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TheInterplayofPhilosophyofScience,Statistics,andStorytelling

DavidM.BojeJanuary11,2018;revisedJan14,2018

Accepted20Jan2018toAdebowaleAkande<deboakande@yahoo.com>fortheNovaInternationalHandbookofPsychology–editedbyDr.AdebowaleAkande(IRC-SurveyResearch,SouthernAfrica),Dr.BolanleAdetoun(ECOWAS/Cornell

University,Ithaca,USA)andDr.ModupeAdewuyi(EmoryUniversity,Atlanta,/Lenoir-RyneUniversity,USA)

AbstractThereisaCopernicanRevolutionhappeninginstatistics.Itissomethingthataffectstheinterplayofscience,statistics,andthekindsofstorytellingtheydo.ProfessorDavidTrafimowistakingontheveneratednullhypothesisandthep-valuemethodoftestingsignificance.Hehasgonesofar,asajournaleditortobanthenullhypothesisfromconsideration.Authorsusingp-valueargumentsareaskedtoreviseandresubmittheirwork.SuchasstirhasbeencreatedthattheCanadianStatisticalAssociationandnowtheAmericanStatisticalAssociationhaveconvenedspecialmeetingstocomeoutwithproclamations.EveniftheysupportprofessorTrafimow,itwillbemanyyears,manychangesinstatisticsbooks,andmeanretrainingstatisticsteachers.Itwillmeanadifferentunderstandingofphilosophyofscience,statisticalaccounts,andenrollmyownfield,storytelling.ThechapterincludesaseriesofYouTubevideointerviewswithProfessorTrafimow.Introduction Whyisstorytellingrelevanttophilosophyofscienceandtostatistics?For

me,storytellingismorethanwrittenorspokennarrativeandcounternarratives.

Thethemeofthechapterishownewchangesinscienceandstatisticreasoning

(droppingnullhypothesis,alternativestop-valuetests)willchangethewaysof

storytellinginacademicwriting.Thepurposeofthechapteristogivesome

historicalreviewofthenewestCopernicanRevolutioninstatisticalargumentation,

andtoshowhowstorytellingcancontributetonewwaysofstorytellingstatistics

andphilosophyofscience.

WhatisPhilosophyofScience?

Thereismorethanonephilosophyofscience.Themostknownisphilosophy

ofscienceconcernedwithmethods,theoryfoundations,andimplicationsof

‘empiricalscience’.ThomasKuhn’s(1962/1970)evolutionsofnormalsciences

wherescientistselaborateon,ordetractfromsomecentral,moreorless,within

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acceptedtheory.Aswewillexploreinalatersection,Kuhnviewedmodelbuilding

asfundamentaltonormalscienceevolution(Barnes,2008).InKuhnianparadigm

(whichhassometwentymeanings)revolutionaryscience,anomaliesrefutethe

acceptedtheoryofnormalscience,breakingitdown,untilthereisaparadigmshift

overturningitsacceptedtheory.Whitehead(1933:1968:143)putitthisway:

“Theemphasisofscienceisuponobservationofparticularoccurrences,anduponinductivegeneralizations,issuinginwideclassificationsofthingsaccordingtotheirmodesoffunctioning,inotherwordsaccordingtothelawsofnaturewhichtheyillustrations.”

Kuhn,bycontrasttoWhitehead,questionedthis“notionthatscientific

knowledgewastheresultofaslowandsteadyprocessofincremental

accumulation”(Prasad,2005:6).SincethenLatour(1987)andmanyothersare

questionsifthe”scientificmethodstrictlyfollowsthelogicalprinciplesofdeduction,

induction,andfalsification”(IBID).Rather,itisa“random,andcreativeelementin

science,aswellaskthekeyroleofconstructsandinterpretiveframesincomingup

withscientificcategories”(Prasad,2005:6).Theimplicationisthatpositivismisno

longeradheringtorigidscientificmethodprotocol.

BurrellandMorgan(1979)theorizedphilosophyofsciencein4-paradigm

clusters,eachamixofquitedifferentparadigms.Iwanttocontrastitwithan

alternativeconceptionofphilosophyofsciencebyDeetz(1996).Iwillsuggestthat

bothhavemademulti-paradigmsintoa4-paradigmgrid.

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Figure1:ContrastandComparisonofBurrell&Morgan4-griddualismswithnewgrid-dualismsproposedbyDeetz(drawingbyBoje,2018combinesBurrell&

Morgantablespp.22,27,29,30,&121)

Puttingthe4-gridmodelssidebyside(andincludingallthe(sub)paradigms

ofeachone,allowssomeinterestingcontrasts.Deetz(1996:191)concludesthat

BurrellandMorgan’s(1979)four-paradigminpastdecadeshasgained“almost

hegemoniccapacitytodefinethealternativesinorganizationalanalysis.”The

BurrellandMorgan(1979:22)dualistic-dimensionsofcontrastaresubjectivist—

objectivistandthe‘sociologyofradicalchange’—‘Thesociologyofregulation’.I

added‘solipsism’becauseitisincludedinBurrellandMorgan(1979:29figure)on

their‘subjective’sideofthedualism.Solipsismholdsthattheselfcanknownothing

butitsownmodificationsandthattheselfistheonlyexistentthing.Following

Habermas(CriticalTheory),theycharacterizesolipsismas“occupyingthemost

subjectivistregionofthesubjective”(IBID.229).

Deetz’scriticismisthatthe4-paradigmgridreproducedtheworldasview

frommainstream“sociologicalfunctionalist”definitional-authorityofitsparticular

versionof“philosophyofscience”traditionofseparateobjectsofstudy,butequalin

alooseyetreifiedclassificationcategoriesthatobscuredimportantconceptual

differencesinresearchorientations,andledtopoorlyformedconflictsand

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discussions(Deetz,1996:191-192).Forexample,theFrankfurtschoolof‘Critical

Theory’critiqueofhumanism,founditselfcategoriesinthegridasamong‘radical

humanists’and“lostinsomeholeinparadigmaticspace”(Deetz,1996:192).

Anotherresultofthe4-paradigmgridisfunctionalistsociologywasprotectedfrom

necessarycritiqueandcouldnormalizeitsparadigm(ofhiddenvalues

explanations),andhavecontroloveranyemergingparadigms(tofitintothe

functional4-paradigmgrid).ThenDeetzraisedamoreimportantconcernthatthe

4-paradigmgriddimensionsofcontrastismissingotherdimensionsofgenuine

differenceinresearchprograms.Forexample,thecontestsformeaningindiscourse

theoryandhowlanguageconstitutesobjectsintheworld(Deetz,1996:192).

The4-paradigmgrid[paradigmclustering]ledtodebatesoverparadigm

compatibilityandincommensurability(Willmott,1993)andappropriateuseofthe

paradigms(Hassard,1991,1995).

Thebasicdualismproblemwiththedimensionsofthe4-paradigmgrid

remainsandcontinuestonormalizeexistingandemergingtheoriesandmethods

intofunctionalist-conceivedparadigmdualisms.Thesubjective-objectivedimension

isadualismasoldas“Westerntheoreticalwriting”,amountsto“floggingadead

horse”,butservestocreateandsustainhierarchiesofresearchprogramsprivileging

codifiedquantitativestudiesasobjectiveandmarginalizesqualitativeorinterprets

studiesassubjective.(Deetz,1996:193).Thishierarchygetsreproducedin

universitiesinpromotionandtenureprocessesandinjournalreviewprocessesin

academies.Deetz’spointisthesubjective-objectivedualityis“sociallycontrived”

[languagegame]in“positivism”-valuesratherthan“naturalfact”(deetz,1996:193).

So-called“interpretivists”are“oftenlabeledas‘subjective’yettheirmethodis

oftentimesabetterclaimtoobjectivitybecauseitallowsalternativelanguagegames

andthepossibilityofalternativeconstructingarisingfromexistingcommunities

denyingbothresearchcommunityconceptionsandpreferredmethodsasprivileged

anduniversal”(Deetz,1996:194).

Wecanallagreethatthesubjective-objectivedualismhassustained“rather

misleadingconflictsandequallymisleadingpresumedrelationsbetweensocial-

calledqualitativeandquantitativeresearch”(Deetz,1996:194).Theassociationof

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‘subjective’with‘qualitative-multiplicity’and‘objective’with‘empiricalscience’as

wellaswith‘numeric-multiplicity’marginalizes“rigorousinterpretivework”that

doesnotmeetthedefinitionof“purelyimpressionisticmusing”(IBID.194).

Thereisanotherimportantissue,triangulation.Thesubjective-objective

dualityservesto“retainthedreamoftriangulationsasifdifferentresearch

programssimplyprovidedadditiveinsightsintothesamephenomenon”while

hidingtherealconflict(IBID.194).Thereasontriangulationisanoversimplification

ofmulti-paradigmreachistheeachmodeofanalysisis“producingandelaborating

differentphenomenafordifferentreasons”IBID.194).

Thelargerquestionishowtofreenumeric-multiplicityandempiricalscience

fromthepretensesoftheBurrellandMorganfunctionalistontology.

“Manyhumanquestionsadmitofnumericalanswers,andtheseanswersshouldbegoodones.Butwhencodification,counting,andstatisticalreductionareseparatedfromthefullprocessofconstitutingobjects,determiningproblemsandinfluencingcommunities,whenonlyonesliceoftheresearchprocessisclaimedasscience,researchlosesrelevanceandcriticalpartsoftheprocessarenotinvestigated”(Deetz,1996:195).

Concerningtheseconddualism(‘sociologyofradicalchange’—‘sociologyof

regulation),Deetziscriticalofthe‘sociologyofradicalchange’—‘sociologyof

regulation’dualismbecauseit“tendedinmustusagestoassumethepresenceofa

coherentdominantgroupororders,andtheprimaryconflictinitiatingchangewas

classconflict”(Deetz,1996:197).Thisdualismmarginalizesdominantdiscourses

thatareoftendisorganizedanddisjunctmicro-processes(e.g.“technology,

consumerism,careerism,environmentaldestruction,andexclusiveconcernwith

economicgrowth”)whileprivilegingagroupversusgroupconflict(IBID.197).

Deetz’ssolutionistoreplacethe4-paradigmgriddimensionswithtwo

alternativedualismdimensions.Subjective—objectiveisreplacedby

local/emergent—eliteaprioridualism.The‘sociologyofradicalchange’—‘sociology

ofregulation’dualismisreplacedbydissensus-consensusdualism.Andseveralnew

paradigmsareincludedinthe4-paradigmgridclusters.

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Insum,Deetziswritingwithinthelinguisticturn,makingtheclaimthat

objective-subjectiveisnotonlyadualismthatissociallyconstructedlanguagegame,

itisalsoarhetoricalmoveinstallingsubjectivist-objectivistdualityinorderto

justifyfunctionalistandneo-positivisticphilosophyofscienceofbothpositivistic-

“subjectivehumanists”and“hardcoreabstractedempiricists”researchprograms

andmarginalizingallcompetingprograms.Analternativewaytoframeobjective-

subjectiveistheinsider-outsidersplittodemonstratethepoliticalmotivationsof

thedifference.

Deetz,however,inmyview,hasnotsolvedthreekeyphilosophyofscience

problems.First,hissolutiontotheproblemofdualisticdimensionsistoreplace

themwithtwootherdualisticdimensions.

Second,hisnewdualisticdimensionsareaperiodizing‘grid’approachof

premodern,modern,latemodern,andpostmodernparadigmclusters.AsIhave

writtenaboutbefore,theepochsuccessionapproachishighlyproblematicnarrative

ofhistory.Mostpostmodernistshaveabandonedit,sincemodernismwasnot

succeededbyapostmodernepoch.Thesolutioninhasbeentofocusonpostmodern

theoryratherthanpostmodernepochshifts.AsLatour(2012)putsit,‘wehave

neverbeenmodern.’AsCajetepointsoutso-calledpre-modern[traditional]hasits

ownphilosophyof‘NativeScience’,onethatprivilegesstorytellingasits

methodologyofchoice.

Third,inmulti-paradigmwork,thefocusneedstobethein-between.Pondy

andI(1980”83)weredevelopingamulti-paradigmapproachtosolvetheproblem

ofhowtomanageinquiryfoundedonamultiplicityofparadigms.Weworkedwith

Ritzer’s(1973)threeparadigmsoperatingwithinsociology:socialfactist,social

behaviorist,andsocialdefinitionist.Insteadofdualisticdimensions,wetookaVenn

diagramapproach,sowecouldfocusonthein-betweentranslationworkneededto

accomplishmultiple-paradigminquiry.LikeDeetz,wedidnotabidetheusual

approachtotriangulation.

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Figure2:PondyandBoje’sMulti-paradigmapproachtoTranslationand

Transpection(T&T)buildingonRitzer(bold)paradigmclusters

Wechosemulti-paradigminquiryasourfrontierprogramfororganization

theoriesshowninthefigureabove.Insteadof‘triangulation’attemptsatintegration,

wewantedtodevelopastrategyofcross-paradigmatic[dialectical]communication,

includingthesubject’sowninsiderperspective.WefocusedonMaruyama’s(1974)

‘translationandtranspectionprocess(T&T)andhismulti-causalparadigmwithits

deviation-counteractinganddeviation-amplifyingprocessloops.Insteadof

monopolarization(oneparadigmatictheory,method,andviewpoint)of

organizationtheory,wechosede-monopolarization:“makingeachpartyawarethat

othersusedifferentparadigmsanddifferentlogics”(Pondy&Boje,1980:97).De-

monopolarizationisthefirstphaseoftranslationandtranspectionThesecond

phase‘transpection’iswhereonepartybracketstheirownparadigmandisableto

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thinkinintheother’sparadigm.Inthethirdphase,translation,onepartywho

understandsisabletocommunicatetheirpointofviewintheconceptsand

languagefamiliartotheotherparty.Thesephasesincludetranspectingfromone’s

ownparadigm,intotheotherparadigms,andthenbacktotheirown.Ifyouhave

evertriedtranslationprograms,fromyourlanguage,toanotherlanguage,andback

again,youcanattesttojusthowdifficulttranslationandtranspectionis.

Inthenextsections,Iwanttodefinestatistics,andempiricalscience,and

thendevelopanalternativeapproachtotriangulationthatincorporatestranslation

andtranspection.

WhatisStatistics?

Statisticsisabranchofmathematicsdealingwiththecollection,analysis,

presentation,organization,andinterpretationoftrendsandvariabilitiesinmasses

ofnumerical-data.Statisticshasnofactual(observationalorexperiential)content.

Andlawsoraxiomsaboutmathematicsarenotaboutreality.“Asfarasthelawsof

mathematicsrefertorealitytheyarenotcertain;andasfarastheyarecertainthey

donotrefertoreality”(Einstein,1953:189).WhatIcall‘numeric-multiplicity’hasa

brokenconnectiontoqualitative-multiplicity(Boje,inpress).Numeric-multiplicity

propositionshaveanalyticlogicalgrounds,butarenotgroundedinsensemaking

empiricsorinexistentialexperience.Empiricalsciencesetsupconditionsfor

empiricaldisconfirmationofbothkindsofmultiplicity.Numeric-multiplicityis

axiomatizeddeductivelogicalreasoninganditinvolvesproofsthatuseinductive

reasoning.

Descriptivestatisticssumupdatasetattributessuchasthemean,median,

andstandarddeviation.Statisticalinferencefromnumeric-multiplicityisbasedon

statementsofstatisticalsignificanceaboutpatternsinthedataset.Statisticsisabout

theprobabilityofobservingaparticularresult.Numeric-Multiplicityisapowerful

methodusedwidelythroughoutthescientificprocess.

Anotherreasontriangulationisunrealisticisthatnumbersarenotsosimple.

Gephart(1988)forexamplepioneeredthefieldofethnostatisticsinthreenotions:

(1)whatdonumbersmean?(2)Arethestatisticalprogramsusedinempirical

scienceconformingtotheassumptionsandlimitsthatmathematicianswould

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subscribeto?(3)Whatarethestorytelling(rhetorical)interpretationsbeingusedto

convincereaderstoacceptthesignificanceofthestudy?

Qualimetricsattemptstobridgequantitativeandqualitativeinanalternating

seriesofdeduction,induction,deduction,abductioninquiries,atrilecticalofthree

kindsofknowledgestructuration(1)qualitativefieldnotesandobservations,(2)

quantitativedataaboutfrequenciesofdysfunctionsand(3)financialconsequences

ofthehiddencostsanddysfunctionsnotcurrentlyshowninregularaccounting

reports(Savall&Zardet,2008:206).IwanttostressthatbothEthnostatisticsand

Qualimetricsarefocusedongettingatthegroundedmeaninginqualitative-

multiplicity,ratherthanthekindsofsimplifyingtext-analysissoftwareplatforms

thatareproliferating(wewillreviewthoseinasectionbelow).

Let’sexplorethemeaningofnumbers?Withtheadventofrelativitytheory,

thepost-Euclidiangeometry,andquantumphysics,‘numbers’requiremore

complexinterpretation.Wholeintegernumberswereeasierthanwhatwehave

today.Realnumbersforexample,representquantitiesalonganimaginaryline,such

as-11,-4,-3,+12,+99etc.aswellas,fractions,andirrationalnumbersinalgebra,

likethesquarerootoftwo.Thesquarerootofanegativenumber,suchas-77isan

imaginarynumber.Anirrationalnumberisdefinedasany‘real’numbermultiplied

byanimaginaryunit,suchasX2=-1.Thereareeventranscendentalnumbersthat

arenolongeralgebraic,suchastherootofanonzeropolynomialequation,orthe

transcendentalnumbersπande.Clearly,Einsteinisright,andanycertainty

ascribedtonumeric-multiplicitydoesnotreferto‘reality’ineitherthesensemaking

empiricalworldorinHeidegger’s(1962)ontologicalBeing-in-the-word.

Empiricalscienceandstatisticalmethodshavebecomesointertwinedthat

scientificdisciplineshavetheoryownstatisticaltechniques(biostatistics,

econometrics,geo-statistics,etc.).

WhatisStorytelling?Sciencetellsastatisticalstory.Statisticstellsstories

withnumbersinwhatIterm‘numeric-multiplicity’.Storytellingas‘qualitative-

multiplicity’tellsthereadertherelevanceandsignificanceofempiricalscienceand

statisticstothecurrentsituationoftheworldpeoplelivein.Qualitative-multiplicity

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researchisaboutrelations,process,contextualinterpretations,andsituatedness

ratherthanabstractorpurelogiccategories.

Prasad(2005:6)regardspostpositivistresearchasmoreartisticand

craftsman-likethanscientific.Qualitative-multiplicityresearchfocuseson“narrative

genressuchashistory,literature,andphilosophy”(IBID.).Italsofocusesonliving

storywebsofrelationship,andondeeperantecedent‘antenarrative’processes

(Boje,2001,2008,2011).

Storytellingincludesthestruggleofaqualitative-multiplicityofnarratives(&

counternarratives),livingstorieswebsofrelationship,andantenarrativeprocess.

Livingstoriesareneveralone,neverjusttheone,becauseeachparticipatesinan

entirewebworkoflivingstories.Alivingstoryhasaplace,atime,andit’smaterial

matteringinrelationtootherplaces,othertimes,andacommunityofotherstelling

itdifferently,oratleastunravelingsomethinganyonelivingstoryistellingandnot

telling.Narrativehasareputationoftryingtoretrospectivelyerase,reduce,

supplantlivingstorywebs,andjustboilitalldowntosomesinglemonologicalview

(Bakhtin,1981),whereas[living]storyisalwayspolyphonic,requiringmorethan

one,andthenanother,andmorebesides(Derrida,1980).Thereismoreto

storytellingthanjustthenarrativeandcounternarrativedialectic,andthe

multiplicityoflivingstorywebworking.Therearepre-narrativeandpre-story

processes,whichIcall‘antenarratives’(Boje,2001,2008,2014).Antemeans

‘before’andhasthesecondmeaningofa‘bet.’Antenarrativeis‘before’-narrative(&

story)coheres,andit’sa‘bet’ofprospectivesensemakingaboutthefuturethatis

arriving,andhowitwillchangebothpresentandpast.Suchantenarrativeprocesses

arecaredforinactsofforecaring.

WhatIwanttodonextislookattherelationbetweennumeric-multiplicityof

statistics,qualitative-multiplicityofstorytelling,andempiricalscience.

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Figure3:ThebrokenTriadofNumeric-MultiplicityofStatistics,Qualitative-MultiplicityofStorytelling,andEmpiricalScience(DrawingbyD.Boje,2018,

usedbypermission)

Ratherthantriangulation,Iproposeamodelofthebrokentriad(indicated

bycheckerboardbreaksinthetriangleimage).Forexample,numeric-multiplicity

statistics,perse,hasnofactual(empirical)contenttoreachdirectlytoempirical

science.Empiricalsciencethereforedemandsempiricalevidencetovalidate

statisticalaxioms.Thiscancomefromexperimentationinempiricalscience

groundedinpositivismorpost-positivism,orfromstorytelling(qualitative-

multiplicity)groundedinontology.

Eachcornerofthetriadhasimportantdifferencesmakingtriangulation

impossible.Spaceandtimeareconceiveddifferentlyinthetwomultiplicitiesandin

empiricalscience.Numeric-multiplicitydevelopsaxioms(implicitdefinitions)about

athree-dimensionalspaceinEuclidiangeometryandspaceswhereplanesintersect

inRiemanngeometry(Einstein,1953:190).Thetruthofnumeric-multiplicity

axiomsandtheoriesislogicallypriortoanyexperimentalorobservational

validatingevidence.Lorentzstrangeloops,Gödel's(1931)incompleteness

theorems,andfractalgeometryviolatemanyoftheEuclidianaxioms,suchasline

beingshortestdistancebetweentwopoints(Hofstadter,1979).Numerical-

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multiplicity,whendoingaxiomatizeddeductivemathematicproofsrestsuponthe

allegedself-evidentialcharacteroftheaxioms(Hempel,1953:151).

Reichenbach(1953:100-101)worksoutaninductiveapproachtomeaning

verificationthatworksforquantummechanics.“Ihaveshownthattheusual

languageofscienceincludestheconventionthatunobservablesfollowthesame

physicallawsasobservable;inparticular,thattheysatisfytheprincipleofcausality,

whichforobservablesisanempiricallaw.”

Whathecalls“extensionrules“extendtherangeoflawsfromobservablesto

unobservables”(Reichenbach,1953:100)whichinquantummechanicsincludes

wave/particleduality.Forexample,inquantumphysicspositionandmomentum

cannotbothbepredictedsimultaneouslyfrominitialconditionsofdoubleslit

experiment.“Quantumphysicsdoesnotadmitofanormalsystem”(Reichenbach,

1953:100).Sotheextensionrulehastobeused.ThisisconsistentwithNielsBohr’s

principleofcomplementaritythatbothawaveandaparticledescriptionofthe

observationalapparatusarenecessary.WernerHeisenberg’s(1928)principleof

indeterminacy,bycontrast,reliedoncalculatingalgebraicmatricesofnon-

communicativeHilbertspacevectors.

Mypointhereisthatinstatistics,aswellasin‘empiricalscience’thereare

transcendentconceptsandvariablesthatarenotgroundedinobservationor

experience.Thereareunobservables,irrationalandtranscendentnumbers.Kneale

(1953)contributestocross-paradigmcommunication,totranslationand

transpection.Hediscussesthemakingoftranscendenthypothesesinempirical

scienceandinstatistics.Itmaybepossible,insomeinstancestotranslatenumeric-

multiplicitylawsintoqualitative-multiplicity,althoughtheconverseisntoalways

thecase.Wecancountthenumberofstoriesgatheredindifferentplacesandtimes

andsortoutthemes.However,oncewestarttodevelopaverages,means,and

standarddeviationsofthosethemes,wearebeingreductionistic.Bycontrast,

empiricalscienceobjectareoftenjustemptyspace,since,forexampleinmolecular

andquantumphysics,wearetheorizingunobservables,andevenplacesbetween

entities.Inquantumphysicswehavenoclearobservationdirectlyofwavesand

wave-motionsatthesubatomiclevel.Itcannotbeestablishedby‘directinduction.’

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ItisdeducedformPlanck’sconstant,Heisenberg’smatrixcalculations,orBohr’s

principleofcomplementarity.Thepointisthatthetriangulationsofnumeric-

multiplicity,qualitative-multiplicitystorytelling,andempiricalscienceofbehavioral

orsociologicalphenomenahasmanygapsbetweentheparadigms,andmore

important,eachhiasitsownversionoftranscendenthypotheses.“Transcendent

hypothesesofthekindwehavebeenconsideringwerefirstintroducedintophysics

bytheGreekatomists”Kneale,1953:358).Theyhypothesizedatthelevelof

unobservables,andhadnoexperimentalmeanstoverifytheirideas.Norisit

“ordinaryinductionfromfactsfrominexperiencebecausenoothermethodis

admissibleinnaturalscience”(IBID.358).KnealemakesthepointthatNewton

distrustedtranscendenthypotheses,yetusedtheminhisspeculationsaboutgravity

andlawsofmotion.Incurrentapproachestomodelbuildingtranscendenceresides

inthehypotheses,thevariablesandinthearrowsbetweenthem.Existential

hypothesesarebeingusedinempiricalscience,statistics,andinthequalitative-

multicitystorytelling.Andthecross-paradigmtranscendencehaslittletodo(except

inleivingstoryethnography)withthesubject’sowntranscendentviews.Living

stories,forexamplehavenoindependentmeaning,andhavecounterpartsinthe

livingstorywebofrelationships.Thenoveltyofaneworevenanoldtheoryin

empiricalscience,statistics,orstorytelling(narrative&metanarrativework),has

littletodowithdirectinductionofthelaypersonsownterminology.

Inmyfieldofstorytelling,thereisattentiontohistoricalhypotheses,to

epochbyepochtheoriesofhistoricalchanges,suchasDeetz’s(1996)modelof

paradigms(premodern,modern,latemodern,&postmodern).Historiansdevelop

inductivehypothesesthatreconstructpastevents,creatinganarrativeofhistory.

ArcheologistsdeveloptheirhistoryofStonehenge,whichtheysubmittomethodsof

historicalcriticism(Kneale,1953:363).

Knealedevelopsatheoryandmethodofconsilienceinduction,whichhas

somethingtocontributetomulti-paradigminquiry.Itisaboutwhathappenswhena

lawortheoryfromoneparadigmisappliedtodifferentparadigmsystem.

“Itoftenhappensthatwemakeatentativegeneralizationinsomefieldofstudywithoutreposingmuchconfidenceintheresultofour

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inductionbutdiscoverlaterthatwhatwehaveconjecturedisentailedbysomewell-establishedlawsandimmediatelyregardourgeneralizationsitselfestablishedbeyondreasonabledoubt”(Kneale,1953:365).

Thiscanhappenwithtranscendenthypothesesofonparadigmtheorizingto

someotherparadigmsystem.Inorganizationtheory,formanydecadesmechanistic

principlesfromengineeringwereappliedtore-engineersocialsystem,andarestill

beingused,despiteobjectionsthathumansarenotmachines.Despiterepeated

refutation,mechanisticprinciplesarestillinwideuseinmanagementand

organization.Kneale’ssuggestionforsuchacross-paradigmhegemonicsituationis

tofocusonthenumberofsupposedlaws(L1,L2,andLn),whichareshowntobe

consequencesofatranscendenthypothesis.”eachofthesesupposedlawshasits

ownevidence,onsistingofanumberofinstancesformwhichitwasoriginally

establishedbyprimaryinduction”(IBID.365).Theconnectivetranscendent

hypothesisbetweentwoormoreparadigmscannotbemoreprobablethaneachof

theindividuallaws(L1,L2,andLn).However,itcanbethecase,inthelong

accumulationofevidence,thatsincetheoverallhypothesesentailsthesevariedlaws

fromdifferentparadigms,andcommunicatesthem,itcanhavegreaterprobability

thaneachindividuallawanditsrangeofevidence.“Thisistheconsilienceof

inductionswhichfittogetherintoatheory…”(IBID.366).

Methodsoftriangulationthataresupposedly‘solving’multi-paradigm

communicationsobstaclesbycollapsingmeaningdowntothelowestcommon

languageterms,seemstome,tobewhollyunsatisfactory.Whatismorefruitfulis

translationandtranspectioncommunicativeprocessesthatincludeexplorationsof

transcendenthypothesesofeachparadigmandthesubjectsthemselves.

InthenextsectionIwanttoexplorehowmodelbuildinghastenholdin

empiricalscience,aswellasinstorytelling,inwaysthatputsstatisticstousesthat

areproblematicformulti-paradigminquiry.

HistoricalandTheoryBackground

Thereareimportanthistoricalchangeshappening,asNumeric-Multiplicity

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combineswithso-called‘EmpiricalScience’aswaystodoquickandeasytext

analysisofQualitative-Multiplicity.AccordingtoBarnes(2008)quantitative

modelingofqualitativephenomenabecamepopularafterWWIIwithmassive

investmentsbytheMilitary-Industrial-Complex(MIC),whichhasmorphedintothe

currentMilitary–Industrial–AcademicComplex(MIAC).MIACenfoldeddiverse

performances,ideas,inanimatematerialobjects,people,andentireacademic

disciplinesintoalargercomposite,oneproductofwhichwasanewregime,

‘mathematicalmodeling’(includingsimulation)fortheproductionofknowledge

aboutglobalwarfare,armsrace,ballistics,andsoon.Post-WWII,theMIAChas

incorporateInternetcapabilitiesintoitmodeling,acrossdiversefieldssuchas

economics,geography,andbiology.TheNumeric-Multiplicitymodelbuilding,used

EmpiricalSciencedatasets,andeventually,developedlanguagesemanticanalysis

algorithmsusingdictionariestomodeltexts(spoken,written)Qualitative-

Multiplicitytogetat‘supposed’storiesdatahadtotell.Modelsbecameagential,

agentsparticipatinginallthreeaspectsofthebrokenTriadic(Figure1).Inother

words,modelsmigratedfrompurelymathematicalalgorithmsintobothEmpirical

Science(Kuhn’s1962/1970)normalscience,andaretakingoverstorytelling

analysisQualitative-Multiplicity.

Thiscanbeverifiedintheproliferationoftextualanalysissoftware

companies.Ihavemappedoutsomeofthetextanalysissoftwareplatformsclaiming

todothis.

16

Figure4:BigDataModelingchangestothebrokenTriadofNumeric-

MultiplicityofStatistics,Qualitative-MultiplicityofStorytelling,andEmpiricalScience(DrawingbyD.Boje,2018,usedbypermission)

Withover100textanalysiscompaniescompetingforsharesinthebigdata

market,thereare‘standardswars’ascompaniesstruggleforpreeminenceoftheir

standardoverallothers.Ihavelistedsomeoftheseintheabovefigure,andsorted

themaccordingtotheirlocationinthe‘brokenTriad.’Ethnographwasdeveloped

byanthropologists(Boje,2001)todolocationandretrievaloftextualstatementsin

largerdatasets.MathematicalmodelingapproachessuchasNvivoallowtextdatato

beputintovisualmodels.Itispartofatrendinquantitativedataanalysis(QDA)

approaches.WoodsideandSuresh(2016)‘Storytelling-CaseArchetypeDecoding

andAssignmentManual’(SCADAM)sayitgivesitsusers“acleardefinitionofastory

andapplicationoftheDOF[degreeoffreedomtest]instrumentationimmediately

afterthestorylisteningcreatesanearlysenseoftheperformancemetricsofstory

captureandallocationoftime”(59,bracketedadditionsmine).SASTextAnalytics

advertisesitselfasacomprehensiveTextAnalyticssoftwaresuitethatuses

“advancedstatisticalmodeling,naturallanguageprocessingandadvancedlinguistic

17

technologiestodiscoverpatternsandtrendsfromanytextinanyformat.”1

SmartlogicSemaphoresolutionsaysitprovides“ontology/taxonomymodelingand

informationvisualization”.TheSmartlogicsolutioncontentintelligenceplatform

includescommercialtextanalytics,naturallanguageprocessing,rule-based

classificationofmetadata(IBID.).Leximancer’ssloganis“textin,insightout”and

says,“Textismorethanacollectionofwords.Texttellsastory.”2“Leximanceradds,

“Nohumanbiasinanalysis.”(IBID.SomeoftheQDAapproachesareallaboutstory.

TasteAnalytics,forexample,saysitprovidespredictivemodelingtofindthestories

thatthedataistryingtotellbyusingartificialintelligence,includingarobust

analyticsengineandrobuststatisticalNLPalgorithmsthatcaningestanytypeof

unstructureddataandquicklyidentifytrends,patterns,andoutlyingthemes(IBID.).

OnemoreexampleoftheencroachmentofNumeric-Multiplicityalgorithmsand

text-analysisempiricaldatasoftwareontostorytellingofQualitative-Multiplicity.

SmartMunk’ssoftware,called‘Story.ly’,claimstoreducecomplexityinrichdatasets

byautomaticallyextractingmeaningfromanykindoftext(customerservice

feedback,onlineforums,interviewsviaphone,onlineforms,andsoon).3Italso

promisesprocessofproductdevelopmentoptimizationbyseeinginsightsinthe

storyinsmartonlinereports.

Oneoftheassumptionsof‘Bigdata’(akatextanalytics)isthatitcanconvert

unstructuredtextdataintomeaningfuldataforstatisticalanalysisusingentity

modelingandmachinelearningtechnique.Kimble&Milolidakis(2015)debunk

severalmythsaboutbigdata,whichIwillbrieflysummarize:

Myth1:Bigdatagetsatmeaning.Infact,Bigdatausesmathematical

modelswheretheempiricaldata(text,speech,etc.)aredecontextualized,takenout

ofitsmeaning-situation,tofitintotheavailablemodelalgorithms.

Myth2:Bigdataisobjective.Infact,FacebookandTwitter(&othersocial

1PredictiiveAnalyticsSoftwareAccessedJan192018athttps://www.predictiveanalyticstoday.com/top-software-for-text-analysis-text-mining-text-analytics/2LeximancerSoftware.AccessedJan192018athttps://info.leximancer.com/3SmartMunkSoftware,Story.lyaccessedJan192018athttp://www.smartmunk.com/wp/

18

media)donotrepresent‘allpeople’andsomeusershavemultipleaccountsusedby

multiplepeopleandsomebotspretendtobepeople.

Myth3:Bigdataisfreeforanyonetouse.Infact,usingsocialmediadata

withoutpermissionraisesethicalconcerns.Usersarenotawareoftheusestheir

postsarebeingputtoindifferentcontexts,theprofitsgenerated,andsoonNorisit

free.Forexample,Facebookusersareanunpaidworkforce.Thevalueofthedata

posedisassessedtobe$81perperson.

Myth4:Bigdatamakesmanagersmorerationalanddeterminate.Big

datapromisestoturnindeterminatesituationsintodeterminedsituationsusingIT-

intensivepractices.Managerscanthenbehavemorerationally,bemorecalculable,

andforecastabletotheirsuperiorsortosystemsoftware.

Next,wewilllookatthestorytellingaccountsgiveninstatisticalstudiesto

convincereadersofthesignificanceofthestudy.

StatisticalStoryTheUnitedNationsEconomicCommonforEurope(2005)

putoutabookon‘MakingDataMeaningful:Aguidetowritingstoriesabout

numbers.’(Geneva:UnitedNations).A“statisticalstory”reveals“statisticsarenot

justnumbers”(3).

“Astatisticalstoryisonethatdoesn’tjustrecitedatainwords.Ittellsastory

aboutthedata.Astatisticalstoryconveysamessagethattellsreaderswhat

happened,whodidit,whenandwhereithappened,andhopefully,whyandhowit

happened”(3).

TheUnitedNationsEconomicCommonforEurope(UNECE)(UNECE,2005:

6)givesadviceonhowtowriteastatisticalstory:“Firstandforemost,youneeda

storytotell.Youshouldthinkintermsofissuesorthemes,ratherthanadescription

ofdata.Thatmeansthatyouneedtofindmeaninginthestatistics.”

Second,istousedthejournalist’s‘invertedpyramid’puttingyouroneortwo

mainconclusionsuptopaboutthedata’sgeneralmessage,followedbysecondary

pointsincreasingorderofimportancethroughoutthestory(6).“Itshouldcontain

fewnumbers”(6).Avoidjargon.

Third,applygoodwritingtechniques:keepparagraphsshort,withthree

aboutthreesentences.Thethemesentenceshouldcontainnonumbers.“Large

19

numbersaredifficulttograsp.Usethewordsmillions,billionsortrillions.Insteadof

3,657,218,write‘about3.7million’”(7).Usecompellingheadingsandsubheadings,

andembeddedquotes,andgraphsareaplus.Graphstellastory.

Storytellingisaboutbothqualitative-multiplicityandnumericmultiplicity

(Boje,inpress).Storytellingisamethodofinductive,deductive,orabductive

reasoning.Inductivestorytellingargueswhatistrueisbasedonindividualcase

examples.Deductivestorytellersargueswhatisatrueconclusionstepsfrom

premises.InductionstorytellingisthePeirceannotionofaintuitiveflashofinsight.

Storytellingplaysafundamentalroleincommunicatingscienceandstatistics

throughdatastories.Storytellingwithnumbers,graphs,tablescanclarify

underlyingconceptualframeworks,descriptiveandinferentialthoughts

(Pfannkuch,etal.,2005:1).

Effectivedatastorytellingmorethanjustthestructureofstories(IBID.3).

Numerical-multiplicitystorytellershavetocommunicatenuancesofmeeting,

substitutenatural-languageforjargon,andgetbeneaththetipoftheicebergtothe

patternsofthedata-story,its’spread’and‘shape’(IBID.3).

InNewZealand,theMinistryofEducation(2007)rolledoutanewstatistics

curriculum,thatrequiredteacherstoincreasenotonlytheirskillsindataanalysis

butalsoincommunicativecapability(Pfannkuchetal.,2005:3).Thisoldcurriculum

splitoutdata-description,coveredinearlyyearsofschooling,fromdata-inference

(e.g.fromsampletopopulation),coveredinlateryears.Thererecommendation:

“Whenwearejustbeginningtolearnhowtoreasoncomparativelywehavetokeep

theprincipleofstatisticalinference,thelinkbetweensampleandpopulation,tothe

forefront”(Pfannkuchetal.,2005:12).

Storytellingmimicsthewayourbrainsstoreinformation(descriptive,

inferential,&contextual).Storytellingisnotjustdescriptiveandinferential,itcan

alsocontributetocontextualunderstanding.Episodicdescriptivestorytelling(I

noticeissensory:whatoneisseeing,hearing,tasting,smelling,&touching).

Inferentialstorytellingisaboutcomparisonusinginductive,deductive,orabductive

reasoning(Iwonderifmorecaseswillholdthetrend,orfromthesepremisesIdraw

20

aparticularconclusion).Contextualstorytellingfillsintheblankswithconfirmatory

experiencemissingfromthestorytelling(Iknowfromexperiencewhattoexpect

willhappen,orwhyitturnedoutthisway).Inindigenousstorytellingdetailsand

sequencesareoftenleftoutofalivingstory,sinceitispartoftraining,tobeableto

fillintheblanksandproblemsolve,interselytoldstories(Boje,1991).Western

narrativetrendstoleavelittletothecontextualwonderment.“Contextual

knowledgeplaysanimportantroleinthedata-dialogue”inthestorytelling

reasoningfromdata-stories(Pfannkuchetal.,2005:14).

“Datastorytellingistheprocessoftranslatingdataanalysesintolayman's

termsinordertoinfluenceabusinessdecisionoraction”(Kumar,2014,online).

Dataanalyticsemphasizetheimportanceofnarrativetomakesenseof

complexdata.Datastorytellingisusefulinhelpingaudiencesunderstandthepoint.

Numeric-multiplicitystorytellingmeanstellingstoriesaboutwhatresides

withinquantitativeinformationthatanaudiencecancareaboutandunderstand.Do

storiesliveinyourdata?Storytellingisdoneinmixedmedia,livetalk,dramaturgy,

pictures,diagrams,animatedgraphic,podcast,radio,YouTube,webpage,printed

bookorreport,andsoon.

TheNewCopernicanRevolutioninStatistics

Along-standingacceptedinferentialprocedureisbeingproblematizedand

declaredinvalid.ItistheequivalentofaCopernicanRevolution,becauseknowledge

claimsofpriorandcurrentresearch,arebeingcalledintoquestion.

Thep-Valuetellsaastory.Forpeoplewhounderstandthem,p-valuestella

story.SinceDavidTrafimowischallengingthep-value,wewillneedanotherwayof

tellingstoryofsignificance.“Theroleofastatisticsteacheristoenablestudentsfirst

torecognizethatthereisastory,thentoenablethemtotellthestorythroughthe

toolsofanalysisandcommunication”(Pfannkuch,Regan,Wild&Holton,2005:1).

Thep-value(probabilityvalue)isthelevelofmarginalsignificancewithina

statisticalhypothesistestrepresentingtheprobabilityoftheoccurrenceofagiven

event.P-valueisusedtorejectpointsofthesmallestlevelofsignificanceatwhich

thenullhypothesiswouldberejected.

21

Figure5:TheoryofCauseandEffect(BigXàY)andprogramofobservation

(Littlexày)withTrafimow’sauxiliaryassumptionsetsBig[X-Y]cause-effectgeneraltheory.AndtheisaMeasurementPrinciplewewillcalllittle(x->y)program->observationexperimentsandmetrics

Thereareentangleddoubleloopsbetweenthesocialandtheeconomic

factorsandbetweenthequalityandfunctioningofquantitative(&financial)

economicperformance.Big[X-Y]cause-effectgeneraltheoryandEmpiricalScience

‘MeasurementPrinciple’oflittle(x->y)program->observationexperimentsand

metricsbecomeentangledwitheachotherandwithvariousexploredand

unexploredassumptionsets.Changing‘constructvalidity’awayfromtheusual(p<.

05)&nullhypothesistestingincausalmodeling(e.g.structuralequationmodeling,

clusteranalysis,etc.)changesalltheothervalidities.

Table1:How9TypesofValidityareAffectedinOrganizationalResearchMethodsbyDavidTrafimow'sCopernicanRevolutioninCausalModeling\

• CONSTRUCTVALIDITY:Does(littlex->y)measureadequatelytap(BigX->Y)deductivetheory?TheCopernicanRevolutioninConstructValiditychangesallremainingkindsofvalidity,andgivesscienceanewstorytellingoftheempiricalworld.

22

• FACEVALIDITY(1stWaveGroundedTheory):Doestest/experiment/observation(littlex->y)‘resemble’(inductiveinference)oftherealworld‘actual’phenomenoninitsspacetimemattering?(Thisistheepistemic[inductive]fallacyofassumingtheoryofIdeasubsumestheontologicalwithoutactuallydoingfalsificationofa1anda2auxiliaryassumptionset).

• CONTENTVALIDITY:Does(littlex->y)measureadequatelyaccomplishinquiryinto(BigX->Y)deductivetheory?(Withoutcommittingepistemicfallacy)

• DISCRIMINANTVA:IDITY:Does(littlex->y)measuredivergefrommeasuresofothergroupsthat(BigX->Ytheory)doesnotpredict?

• 2nd&3rdWavesofGroundedTheory(akaNomological)Validity):Doesthepriortheoryandresearchon(BigX->Ytheory)matchtheabductiveinference(littlex->y)program&observations?

• CONVERGENTVALIDITY:Do2ormore(littlex->y)measuresbothpurportingtomeasure(BigX->Y)theoryhavehighempiricalcorrelation?

• CONCURRENTVALIDITY:Do(littlex->y)testresults,atthesametime,matchresultsofanacceptedmeasureof(BigX->Y)theory?

• PREDICTIVEVALIDITY:Doespast(littlex->y)resultpredictfuturerepetitionsofperformance?

• CRITERIONVALIDITY(combinesconcurrent&predictivevalidities):Doesmeasure(littlex-y)measurerelatetoanoutcome?

Thesmallerthep-value,thelargerthesignificancebecauseittellsthe

investigatorthatthehypothesisunderconsiderationmaynotadequatelyexplain

theobservation”(Wikipedia,P-value).Theusesofp-valuesdatesbackto1770s,

whenfirstcalculatedbyPierre-SimonLaplace.ItwasformallyintroducedbyKarl

Pearsoninchi-squareddistributiontest(Pearson,1914:xxxi-xxxiii,26-28,Table

XII).Thep-valuewaspopularizedbyRonaldFisher(1925)whoproposedthelevel

p=0.05.ProfessorDavidTrafimow(2003,2009,2014)hasdeclaredbothp-value

andnullhypothesistobeinvalid.“Asthestandardnull-hypothesissignificance-

testingproceduredoesjustthat,itislogicallyinvalid”(Trafimow,2003”526).One

reason,in“Bayes’theoremyieldsp(HoF),butinpractice,researchersrarelyknow

thecorrectvaluesfor2ofthevariablesinthetheorem”(IBID.).Intheireditorial,

TrafimowandMarks(2015:1)bannedauthorsfromsubmittingnullhypothesis

significancetestingprocedure(NHSTP),declineitinvalid,andthereforeauthors

wouldnolongerberequiredtoperformthetest.Articlesperformingp-valuetests

wouldnotbeautomaticallydeskrejected,“butpriortopublicationauthorswillhave

23

toremoveallvestigesoftheNHSTP(p-values,t-values,F-values,statementsabout

‘significant’differencesorlacktherefor,andsoon”(p.1).InadditionsNHSTP,since

itfailstoprovidetheprobabilityofthenullhypothesis,confidenceintervalscannot

beusedtoacceptorsectthecaseforsamplesarecapturingpopulationparameters.

Instatisticalhypothesistesting,thep-valueforagivenstatisticalmodel,whenthe

nullhypothesisistrue(p(FHo),thestatisticalsummarybetweenthesamplemean

andcomparedgroupswouldbesameorgreatermagnitudethanactualobserved

results.Thep-valueisusesinstatisticalhypothesistestinginfieldsoforganizational

researchsuchasmanagement,marketing,economics,finance,psychology,and

sociology.

Trafimowchallengestheuseofnullhypothesistestingasareducead

absurdumargumentadaptedtostatistics,itsclaimimprobable.Nullhypothesisisa

dualism,sinceitassumesrejectionofanullhypothesisimpliesasinglecorrect

alternative,whichisquestionablesinceasTrafimowputit,theremaybemany

auxiliaryhypothesestoeliminate.Further,Trafimowbringsintoquestionthenotion

ofstatisticalsignificancethatisnaivelyquantitiesbyconditionalprobabilityPr

(X|H),thelikelihoodtheobservationofcontinuousrandomvariablestobezero,or

Pr(X=x|H)=0.

Whatisbeingwidelycritiquedisacceptingalternativehypothesestothenull

hypothesis,foranyp-valuelessthat.05withoutothersupportingevidence.

Trafimow(2003,2009)takesthisskepticismastepfurther,actuallybanningp-

valueandthenullhypothesis,asanindexicalofthestrengthofevidencefora

theory.

TrafimowandRice(2009:261),havetorespondtochallenges,suchas

supportersofnullhypothesisprocedures,who“…arguethattheprocedureisgood

enoughbecausetheybelievethattheprobabilityofthedataifgiventhenull

hypothesiscorrelateswiththeprobabilityofthenullhypothesisifgiventhedata.”

TrafimowandRicerejectthecorrelationmethodasunimpressiveandfailingtogive

compellingjustificationforcomputingpvaluesindichotomizedprocess,torejector

retainnullhypothesis.

24

Trafimow(2014:15)says,“Quantitativeandqualitativeresearchersuse

differentmethodsandhavedifferentgoals.Atthelevelofmethods,quantitative

researcherscriticisequalitativeresearchersfornotperformingnullhypothesis

significancetests.”However,Trafimowrejectsthenullhypothesisandthep-value

testfindsthisargumentinvalid,becausethequalitativegoalisnottofindcausal

mechanisms,itittodescribepersonalorsubjectiveexperience.

Theinterpretationofp-valuestatistichasindeedtakentheformofaskingwhether

itisvalid,andasGilesDeleuze(1968/1994:176),mightputit,morefictivethan

real.

Thefictivenessofthep-valueistiedtomattersofrepresentationand

interpretationofstaticalproceduresandtechniques.Mystorytellingpointisthat

thep-valuestatistichaslostitsclaimtovalidity,andisbecomingfiction,orworse,

wecandiscussthemetaphysicsofthep-valueandthenullhypothesistestingofa

theory.

DavidTrafimowhasappearedtogivetestimonytostatisticalassociationsin

Canada,Netherlands,andintheUS,sincethesegroupsmistgiveguidanceto

statisticiansonwhattobeaboutthep-valueandnullhypothesiscontroversy,and

issuesomekindofstatementorproclamation,fororagainst.Coulditbethat

Pearson(1914)andFisher(1925)havecommittedsomekindofhistoricalerror.

Byinvokingthe‘problemofp-valuesandnullhypotheses;Trafimowopens

inferentialstatisticstothechallengeofmetaphysics,apathbeingtakenbeyondthe

empiricalstatisticalequationdomainofsignificancetobeingconfidentinthe

validityofaparticularconcept,orentirelytheory.Inotherwords,theimmanenceof

p-valuetotranscenditsstatisticalsolutioninrelationtoclaimingthevalidityofthe

theory,isaninferenceofsynthesis,thefictiveorerroneousknowledgebeing

legitimated,ornot.

Whatisbeingrevealedinthissynthesisisthemovementfromastatistical

resulttoadeclaredknowledgesolutiontoatheoryprobleminfieldsasdiverseas

medicine,psychology,sociology,management,accounting,andfinance.Thenull

hypothesisp-value(NHSTP)crisisofsynthesisisalsoaproblemofdialectics,the

25

antinomybetweenstatisticalprocedureandnominalrepresentationofvalidtheory

claimsbyauthorsofresearcharticles,andeditorialpoliciesofresearchjournals.

Weshouldspeakofadialecticsofp-value(&nullhypothesis),as“anyknowof

circulationofopposingrepresentationswhichwouldmakethemcoincideinthe

identityofaconcept,buttheproblemelementinsofarasthismaybedistinguished

fromtheproperlymathematicalelementofsolutions”(Deleuze,1994:178).

P-valuestatisticisaweaksolutiontotranscendenceofacirculationof

representationsofcalculationstoatheoryconcept(orpropositions,orhypothesis).

TheIdeaconnectionsconstitutedasvalidinrelationtop-valueisdialectical

tothetheoryIdea,itsinferenceof‘real’and‘valid’relationsBeing-in-the-world

(Heidegger,1962).Theidealcontinuitybetweenstatisticaltechniqueandtestable

theory,efficacyisengenderedinaPlatonicdialecticrelationtomathematicsitself.

Thisisaproblem,alreadyand“alwaysdialectical”touphold,ornot,theassociation

betweenp-valuesandhypothesisofagiventheory,ina“dialecticalorder”(Deleuze,

1994:179).Thedialecticalproblemisduplicatedinthesynthesisbetweenthe

mathematicallyorderandtheIdeaorder,andinferencesaboutNature.

Inorganizationalresearchmethods,thereareethnostatisticsimplications(Gephart,

1988,2006).Ethnostatisticsisthestudyofhowpeopleandorganizationsuse

statistics.Theuseofp-valueandnullhypothesistestingbyresearchersusing

statisticsinorganizationalresearchisamatterforethnostatisticalinvestigationof

inferentialsensemaking.“Thesynthesisoftheproblemanditscondition:thep-

valuehaslostitsgroundedness,andcannolonglayclaimtosignificance,or

characteriseproofofobjectivityofresearchmethod,inordertogive“sufficient

reason”verifytheory(Deleuze,1994:180).

Bothmathematicaltheoryandthesocialsciencetheoryhaveaproblemin

beingabletofulfillallthedialecticalrequirementsoftheinferentialcircleofnumber

andexistentialdomaininterrelationalitybetweenstatistics,Idea,andNaturehaving

therequisitecontinuitytobevalidconnection.

ThedialecticalIdeaisasystemofconnectionsacrossdomains(p-value

statisticalelements)andgeneticelementsoftheorderofIdeas,presupposedin

propositionsunderscientificconsidersas“fieldsofsolutioninwhichdialectical

26

Ideasofthetheirorderareincarnated”inotherscientificdomains(Deleuze,1994:

181).

Therefore,p-valueposesa[statistical]dialecticalproblemofthefirstorder

tostatisticalsolutionsinrelationstodialecticalIdeaswhichitincarnates.

Figure6:TriadicMultiplicitiesandAntenarrativeConnectionsof

Mathematico-BiologicalSystemsofdifferT/Ciation(©D.M.Boje2017).

Deleuze(1994:221)theorizesadialecticalhalfofdifferenTiation(actionor

processofdifferentiating)andtheFrench"ladifférentiation"aestheticspatio-

temporalactualization,differenTiation,whichhecombinesas'differT/Ciation':"The

entireideaiscaughtupinthemathematico-biologicalsystemofdifferent/ciation.I

27

haveaddedmytheoryofantenarrativeprocessofpre-qualitativeandpre-

quantitativedramatizationsintothediffCiationanddiffenTiationofapotentization

spiral,'differT/Ciation.'

Forecaringiswherethephilosophyofsciencecomesintoplay.Itakean

ontologicalstandpoint,howfore-caringissomethingworkedoutinspace,intime,in

thematteringoftheworld(Boje,2014),whatBaradiannewmaterialistscall

spacetimemattering(theirinseparability)intheintra-actionofmaterialitywith

discourse.Suchanapproachtostorytellingisaboutchangestakingplacein

philosophyofscience.Itisfirstofall,achangefromNewtonianmechanisticscience

toquantumphysics.Second,itisachangefrominthewayweunderstandvalidity.

Third,itisachangecolleaguesandIcallthefourthwaveofGroundedTheory(GT).

DavidTrafimowisforecaring,actinginadvance,tobringaboutarevolution

instatistics,onethathasimplicationsforchangingphilosophyofscience.

Statisticalstorytellingadvice(IadapteditfromCairo,2014;Kumar,2014;

Few,2009;Pfannkuchetal.,2010).Cairo(2014)saysforgooddatastorytelling,it

shouldbe:truthful,functional,beautiful,insightful,andenlightening.Storytellingis

themostpowerfulwaytoputnumericideasintotheworldtoday.

1. KISS.Tellitsimplyintermsfamiliartotheaudience.Bringattentiontothe

message,nottothenumbers.Tellthedata-storyinawaypeoplecan

understand.Tellthemessagefirst,thenputtogetherrelatedsupportdata.

Befunctional,constraining(notdictating)form.Youdon’ttellanumeric

storytoagroupofstatisticiansasyoudotoanEnglishdepartment.Strip

downthestatisticalstorytelling,justenoughspecificdetailsfortheaudience

togetthemessage.Toomuchdetail,andtheaudiencegetsdistracted.Make

thestoryaction,whatactionyouintendfromtheaudience.Ifyoumust

presentcomplexity,builditpiecebypiece.Whatarenextsteps?Storytelling

makescomplexityaccessible.Itcanalsobeaboutcausation.

2. Seamlessintegrationofwordsandimages.Usevisualdisplayformmore

generalaudiences.Visuallydisplaynumeric-multiplicity,andthenspeak

28

aboutit.Inotherwordsdon’tdisplayanimageonthescenewhileyouare

talkingaboutit.Innumeric-multiplicitythedatastorycanbevisualizedin

multipleways.Thestorygetsintothebrainmoreeffectivelyonchannelata

time.Kumar(2014,online)putsitthisway“Datastorytellingfeelsmore

quantitative;Iimagineneedingtocollect,clean,manipulate,andanalyzethe

databeforecraftingthestory.Storytellingwithdata,however,feelsmore

fluid,withthestoryandthedatacomingtogetherconcurrently.”

3. Tellinsightstheaudiencedoesn’talreadyknow.Tellitinanewwaythatthe

audiencedoesnotexpect.Becounterintuitiveandenlighteninginthe

visualizationofthedata.

4. Truestorytellingsticks.Theaudiencecaresabouttruestories.Truestories

mustsomehowengageemotions,sopeoplecare.Visualization(infographics)

shouldbetruthful.Keepitevidence-based.Mostvisualslieorpresenthalf-

truths.

5. Contextmatters.Quantitativestoriesismorethanthrowingnumbersat

people.Tellwherethenumberscomefromandhowtheywereadjusted.The

meaningincomparingnumbers(trends,patterns,exceptions),comparing

thesenumberstoothernumbers.Tellitinavisuallybeautifulway,butkeep

inmindthepurpose.Inindigenouslivingstory,manythingsareglossedand

terselytold,orthingsjustleftoutbecausethepurposeofelder’stellingitis

sotheyoungonesgetaneducationincontextualreasoning.

6. Begrounded.AlfredNorthWhiteheadusesthetermconcrecence,being

concrete.Hegelwasaboutthespiritmovingfromtheabstracttothe

concrete.Peoplearegroundedintheworldoftheirexperience.Hadthestory

ofEnronbeentoldinconcrete,ratherthanabstractterms,perhapsmore

employeeswouldhaveblownthewhistle,andfewerpeoplelosttheir

retirementincomes.Connectthedata-storyinconcreteandpersonalways

thatinvolvetheaudience.

Conclusions

29

Hereisnotonebutmanyphilosophiesofscience.Anthesearechanging.

Modelsareincorporatingmoreandmoreheterogeneousconceptsandvariables

fromseveralparadigms.Itisthereforenecessarytoattendtocross-paradigm

communication.Ihavesuggestedthatgreaterattentiontotranscendenthypotheses

bepartofthatcommunication.Further,timeandspacefortranslationbetween

paradigmparticipantsshouldhappen.Andthisneedstoincludesubject

participants.

ApproachestoparadigmclusteringsuchasthoseofBurrellandMorgan

(1970),Deetz(1996),andmyownwork(Pondy&Boje,1980)needtobemore

attentivetounderstandingsubtledifferencesbetweenparadigmsincludedin

clusters.Staticclusterssetuphegemonicdualitiesamongclusters.

Finally,storytelling,empiricalscience,andstatisticsareintertwining

paradigmsinnewways.Someofthesenewwaysallowforcross-paradigminquiry.

Othersareusingmodelswithproblematiccombinationsofparadigmconceptions.

Hereiswheretranslationandtranspectionisespeciallyuseful.Tobeableto

communicateone’sownparadigmintothelanguageandconceptsofother

paradigm,andbackagain,intoone’sownparadigm,isdifficultbutcanadvacecross-

paradigmcommunication.

Fromethnostatistics,werealizethatstatisticshasitsstoriesandits

storytellers.Empiricalsciencehasitsstorytellingaboutthenumbersbeingused,the

waynumbersaremanipulatedinstatisticalpackages,andhowtointerpretthe

scienceandstatisticsgenerated.Wehavelookedatwaysscientistsandempirical

scientistsdodata-storytellinginwaysthatcommunicatestowideraudience.

30

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Boje, D. M. (2001). Narrative Methods for Organization and Communication Research. London: Sage.

Boje,D.M.(2008).StorytellingOrganizations.London:Sage.Boje,D.M.(2011).StorytellingandtheFutureofOrganizations:An

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AppendixA:VideosforfurtherstudyNote:Studyguidesareavailableathttp://davidboje.com/655Part1of6,BojeinterviewsDavidTrafimow'sonhisbanonPvaluesignificancetesting:(13minutes)Part1of6partseriesBojeandcolleagues

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interviewDavidTrafimowabouthisCOPERNICANREVOLUTIONofhowstatisticalvalidityisdone,movingawayfromp-value.05significancetestsandnullhypothesestoanewfrontierofconstructvalidity.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dsp_hSIsacQ&t=5s Part2of6CopernicanRevolutioncausalmodelling,BojeinterviewsTrafimowalternativetop-valuetest.(33minutes)DavidM.BojeinterviewsDavidTrafimowonhisbetteralternativetotheabsurd.05p-valuetestforsignificancethathehasbannedinhisownjournal.Thenewtestiscalledaprioritestandcanbeusedtoestimatebeforehandsizeofsampleneeded.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZJyRmdCFw8

Part3of6,Trafimowtalksaboutthelagbetweenknowingpvaluenouseandchangingtheteachingandpublishinghabits.(37minutes).Organizationalstatisticstaughttogradstudentsinerrantp-valueway,thoughabetterwayofconstructvalidityishereandnow(seePart2).https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DbQ6D0kpp38m Part4of6BojeasksTrafimowsomeDeleuzianQuestions:(32minutes)IshepullingthecurtainbackontheWizardofOz,exposingthephantasmofp-value?StudyguidesonCopernicanRevolutionofthesechangestoconstructvalidityhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a71oa0H6HvI Part5of6,BojeinterviewsTrafimowonRevolutionofScienceMethodandBojeconcludeswithDeleuze(19minutes)projecttoreversethenegativedialecticofPlatoandHegelwithMultiplicity,spiralsandrhizomes.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVBtKdUUWFk

Part6BojeconcludestheseriesonDavidTrafimow'sCopernicanRevolutionofpvalewithhowitaffects9kindsofvalidityThisisbecauseconstructvalidityaffectstheother8kindsofvalidity.StudyguidesonCopernicanRevolutionofthesechangestoconstructvalidityhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1vV0nDGY38Q&t=103s