions. onsternation
i!!ediately seized the entire gathering. ll stood aghast (efore this
s)dden and !ost )ne;$ected a$$arition. "o (ehold her face )nveiled was
to the! inconceiva(le.
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li(eration in &ran or in a(sol)te disg)st for this act of heresy clai!ed this
gest)re to (e the fo)ndation for, as well as the f)nda!ental $roof of, the
deserved ill re$)te and false !otives of the Ba(i !ove!ent. 0eldo! have they
stayed in the garden to witness what 0hay/h () ")ra( clai!s to have
followed. Na(ils infor!ant goes on to re$ort that 1)rrat al-2yn who had
seated herself ne;t to 1)dd)s9
...rose fro! her seat and, )ndeterred (y the t)!)lt that she had raised in
the hearts of her co!$anions (egan to address the re!nant of the
asse!(ly. Witho)t the least $re!editation, and in lang)age that (ore
stri/ing rese!(lance to that of the 1)ran, she delivered her a$$eal with
!atchless elo@)ence and $rofo)nd fervor. 0he concl)ded her address
with this verse fro! the 1)ran9 'erily, a!id gardens and rivers shall the
$io)s dwell in the seat of tr)th, in the $resence of the $otent :ing. ...
&!!ediately after, she declared9 & a! the Word which the 1ai! is to
)tter, the Word which shall $)t to flight the chiefs and no(les of theearth. >*M?
"he 0hay/hs l)cid recollection of the !o!ent of 1)rrat al-2yns )s)r$ation
of $ower is )ne@)aled in the annals of early Ba(i historiogra$hy.>**?et,
(efore & go on to disc)ss the s$ecific ways in which & thin/ this recollection of
the events at Badasht 4c)ts4 >to $ara$hrase Fo)ca)lt? o)r /nowledge of &sla!ic
history and disar!s its notion of a )nified s)(ectivity as well as its sense of
historical contin)ity, & wo)ld li/e to (riefly disc)ss the &sla!ic disco)rses on
s$ace and their effects on the historiogra$hy of the &sla!ic garden. For it is
against these $ractices that 1)rrat al-2yns radical criti@)e is ai!ed.
%sla& and S'atiality
&t is said that in the early days of the religion of &sla! the #ro$het 3)ha!!ad
)sed s$ace and orientation as a way to esta(lish the f)nda!ental nat)re of
&sla!. He did this first to disting)ish his new (orn revelation fro! $aganis!s
(y aligning the new religion with other e;tant !onotheistic religions.
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0$atial $ractices in !ost &sla!ic co)ntries today f)nction si!ilarly to constit)te
a national and a $ersonal identity. "hey are enforced as doctrines or laws to
disting)ish the real! of the $)(lic fro! the $rivate. 0$atial disco)rses directly
s)$eri!$ose the differential $lace of wo!en and !en )$on this $rivateI$)(lic
s$lit. "hese $ractices are significantly and her!ene)tically lin/ed to the verse
EC of s)ra CC of the 1)ran on the iss)e of the hia( which in ra(ic literally
!eans to hide so!ething fro! sight, to se$arate or esta(lish a threshold or to
for(id. >*C?"h)s lin/ed, the verse of the hia( is constr)ed as a $rohi(ition that
concerns s$ace, and is !ore co!!only associated with the $ractice of veiling.
'erse EC of s)ra CC of the 1)ran reads as follows9
O ye who (elieve as/ing? yo) >to go?= ()t llah is notshy of the tr)th. nd when ye as/ of the! >the wives of the #ro$het?
anything, as/ it of the! fro! (ehind a c)rtain. "his is $)rer for yo)r
hearts and for their hearts. >*?
"raditionally, when the @)estion of the relevance of a certain verse arises,
&sla!ic scholars t)rn towards !e!ory or recollection. >*E?"he Hadith have
constit)ted this !e!ory for $osterity thro)gh the >re?collection of the vario)s
stories told (y the associates and the fa!ily of the #ro$het. !ong the
tho)sands of these Hadith there is one significant story which relates to the
1)ranic verse on the @)estion of veiling and which, according to the 3oroccanfe!inist scholar Fati!a 3ernissi, gets lost in the sh)ffle. "his !is$lace!ent,
which sho)ld !ore relevantly (e called 4dissi!)lation4 >(eca)se of the words
close association with the act of veiling?, has instit)ted a rather s/ewed
i!$ression of the conte;t of the verse, and s)ggested that the #ro$het ordered
the se$aration of the se;es with it. >*G?"he $olitical and c)lt)ral conte;t for the
descent of the verse on the hia( as constit)ted (y al-B)/haris version of nas
recollections of this incident wo)ld $rove s)ch a view far fro! the !ar/.
The (ro'het$s )edding *ight the institution of the veil
&n his collection of Hadiths, the historian al-B)/hari writes that on the night
when he cele(rated his !arriage to ayna(, the #ro$het 3)ha!!ad (eca!e
fr)strated with his g)ests. "he whole city of 3edina had (een invited to the
cele(rations and des$ite the show of i!$atience on the $art of the #ro$het, the
g)ests wo)ld not leave. Finally, standing on the threshold of the wedding
cha!(er he recited the verse of the hia( >@)oted a(ove?, while drawing a
c)rtain (etween hi!self and his co!$anion, nas. >*6?&n effect this act of
drawing the c)rtain not only se$arated the s$ace (etween the s)(li!e and the
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$rofane >the s$ace (etween the #ro$het and his disci$les?, ()t also the s$ace
(etween two !en. "his act and the verse of the hia( , sit)ated a(ove all the
identity of the two !en as se$arate and esta(lished a hierarchical division of
$ower (etween the two thro)gh a s$atial division.
&n the $eriod that followed, the verse revealed on the #ro$hets wedding night(eca!e a handy tool for a conf)sed co!!)nity in civil war in 3edina. "he
wedding of ayna( and the #ro$het too/ $lace d)ring a $eriod of insta(ility in
which the #ro$het atte!$ted to gain a foothold in 3edina. "he 3)sli!s were
constantly )nder attac/ (y the s)rro)nding co!!)nity and it was o(vio)s that
one of the !ost $owerf)l ways to wea/en an already )nsettled co!!)nity was
thro)gh attac/ing the 3)sli! wo!en. "he verse of the hia( gave the 3)sli!
co!!)nity a sol)tion to a whole networ/ of $ro(le!s. >*+?"he act of veiling
was introd)ced into the 3)sli! co!!)nity as a way to distinguish(etween the
wives of the #ro$het >to who! the 3edinese were forced to show res$ect? and
the fe!ale slaves.>*5?'eiling, then, derived fro! the act of drawing thec)rtain between two men,was introd)ced into the 3)sli! co!!)nity in
3edina as a sign of hierarchical differentiation, now between women. &n the
!idst of civil war, the wives of the #ro$het ado$ted the veil to $rotect
the!selves fro! !olestation and the co!!)nity fro! vigilant attac/s.
D)ring this war, the streets of 3edina, i.e. $)(lic s$ace, (eca!e !ale s$ace and
if wo!en of higher stat)s wanted to enter into this s$ace, they were to do this
on the condition that they $)ll a $iece of clothing over their heads and (odies.
>AM?
3ernissi arg)es that the instit)tion of this act in the 3edinese $eriod !ar/edthe (eginning of wo!ens re$ression in &sla!-- a religion which fro! its
ince$tion was an egalitarian co!!)nity.>A*?"o agree with her on this $oint,
one wo)ld have to disregard the !ore recent history of 3)sli! wo!en, who in
the str)ggle for inde$endence in the lgerian War of &nde$endence >*5E-GA?
and in the str)ggle against i!$erialis! in &ran d)ring the &sla!ic evol)tion
>*56+-65? chose to don the veil as a gest)re of difference fro! the West. &n
other words, they chose to veil as a gest)re that wo)ld $osition the! against the
$erceived 4re$ression4 of colonial and i!$erialist $ower. >AA?
0o, rather than arg)e that the veil is essentially re$ressive on the one hand or
essentially li(erating on other hand, & wo)ld s)ggest (ased on this reading ofhistory, that the verse of the hia( revealed on the #ro$hets wedding night
entered into an a$$arat)s of $ower and /nowledge. &t did so as a $oint of
co!!)nal identity at a restless !o!ent in &sla!ic history. "he fe!ale (ody
was constr)ed as the focal-$oint of this identity. s s)ch it was given the tas/ to
$rotect the 3)sli! co!!)nal identity (y $rotecting its own. &sla!ic identity
was th)s constit)ted on a $ro(le!atic r)$t)re divided on this (odys gendered
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s$lit (etween nat)re and c)lt)re-and again on its historically hierarchized social
divide- a (ody c)lt)rally constit)ted as v)lnera(le and $erceived as nat)rally
har!f)l. >AC?Having entered into the a$$arat)s of $ower and /nowledge at this
level, the verse of the hia( !ar/ed a $ro(le! for clos)re within &sla!ic
disco)rses on s$ace. &ts fl)ct)ations within the contending
recollectionsI/nowledges that s)rro)nded it and the $olitical disco)rses that
activated it, f)rther $ro(le!atized the constit)tion of a )nified and contin)o)s
&sla!ic identity des$ite all efforts to constr)e it as otherwise. "he veil as a
re$resentation of this frag!ented identity ca!e to f)nction (oth $ositively and
negatively within the dyna!ics of $ower. s a $oint of identity it (eca!e an
arena of constant str)ggle and do!ination for the f)t)re 3)sli! co!!)nities.
&t f)nctioned therefore as a screen (ehind which the !ysterio)s, the feared and
the stereoty$ical and se;)ally $otent 3)sli! fe!ale fig)re co)ld lay dor!ant,
always ready to er)$t into the )ncertain do!ain of the $)(lic.
0$ace and its gendered $artitioning, as we have already o(served, isf)nda!ental in several ways to (oth the doctrine and the $ractice of &sla!.
Before we ret)rn to the disc)ssion of its disartic)lation in the gardens of
Badasht, & wo)ld li/e to !ove o)r attention to a consideration of a $artic)larly
$otent $)(lic s$ace which has for cent)ries fired the i!agination of indigeno)s
3)sli! $oets and geogra$hers ali/e. "his is the s$ace of the garden.
The %sla&ic Garden
We can i!agine that in the conte;t of the ecological conditions of the area
4con@)ered4 (y &sla!ic tho)ght, the garden co)ld (e seen as a way to
a!eliorate the often life-denying, arid and !onotono)s conditions of the land.#eo$le of high and low econo!ic stat)s incor$orated a life-s)staining oasis,
into their own $ro$erties, caref)lly sheltered away with a wall in order to >one
can only ass)!e? sh)t o)t the h)stle-()stle and odors of the city. "his is clearly
de$icted, even if we only cast a $assing glance on the vario)s collections of
i!ages that have (een handed down thro)gh 3ogol arts, and ancient #ersian
!iniat)res and car$ets. &t wo)ld see!, fro! a c)rsory st)dy of the vegetal
i!agery introd)ced into the car$et tradition d)ring the ((asid $eriod in &ran,
that the garden was so greatly val)ed that it was i!$ortant to constr)ct a never-
fading i!age of it onto a trans$orta(le !edi)! s)ch as the car$et. "his wo)ld
introd)ce the gardens verdant @)ality to interior s$aces. (rief st)dy the life style and $ractices of the &ranian no(ility, as de$icted
es$ecially (y the grand narratives of royal history and &ranian >!ystical? $oetry,
!ay allow )s to reach si!ilar concl)sions. We learn that gardens were always
incor$orated into the str)ct)res of dynastic residences for the $leas)re and
traditional rit)als of the r)ling class. "hese tales sit)ate the royal garden as a
site of ro!ance and hedonistic $leas)re, and as s$aces where the /ing wo)ld
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hold co)rt and cele(rate his weddings. &n allegories of the garden, the s$ace of
the garden re$resents and activates the dynasts drea!s, desires and night!ares.
"he garden not only ena(les his daily and rit)al activities it is an integral $art
of his $hysical and $hantas!agoric realities.>A?
"raditional historiogra$hic $ractice clai!s the gardens !ain f)nction to (e thes$atial reflection of the #aradise of the 1)ran. &ts str)ct)re in the for! of the
#ersian hahar Bagh, for e;a!$le, is said to directly re$resent the 8arden of
$aradise descri(ed (y the #ro$het 3)ha!!ad hi!self in this following verse9
nd (esides these shall (e two gardens,
green green $ast)res,
therein two fo)ntains of g)shing water
therein fr)its, and $al!-trees and $o!egranates
therein !aidens good and co!ely...
ho)ris, cloistered in cool $avilions... >AE?
"his descri$tion of #aradise is reg)larly interr)$ted (y the refrain9
4O which of yo)r Lords (o)nties will yo) and yo) deny4
there(y giving roo! for detailed atte!$ts to fig)re o)t a geogra$hy of #aradise
in the for! of two ti!es two gardens, a @)adrang)lar layo)t of !any royal
#ersian gardens called the hahar Bagh or 4Fo)r 8ardens.4
AG?
The (ro'het$s )edding +ha&ber and the Gardens of Badasht
&t is $recisely against this /ind of historiogra$hy that ass)!es a
4s)$rahistorical4 $ers$ective and disco)rse that & have la)nched 0hay/h ()
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")ra(s !e!ory of the revolt in Badasht. "he event, or rather, the critical
$ractice & attri()te to it, $res)$$oses fo)r !ethodological $rinci$les identified
(y 3ichel Fo)ca)lt in his *56M ina)g)ral lect)re at the ollege de France 4"he
Order of Disco)rse4 9 the $rinci$le of reversal, wherein the origin, tradition and
a)thority of the &sla!ic disco)rse on s$ace is $)t into @)estion= the $rinci$le of
discontin)ity, which recognizes the discontin)ity of disc)rsive $ractices on
s$ace, their crossing, );ta$osition and e;cl)sion= the $rinci$le of s$ecificity
which recognizes the violence of disco)rse done on things -- here &sla!ic
s$ace= and finally the $rinci$le of e;teriority which identifies the e;ternal
conditions of $ossi(ility for s)ch a disco)rse.
&n !y reading, 0hay/h () ")ra(s recollections of the $roceedings of the
Badasht onference are re!ar/a(le, (eca)se they sit)ate, for the first ti!e in
close to twelve cent)ries, a fe!ale )nveiled in &sla!ic $)(lic s$ace. Beyond
this, they are re!ar/a(le, (eca)se of the $lace that they clai! that s)ch an
event too/ $lace, and finally (eca)se of the stri/ing rhetoric that is associatedwith this $rovocative gest)re in a garden.
ltho)gh twelve cent)ries a$art, >al-B)/haris version of? nas recollections of
the event of the descent of the verse of the hia( on the threshold of the
#ro$hets wedding cha!(er and 0hay/h () ")ra(s recollections of the
!o!ent of 1)rrat al- 2yns )nveiling in the gardens of Badasht have si!ilar
altho)gh inverse effects in their a$$ro$riation (y traditional historical $ractice.
Whereas in the case of the #ro$het 3)ha!!ad the rhetoric, that is the 1)ranic
verse, is $reserved in historical !e!ory over and a(ove the act of drawing a
c)rtain (etween two !en= in the case of Badasht, the act of a fe!ales )nveiled
a$$earance, rather than 1)rrat al-2yns $owerf)l address, is re!e!(ered.
&n the case of one, the $reservation of the word ena(led the o$$ort)nity for !en
to regain control over the li(erated wo!an fol/ of 3ecca and 3edina, while in
the case of the other, the act of )nveiling was seized as a fig)rative constr)ct
that wo)ld reinforce the Ba(i disco)rse on e@)ality. >A6?Both of these
historiogra$hic $ractices, tho)gh dealing with events that are se$arated (y
!any cent)ries, are e;a!$les of the ways in which disco)rse is a violence done
to things. critical stance against this /ind of disc)rsive violence is evident in
1)rrat al-2yns own rhetorical $ractices as recollected (y 0hay/h () ")ra(.
The rder of -iscourse
&f we consider the gest)res and rhetorics that are said to have occ)rred at
Badasht together as a co-deter!ining whole, we are str)c/ (y the recognition
and the awareness 1)rrat al-2yn herself $rofessed of the $lace in which she
s$o/e, not only as a $)(lic s$ace that is e;cl)sively reserved as a !ale do!ain,
()t also as the s$ace of the garden which for cent)ries has (een associated with
the s$ace of the &sla!ic $aradise. &n s)staining this recognition, & will $ro$ose
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that the gest)re of )nveiling (y 1)rrat al-2yn signaled a critical analytics on
two fronts and an ac/nowledg!ent of a violence done to s$ace (y disco)rse on
two levels9
On the one hand we see that in the si!$le act of a$$ro$riating the 1)ranic
verse, 4!ongst gardens and rivers...4 1)rrat al-2yns s$eech ac/nowledgedthe str)ct)ral i!$osition of the disco)rse of the 1)ranic #aradise on the s$ace
of the garden. On the other, her a$$earance )nveiled in a traditional $)(lic
do!ain @)estioned the i!$osition of &sla!ic territorial $artitioning )$on an
otherwise )ndifferentiated $)(lic s$ace. &n (oth cases she @)estioned the
str)ct)ral i!$osition of a so-called &sla!ic disco)rse on s$ace. Her )se of
1)ranic lang)age at once s)$$orted the a)thority of the 1)ran while
si!)ltaneo)sly )ndoing its !eaning thro)gh a s$ecifically gendered !ode of
en)nciation in the $)(lic s$here. 0he th)s a$$ro$riated a voca()lary and
4t)rned it against those who had once )sed it.4 &n this act of a$$ro$riation
1)rrat al-2yn effectively resit)ated $aradise and hell on earth. 0he did so (ys)ggesting that those sitting in the garden in that very tent, were the $io)s
asse!(led (efore the $otent :ing. &n her s$eech and action 1)rrat al-2yn th)s,
reintrod)ced h)!an agency within the conte;t of history and $ositioned
a)thority and change within the real! of h)!an activity. 0he @)estioned
there(y the contig)o)s character of historical )nfolding as $refig)red and
g)ided solely (y a Divine hand.
1)rrat al-2yns address at Badasht @)estioned the ho!ogeno)s )nity
esta(lished as the so)rce of a)thorshi$ of the &sla!ic garden and of the social
division of s$ace. &n other words, her s$eech and her act of )nveiling in the
$)(lic do!ain reconfig)red the dis)nction (etween the doer and the deed --a
dis)nction which ironically $res)$$oses a contin)ity (etween the )thor of
&sla! and 4his4 wor/ and 4his4 $eo$le on earth. #)t differently, whereas (efore
it had (een a given that it was llahs will that &sla!ic s$ace was to (e divided
(y the (elievers into two territories, and that the garden sho)ld (e divided into
fo)r, to reflect 1)ranic #aradise, 1)rrat al-2yns action and s$eech now
clearly $osited h)!an activity as the e;ternal condition of $ossi(ility for s$atial
disco)rse in &sla!. H)!an activity was the only $arty res$onsi(le for this
deter!ination.
Beca)se of the i!(rication of s$atiality and veiling in &sla!, one canadditionally say that if she co)ld )nveil des$ite the so called in)nction to veil
>e;e!$lified (y the a$$ro$riation of the 1)ranic verse?, then others co)ld
a$$ro$riate the veil witho)t that in)nction in !ind. H)!an activity alone
co)ld therefore (e held res$onsi(le for the constr)al of a gendered s$ace and
the constit)tion and the a)thorshi$ of the garden as the 1)ranic $aradise.
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Her act and her s$eech introd)ced a dis)nction (etween the &sla!ic disco)rses
on s$ace, 4c)tting4 the! off fro! their ass)!ed 1)ranic in)nctions. 1)rrat al-
2yn th)s sit)ated the deed and doer within the sa!e disc)rsive !atri;. &n
effect her gest)re and s$eech $ro$osed the $ossi(ility of a reversal in the
!eaning of that s$ace thro)gh the force of rhetorical and $ractical
);ta$osition. "he garden, $revio)sly regarded as the s$ace of $aradisical and
$oetical !)sings, was th)s redressed as a s$ace of activity and resistance.
Her a$$earance )nveiled in the $)(lic and gendered s$ace of the garden also
@)estioned the hierarchical str)ct)re i!$osed on the s$ace of the garden as
s$ace of $iety as well as that of no(ility. &n @)estioning this heirarchical
str)ct)re 1)rrat al- 2yn clai!ed that her $resence in the garden as the word
s$o/en (y the 1ai! wo)ld $)t to flight 4the chiefs and no(les of the earth4.
ltho)gh $hysically )nveiled her s$eech re-veiled her >so to s$ea/? as the Word
s$o/en (y the 1ai! hi!self, the charis!atic leader who according to 0hiite
tradition was to a(rogate the &sla!ic 0haria >law? and esta(lish the reign of anew era in religio)s and $olitical history. Her gest)re th)s introd)ced a 4foreign
other4 into the real! do!inated (y the rhetorics of a)thority and $ower
for!erly attri()ted to her se;)al co)nter$art. s s)ch she la)nched a frontal
attac/ on >&sla!ic? hierarchical and other-worldly disco)rse, introd)cing h)!an
activity as the only (asis for social $rogress.
&n the days that followed this historical s$eech each of the $artici$ants at the
conference too/ on a new na!e where(y signaling their re(irth into a new era
in ti!e. "hen, as if to ac/nowledge 1)rrat al-2yns gest)re, the $artici$ants
discarded their $rayer r)gs which (y its design orients the $ietistic (ody
towards 3ecca and (ro/e their $rayer seals, e@)ating the! to idols in a gest)re
not )nli/e 3)ha!!ads when he, in the Holy ity, tried to convey the definite
(rea/ with an era of $aganistic devotion (y destroying the o(ects of idol
worshi$. "he s$ace of &sla! was confronted (y a disco)rse of antagonis! at
the Badasht onference, there(y creating the conditions for a new disco)rse on
s$ace and a new era in >religio)s? history. >A+?
Shaykh Abu Turab$s recollections
By $ositioning !y own historiogra$hic intervention >in the &sla!ic disco)rses
on s$ace? on 0hay/h () ")ra(s recollections of the events that too/ $lace at
the Badasht onference, & have atte!$ted to reconstr)ct a consistent,contin)o)s, and antagonistic $ortrait of a revol)tionary !ove!ent that thro)gh
the gest)res and words of one of its renowned fe!ale re$resentatives
introd)ced discontin)ity into the life of the &sla!ic !ind. &n a$$ro$riating
these recollections, & have arg)ed that the Ba(i !ove!ent >read thro)gh the
!o!ent of its self-recognition in Badasht? was a revol)tionary !ove!ent, that
c)t o)r /nowledge of &sla!ic history, disar!ed its notion of a )nified
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s)(ectivity and @)estioned its sense of historical contin)ity in the fig)re of the
a)thorial Word of its #ro$het. &ronically, this clai! was only !ade $ossi(le (y
the a$$ro$riation of an )ndivided s)(ectivity infor!ed (y 0hay/h () ")ra(s
recollections of 1)rrat al-2yn.
For if we loo/ at other acco)nts of 1)rrat al-2yn, there is reason to (elievethat !atters are not as straight forward as they see!. >A5?"he British
Orientalist CM?Browne co!!ents that if he can rememberthe
conversation correctly, this early Ba(i res$onded to the @)estion of 1)rrat al-
2yns discarding of the veil in the following words9
&t is not tr)e that she laid aside the veil. 0o!eti!es when carried away (y her
elo@)ence, she allowed it to sli$ down off herface, ()t she wo)ld always
re$lace it after a few !o!ents.>C*?
*abil$s *arrative, Agency and Effective History.
"he $ositioning of !y historiogra$hy of the Ba(i revolt in Badasht on the
recollections of 0hay/h () ")ra( is rather $recario)s in the conte;t of Ba(i
history, since no one see!s to dwell on () ")ra( identity. Browne s)ggests
that () ")ra( was one of the earliest disci$les of the Ba( and that he was
!arried to one of 1)rrat al-2yns fe!ale st)dents, a wo!an of 4e;traordinary
virt)e and $iety4>CA?Na(il on the other hand introd)ces () ")ra( as a
0hay/hi who never really ac/nowledged the Ba(s clai!s )ntil !)ch later in
the Ba(s career. >CC?ccording to Na(il he a$$arently died in the "ehran$rison where he was held ca$tive with so!e well /nown Ba(i leaders incl)ding
Baha)llah.>C?"here a$$ears to (e no other reference to ")ra( anywhere else.
"o add !ore co!$le;ity to the !atter, () ")ra( see!ingly $lays the !ost
insignificant role in the grand and at ti!es grotes@)e history of the Ba(i
!ove!ent as $resented in Na(ils Narrative. He a$$ears only fo)r ti!es in the
!ore than seventy years of history narrated (y Na(il. Once as the chronicler of
the Badasht conference >CE?, a second ti!e as 1)rrat al-2yns (ody g)ard after
the onference >CG?, a third ti!e as the har(inger of glad tidings at 0hay/h
"a(arsi>C6?, and finally as a character witness against Hai 3irza :ari! :han
:ir!ani in his recollections of 0ayyid :azi!. >C+?
&t this the latter !o!ent that & wo)ld li/e to $a)se and reflect on since here,
once again, () ")ra(s )nfailing recollections are drawn )$on to el)cidate a
critical sit)ation.>C5?&n Na(ils historiogra$hy, () ")ra(s recollection of
:ari! :han is (ro)ght into the $ict)re only $aragra$hs (efore 0ayyid :azi!
ashtis death is characterized. "his is o(vio)sly a !o!ent that if not
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negotiated caref)lly wo)ld create a $otential crisis for Ba(is!s legiti!acy as a
religio)s !ove!ent.
0ayyid :azi! was /nown as the religio)s leader of the 0hay/hi school, a
heterodo;y of 0hi2ite &sla! sit)ated in :ar(ala >&ra@?. ccording to !ost
acco)nts, the Ba(s initial clai!s of 3ahdihood were directed at 0ayyid:azi!s st)dents, !any of who! acce$ted it after the teachers death and
(eca!e active $artici$ants in the !ove!ent.>M?0hay/h () ")ra( is clai!ed
to (e one of 0ayyid :azi!s $ro!inent st)dents who late in the Ba(s career
acce$ted the latters clai! to 3ahdihood. 1)rrat al-2yn and 1)dd)s were
a!ong other st)dents who acce$ted this clai!.
0ayyid :azi! had, according to !ost so)rces, for years ta)ght the et)rn of
the "welfth &!a! and $re$ared his st)dents to investigate this clai! were it to
occ)r in their life ti!e. &n *+, when the Ba( $roclai!ed his !ission a great
!any of 0ayyid :azi!s st)dents recognized this clai!. &n effect the Ba( too/
on 4the s)ccessorshi$4 of the 0hay/hi school after the teachers death.
"he $ositioning of () ")ra(s recollection in the conte;t of Na(ils
historiogra$hy (eco!es clear, if we consider the role $layed (y the third $arty >
Hai 3irza :ari! :han :ir!ani? of this recollection in relation to the
develo$!ent of the Ba(i !ove!ent. :ari! :han, another $ro!inent st)dents
of 0ayyid :azi!, left the 0hay/hi school so!e years (efore the death of its
leader >0ayyid :azi!? and esta(lished hi!self in :ir!an where he started his
own (ranch of the school >called the :ir!ani school?. ltho)gh fa!iliar with
the Ba(s clai!s, :ir!ani whole-heartedly reected the Ba( and was for years
involved in the agitation of the re!ainder of 0ayyid :azi!s st)dents againstthe Ba( and his followers.
() ")ra(s recollections, sit)ated >in te;t)al ter!s? only !o!ents (efore
0ayyid :azi!s death in Na(ils Narrative give his words a highly charged tas/9
to recall a !o!ent in which 0ayyid :azi! reects his own st)dent, :ari!
:han. &n () ")ra(s recollection of this conversation 0ayyid :azi! is said to
have referred to :ari! :han as one 4acc)rsed,4 whose doctrines are 4heretical4
and 4atheistic4 and 4who has grievo)sly erred in his )dg!ent4. >*?()
")ra(s recollection of this conversation with his own teacher can (e read as a
self-serving character assassination. B)t its strategic $ositioning at a crisis $oint
in Na(ils historiogra$hy, clearly sit)ates its contents in a historiogra$hic $lacethat rids the reader of any do)(t as to the s)ccessorshi$ of 0ayyid :azi! (efore
the historical crisis even occ)rs >in historiogra$hic ter!s?. For Na(il, ()
")ra(s recollections sit)ate the necessary contin)ity of his narrative of the
Ba(i !ove!ents revol)tionary history and its legiti!acy.
B)t we sho)ld as/9 why is this i!$ortant What relevance does this te;t)al
$ositioning have for a revol)tionary history that relentlessly $osits h)!an
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agency as the driving force of social $rogress, and that )ses strategy in the face
of chance to disr)$t the fo)ndations of &sla!ic tho)ght thro)gh introd)cing
discontin)ity in history
() ")ra(s character role, altho)gh infinitesi!al in Na(ils narration of
Ba(is! revol)tionary history, is $layed on a !eas)red field of contin)ity anddiscontin)ity. () ")ra(s recollections of Badasht in the Narrative la)nch an
acco)nt of the !ove!ents discontin)ity with &sla!ic traditions and val)es,
forcing a (rea/ (etween &sla! and Ba(is! in the fig)re of the onference.
")ra(s recollections of 1)rrat al-2yns actions and words in Badasht, !)ch
li/e his $ortrayed role as her (ody g)ard after the onference s)t)re the
necessary s)(ectivity that wo)ld then $osit h)!an agency and action )$
against the 4scra!(led4 identity of &sla!. His recollection th)s sit)ates a
contin)o)s s)(ectivity against the decre$it identity that is &sla!s. >"he
onference $artici$ants collective a$$ro$riation of new na!es, we sho)ld
note, is i!$ortant in the config)ration of this new s)(ectivity? For Na(il, thisstill leaves the @)estion of the !ove!ents legiti!acy )nanswered.
&n drawing on () ")ra(s recollections, Na(il sit)ates the Ba(i !ove!ents
legiti!acy in 0ayyid :azi!s reection of his $)$il :ari! :han. He does this,
!ore i!$ortantly, (efore the teachers death. &ndeed, thro)gh this reection and
al!ost fort)ito)sly he $osits the Ba( as the legiti!ate clai!ant to 0ayyid
:azi!s s)ccessorshi$. "h)s creating thro)gh () ")ra(s !e!ory, a
contin)ity (etween the two schools of tho)ght9 0hay/his! and Ba(is!
Legiti!acy is th)s esta(lished in the face of every clai! directed at the
!ove!ent fro! it o$$onents.
"he fig)re of () ")ra( !)st (e seen as a $ro(le!atic one, then. Divided on
the )nct)re (etween insignificance and infinite signification= s$lit on the
critical line dividing contin)ity and change= and called )$on to (ear witness to
the !ove!ents legiti!acy and 1)rrat al-2yns illegiti!ate gest)re, () ")ra(
re$resents the fig)re of the Ba(i !ove!ent as s)ch. For as Fischer and (edi
re!ar/ the Ba(i !ove!ent as a revol)tionary !ove!ent was a 4!i;t)re of
$rogressive ideas and initiatives and reactionary theocratic ones4 often
enco)ntered on a rhetorical level >at least? within the (ody of &sla!ic and
es$ecially the 0hi2ite heterodo;ies.
&f we are to rely to so!e e;tent on the i!$licit !irror that & have $laced(etween the early days of the &sla!ic religion and the events at Badasht, it is
clear that the historicity of revolt is not only in its innovations or, in Fo)ca)lts
$hraseology, in the introd)ction of 4discontin)ity4 or 4interr)$tions4 in history.
evolts are, to a li!ited e;tent, !o!ents that har/en (ac/, not only to esta(lish
their legiti!acy, or to constr)e a )nified s)(ectivity in the face of danger, ()t
also to ani!ate the !o!ents of the $resentwith the life force of a distant and
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desira(le $ast. s s)ch, they constit)te and activate !o!ents of the $ast within
the $resent !o!ent of the everyday. "his is an instance of Walter Bena!ins
notion of der #$ngste Tag-- where the chroniclers !ost recent day is also and
inevita(ly the !essianic Day of 7)dg!ent. >A?
&n this light, as !anat notes, C?None
the less, we can see within the fr)it of this !e!ory of an idealized $ast, the
seed of 4a dyna!ic f)t)re4. 1)rrat al-2yns constit)tion of individ)al agency
and h)!an res$onsi(ility as the force that !)st (e !aterialized into action can
only (e seen in this light in the conte;t of religio)s history.
Footnotes
>P?3any than/s to the UL 7o)rnal of History readers of the first draft whose
e;tensive co!!ents hel$ed in the for!)lation of this version of the essay. lso
!y dee$est a$$reciation and than/s to 7aco( :ra)ss witho)t whose long
distance fa;es, enco)rage!ent and criti@)es, this $a$er wo)ldnt have ta/en
sha$e. & a! also gratef)l to 7)an ole and the two anony!o)s readers for H-Bahais Occasional #a$ers for their infor!ed criticis!.
>*?Fo)ca)lt, 3ichel. 4Nietzsche, 8enealogy, History4 Fo)ca)lt eader New or/9 #antheon, *5+?, ++
>A?4Nietzsche, 8enealogy, History4 +5
>C?N)@tat al-:afreviews these as$ects of 0hay/hi tho)ght in great detail. efer
to
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>?i(id. ++
>E?&n 7)ly *++ the Ba(i leader of this )$s$ring, 3)lla H)sayn B)shr)i --the
first disci$le of the Ba(-- raised the Blac/ 0tandard in 3ashhad and set offwestward. "he i!$lications of this gest)re for the govern!ent and the religio)s
hierarchy ali/e were o(vio)s. &n 0hiih &sla!, there is a well /nown "radition
attri()ted to the #ro$het that s)ggests, that sho)ld one see the Blac/ 0tandard
co!ing fro! :h)rasan then one sho)ld go to it. "he 3ahdi -the religio)s
leader who went into hiding in the early days of &sla! --according to this
"radition-- will (e there. 3ore i!$ortantly, however, the raising of the Blac/
0tandard in :h)rasan was an act i!()ed with historical and contra-dynastic
significance. "he raising of the Blac/ 0tandard is historically /nown as the
gest)re which ina)g)rated the final overthrow of the U!ayyad dynasty (y the
((asids. "his sy!(olic act not only signaled an i!$ending attac/ on thee;isting religio)s order (y the co!ing of the 3ahdi, ()t also $osed a definitive
threat for the e;isting dynasty. ltho)gh, ironically, the i!$ortance of this
challenge got ()ried )nder the conf)sion of the govern!ent over the death of
3)ha!!ad 0hah, the $o$)lace in Barf)r)sh en ro)te confronted the Ba(is
traveling )nder 3)lla H)sayns (anner, forcing the! to ta/e )$ $ositions
aro)nd the 0hrine of 0hay/h "a(arsi. "he conflict (etween the two gro)$s
lasted fro! !id-Octo(er *++ to early 3ay *+5.
>G?!anat, ((as. es)rrection and enewal9 "he 3a/ing of the Ba(i
3ove!ent in &ran *+-*+EM >&thaca9 ornell U#,*5+5?, CAE
>6?BahR or Baha)llah wo)ld in *+GC esta(lish the BahRS Faith. 0ee Baly)zis
Baha)llah, "he :ing of 8lory
>+?!anat CAG
>5?a((ani, 0hoghi "he Dawn Brea/ers9 Na(ils Narrative of the
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>*A?3ernissi, Fati!a. "he 'eil and the 3ale *+?i(id. 5A
>*5?h!ed s)ggests other circ)!stances for the instit)tion of the veil, drawing
fro! &n( 0ads >re?collections. 0ee Wo!en and 8ender , E
>AM?&n this $artic)lar conte;t & a! referring to the #ro$hets wives, since his
wives were the only ones that ca!e along on the e;$edition.
>A*?Fati!a 3ernissi s)ggests this event as a sy!(olic e;$ression of
4regression on se;)al e@)ality4 co!!ingled with a 4regression in social
e@)ality4, ()t the coincidental i!agery of the descent of the hia( over all
wo!en for the 4fifteen cent)ries that followed4 in this $aragra$h and her
s)(se@)ent disc)ssions strongly s)ggests the a(ove reading >*6+-65?.
>AA?0ee Fanons disc)ssion of the veil9 4lgeria Unveiled4 in Dying
olonialis! and 0hirazi-3ahaans disc)ssion of the role of the veil in the
&ranian &sla!ic revol)tion in riti@)e >0$ring *55C?
>AC?We have co!e to learn that se;)ality, in the conte;t of &sla!, is territorial
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>3ernissi, Beyond +*?. 0e;)ality is !a$$ed, as it were, )nto the s$ecific
to$ology of the $)(lic and the $rivate. &n this conte;t, fe!ale veiling is
for!)lated as a way to ens)re the $)rity of the $)(lic s$here, generally
designated as !ale, and the $rotection of the fe!ale, in the sa!e conte;t,
thro)gh a gest)re of dissi!)lation. s s)ch, this constr)ction $er!its the
definition of fe!ale identity, in this conte;t, as s$lit. On the one hand, in the
conte;t of the $erce$tion of her nat)ral constit)tion, the fe!ale is seen as a
distraction, an invasion or intervention to the !ales for!)lation of his identity
as $io)s or divine. Her $resence as a 4nat)ral4Ise;)al (eing in the $)(lic
s$here, in other words, interferes with the 3)sli! !ans relation with his 8od.
On the other hand, in the conte;t of her c)lt)ral stat)s in 3)sli! history and as
the e!(odi!ent of the co!!)nitys identity as s)ch, the fe!ale is seen as
wea/, indeed in need of $rotection in the !ale do!ain. "he veil th)s covers
over her constit)tional s$lit, creating a )nified or whole s)(ect that is (oth
dangero)s (y nat)re and inca$a(le to defend herself or the 3)sli!
co!!)nitys identity within the social do!ain. Witho)t the veil this d)al and
dangero)s @)ality is tho)ght to co!e to the fore, )nveiling a 4scra!(led4
identity, dangero)s and !)tilated.
>A?"his reading ste!s fro! Neza!is&aft )aikar>0even Bea)ties? "ranslated
(y .AE?Fro! the 1)ran 'erses G-6E 0)ra EE
>AG?s noted (y 8. 3arTias in the
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>A+?!anat , es)rrection CA6
>A5?Brownes edition of :ita(-i N)@tat al-:af >a (oo/ which is said to (e one
of the earliest records of Ba(i history?does not refer to 1)rrat al-2yns)nveiling at Badasht at all. Witho)t giving a detailed acco)nt of the dis$)te
(etween the two Ba(i leaders, N)@tat al-:af records a s$eech delivered at the
Badasht conference. Browne notes that (eca)se of the corr)$tion of the
!an)scri$t at this $oint, he cannot say whether this s$eech was delivered (y
1)dd)s or 1)rrat al-2yn >"ari/h-i-7adid CE6?. "he s$eech, regardless, treats
the doctrine of 4et)rn4 >raat? at so!e length. "he o)tward for!s of religion
>s)ch as $rayer, fasting, $ilgri!age, and al!s? are all e;$lained allegorically.
"he a(rogation of the laws of the $revio)s religio)s dis$ensation is anno)nced,
and laws in general are declared to (e necessary only )ntil s)ch ti!e as $eo$le
have learned to co!$rehend the 4Doctrine of Unity4 >Tawhid? (y which is!eant the recognition of the tr)e nat)re of the 4#oint4 or Divine 3anifestation
of the age.4 >"ari/h-i-7adid CE6= N)@tat al-:af *E*-*EA ? "he te;t regards the
days in Badasht as a ti!e in which the fr)its of the Ba(s revelation reached
their height of ri$eness --a ri$eness which tore o$en the fr)its own s/in >a*
shiddat-i rasidigi pust ra parih namudand? to reveal an e;@)isite /ernel
>magh*-i dilkash?. >*E? "his sy!(olis! of the torn s/in cco)ld (e inter$reted
as 1)rrat al-2yns )nveiling. 3ore i!$ortantly, however, it onc)rs with the
i!agery of the Day of es)rrection in conte!$oraneo)s $erfor!ances of the
"aziyeh. >0ee !y $a$er 4es)rrection, et)rn, efor!9 "aziyeh as !odel for
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>C*?Browne, C?Na(ils Narrative CM
>CE?Na(ils Narrative A**
>CG?i(id. A*G
>C6?i(id. A5-C*. For a disc)ssion of the 0hay/h "a(arsi )$s$rings also /nown
as the 3azandaran )$heavals see 3ooan 3o!en 4"he 0ocial Basis of the
Ba(i U$heavals in &ran9 a $reli!inary analysis 4 in &nternational 7o)rnal of
3iddle *5+C? *E6-*+C.
>C+?Na(ils Narrative A5-C*
>C5?i(id.
>M?For a !ore detailed acco)nt of the !ove!ent and its history see 3angol
Bayat 3ysticis! and Dissent 9 0ocioreligio)s "ho)ght in 1aar &ran 0yrac)se
U# *5+A.
>*?Na(ils Narrative A5
>A?For an e;cellent disc)ssion of Bena!ins#et*t*eit see &an Balfo)rs
4eversal 1)otation >Bena!ins History?4 3LN *MG, *55*.
>C?see Browne,
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)orks +ited
h!ed, Leila. Wo!en and 8ender in &sla!9 Historical oots of a 3odern
De(ate. New Haven9 ale University #ress, *55A.
!anat, ((as. es)rrection and enewal9 "he 3a/ing of the Ba(i 3ove!ent
in &ran *+-*+EM &thaca9 ornell U#, *5+5.
---. 4"he hanging World of "a al- 0altana4. &ntrod)ction to rowning
ng)ish9 3e!oirs of a #ersian #rincess fro! the Hare! to 3odernity. By "a
al-0altana. Bena!ins History?4 3LN *MG >*55*?9 GAA-
GE.
Baly)zi, H. 3. Baha)llah, "he :ing of 8lory. O;ford9 8eroge onald *5+M.
Bayat, 3angol 3ysticis! and Dissent 9 0ocioreligio)s "ho)ght in 1aar &ran
0yrac)se U# *5+A.
Bena!in, Walter. 4"heses on the #hiloso$hy of History.4 &ll)!inations
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Fo)ca)lt, 3ichel. 4Nietzsche, 8enealogy, History4 Fo)ca)lt eader.
$reli!inary analysis 4 in &nternational 7o)rnal of 3iddle *5+C? *E6-*+C.
Nietzsche, F. W. 4On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life.4
Unti!ely 3editations. a!(ridge9 a!(ridge U#, *55.
oot, 3artha. "ahirih "he #)re One *5C+ e$rinted. Los ngeles9 :ali!at
#ress,*5+*
a((ani, 0hoghi "he Dawn Brea/ers9 Na(ils Narrative of the
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