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INTRODUCTION 10
PIGMENTS 15
Pigments: An Int roduct ion 15
Key to Pigment Informat ion 17
Pigment Types 22
Part icle Size of Pigments 24
Art ists� Pigments 25
Permanence of Art ists� Pigments 28
Pigment Tables 31
Miscellaneous Pigments 180
DRAWING MATERIALS 191
Dry Drawing Tools 192
Wet Drawing Tools 200
EGG TEMPERA PAINTING 203
Supports for Panel Paint ing with Egg Tempera 203
Natural Wood 204
Preparat ion of t he Panel, Prior to Applying Gesso Ground 205
Applicat ion of the Paint ing Ground 206
Glue 207
Preparing the Panel with Gesso 211
Preparat ion of Pigments for Egg Tempera Paint ing 214
Egg Yolk as a Binder 215
Palet te for Egg Tempera Paint ing 219
Procedure for Paint ing 224
Tempera and Oil Paint , Egg-Oil Emulsions 226
Varnishes for Tempera Paint ings 227
Tempera and Gilding 229
OIL PAINTING 233
Supports for Oil Paint ing 233
Sizing and Priming Supports for Oil Paint ing 248
Contents
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6 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Propert ies of Oil Paints 258
Hand-Made Oil Colour 273
Manufactured Oil Colour 289
Building an Oil Paint ing 294
Drying Rates of Oil Colours 300
Oil Paint ing Whites 304
The Oil Paint ing Palet te Explained 307
Oil Paint Mediums 309
Picture Varnishes 326
Solvents for Oil Paint ing 331
Clean-Up of Oil Paint , Palet te and Brushes 333
WATERCOLOUR AND GOUACHE PAINTING 335
Watercolour 335
Historical Background 335
Propert ies of Watercolour 337
Commercially Manufactured Watercolours 342
Hand-Prepared Watercolours 343
Light fastness and Permanence 346
Support s for Watercolour Paint ing 346
Papermaking 347
St retching Watercolour Paper 350
Care and Storage of Watercolours 352
Auxiliary Materials 353
Paint ing Addit ives 354
Combining Watercolour and Other Media 355
Gouache 356
Art ists� Gouache and Designers� Gouache 357
Hand-Made Gouache Colours 358
Applicat ion 361
Supports 361
Preservat ion and Storage of Work 361
Alternat ive Water-Based Binding Agents 362
SOFT PASTEL PAINTING 371
Supports for Pastel Paint ing 372
Binding Agents for Pastel 381
Filler Material 381
Format ion of Colour Ranges 381
Basic Recipes for Making Soft Pastels 384
Procedure for Hand-Making Soft Pastels 390
Working with Pastels 394
Manipulat ing Pastel 395
Fixing and Storage of Pastel Paint ings 396
ACRYLIC PAINTING 400
Acrylic Paint Systems 400
How Acrylic Paint Works 400
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CONTENTS 7
Acrylic Paints 402
Hand-Preparat ion of Acrylic Paints 404
Health and Safety Informat ion 410
Manufactured Acrylic Paints 411
Acrylic Paint ing Mediums 413
Why Art ists Somet imes Mist rust Acrylic Paint 419
Priming Informat ion for Acrylic Paint Systems 422
ENCAUSTIC PAINTING 427
Supports for Encaust ic Paint ing 427
Equipment for Encaust ic Paint ing 428
Composit ion and Use of Encaust ic Paints 429
Wax Types 430
Suggested Palet te for Encaust ic Paint ing 432
Paint ing Techniques 433
Glazing with Encaust ic 435
Working in Layers 435
Presentat ion of Finished Encaust ic Paint ings 435
Safe Clean-Up of Encaust ic Paint 436
LIME-FRESCO PAINTING 437
Health and Safety Precaut ions 438
Supports for Lime: Preparing Walls and Other Subst rates for
Applicat ion of Lime 439
Pigments for Lime-Fresco 448
Whites in Lime-Fresco 450
Applicat ion of Colours 452
Fresco Secco 453
Protect ion of Fresco Paint ings 455
Alternat ive Wall Paint ing Binders 455
BRUSHES 459
Brushes for Oil Paint ing 459
Brushes for Acrylic Paint ing 464
Brushes for Watercolour Paint ing 466
Brushes for Gouache Paint ing 470
Brushes for Priming 470
Brushes for Varnishing 472
Brushes for Soft Pastels 473
Brushes for Fresco Paint ing 473
STORAGE AND PRESERVATION OF FINISHED ARTWORKS 475
Oil Paint ings 475
Acrylic Paint ings 478
Works on Paper 478
Pastel Paint ings 480
BIBLIOGRAPHY 48 1
INDEX 48 8
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About the Author
Pip Seymour is a painter and writer, who lives in England and Italy.
He studied Fine Art at Bradford College of Art, Winchester School
of Art and Brighton Polytechnic and has been a practising art ist
since the mid-1980s.
He teaches about the use of paint ing materials at a number of
inst itut ions in the United Kingdom, including the Prince�s
Foundation, London; Camberwell College of Art & Design, London;
the Colour Museum, Bradford and Abbot Hall Art Gallery, Kendal,
Cumbria.
Pip Seymour is a member of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following people for their help and co-
operat ion:
Sue Petheridge and Quentin Burkenshaw at the Society of Dyers
and Colour ists, Bradford, West Yorkshire (for Colour Index
information, especially in relat ion to historical pigments). Dr Georg
Kremer and Uta Williams, at Kremer Pigmente, Aichstetten,
Germany. Yvonne Hindle at University of Cent ral England,
Birmingham. Sarah Miller, Technical Advisor, Winsor & Newton. Dr.
Mike Roberts, DEFRA. Susan Ward-Booth, Alison Barratt, Jo
Wooding, Arif Ozakca, Mary Gregis-Walker, Kathrin Kinseher, Kate
Dineen.
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Int roduct ion
In relation to th e activity of pain tin g, th e app lication of
tech n iqu e can be a cru cial factor in th e com p lete
realisation of pain ted im ages.
For m an y artists, th e role of tech n ique in pain t in g is
som eh ow m issin g. In recen t years, th e teach in g of Fin e
Art h as con cen trated m ore on th e developm en t of ideas
th an on th e provision of in form ation relatin g to th e
properties of pain tin g m aterials. Despite th is, m an y artists
requ ire tech n ical in form at ion abou t th eir m aterials in
order to progress an d develop th eir work.
My own stu d en t s h ave freq u en t ly asked fo r m ore
in form ation th an is possible to tran sm it in th e teach in g
en viron m en t, often th e type of detailed in form ation th at
pertain s to an in dividual path of developm en t . Th e n eed
to provide th is h as prom pted m e to at tem pt to put in to
book form everyth in g I h ave learn t abou t pain t in g
m aterials an d practice over th e last fifteen or so years.
Th e aim of th is book is to collate, in on e com preh en sive
volum e, in form ation th at wou ld oth erwise requ ire cross-
referen cin g from m an y d ifferen t p u blicat ion s, from
various t im e periods.
Th e book is in ten ded as a resource for pain ters, an d covers
practically all th e accep ted pain t m edia in som e depth . In
m an y sen ses, th is book is a person al respon se to th e
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INTRODUCTION 11
ch oice an d use of m aterials. Th is in form ation h as been
glean ed from m y own p ain t in g p ract ice; t h rou gh
discussion with oth er art ists, studen ts, fellow tu tors,
pain tm akers an d con servation specialists.
Th e in form at ion in cluded in th is book is n ot in ten ded to
be prescrip tive: som e of th e opin ion s abou t m aterials
expressed h ere relate to m y own p ract ice, an d m y
un derstan din g of th e workin g properties of th e m aterials
d iscussed . Neverth eless, th is in form at ion h as been h ard
won : just like an y oth er pain ter, on e m akes m istakes
alon g th e way an d on e con tin ues to m ake m istakes.
In deed , som e of th e m ost in terestin g pain tin gs com e by
acciden t, or th rough experim en tation with m aterials.
Th e recip es, form u las an d tech n ical advice can be
con sidered as a start in g poin t for an y artist wh o is
in terested in developin g th eir tech n ique. To th is en d , th e
raw m aterials used in pain tin g are d iscussed at len gth ,
alon g with som e practical advice as to h ow best to
in corporate th ese raw m aterials in to pain ts, m edium s,
prim ers, varn ish es, etc.
Th e im portan ce of un derstan din g th e n ature of th e
m aterials on e uses in pain tin g can n ot be un derestim ated .
With out som e basic kn owledge of th e workin g properties
of m aterials, art ists m ay n ot fu lly develop an d progress
with th eir work.
Th e m aterials at th e disposal of th e m odern -day artist are
perh aps wider in scope th an at an y oth er t im e in h istory.
However, because m an y of th ese m aterials are presen ted
in ready-to-use form (e.g. tube oil colou rs), m an y artists
do n ot kn ow h ow th eir pain ts an d associated m aterials
are m an u factu red , an d wh ere, wh y an d h ow th ose
m aterials cam e to be used in th e first p lace. Th is book
attem pts to provide in form ation on just th ese aspects, by
givin g som e h istorical backgroun d in relation to th e use
of a m aterial (e.g. th e date of in troduct ion of a p igm en t)
an d suggestion s on h ow best to u se it .
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12 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
At th e begin n in g of th e 21st cen tury, we fin d ou rselves in
th e st ran ge posit ion of h avin g available n ot on ly m odern ,
in dustrially m ade p igm en ts bu t also a revived selection of
h istorical colou rs.
For th e m odern artist , th e ch oice is n ot ju st between
differen t bran ds of pain t, bu t also between h an d-m ade
pain t system s an d m an ufactured pain t ran ges. As a
con sequen ce, th is book focuses st ron gly on th e propert ies
of p igm en ts an d th eir in corporation in to a variety of
d ifferen t bin din g agen ts.
Wh en an art ist selects a p igm en t, it is often possible to use
th at p igm en t with th e wh ole fam ily of bin din g agen ts
available. However som e p igm en ts are n ot stable in
certain m ixtu res. In order to h elp facilitate good workin g
practice, each p igm en t is iden tified with th e appropriate
bin din g system (s), con form in g to th e n otion th at art ists
sh ou ld m ake th eir work with lon gevity in m in d.
Sim ilar in form ation is provided in relation to th e workin g
properties of bin ders, resin s, waxes, gum s, an d all th e
oth er m aterials com m on ly used in art ists' pain ts. Th e
correct ch oice of prim in g for exam ple, is fun dam en tal to
th e execu tion of both th e im age an d lon gevity of th e
fin ish ed artwork. Wh erever in form ation is available in
relation to a m aterial, it is given in order to provide as
th orough a backgroun d as possible to all of th e m aterials
used in pain tin g.
In form at ion on th e perm an en ce of p igm en ts is in cluded ,
with th e proviso th at th is was accurate at th e t im e of
goin g to press. Th e supply of art ists' m aterials, like an y
oth er m aterial, is in con stan t flux: as a con sequen ce,
specificat ion s relatin g to a m aterial m ay ch an ge.
Th e h istorical in form at ion on p igm en ts (an d o th er
m aterials) com es m ain ly from th e Western European
t rad it ion : th e sam e m aterials m ay be h an d led an d
prepared in differen t ways in som e oth er cu ltu res, m ost
n oticeably in Orien tal pain t in g.
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INTRODUCTION 13
Our un derstan din g of th e use of pain tin g m aterials
ch an ges an d develops with t im e. Th an ks to m odern
con servation tech n iques, th e com position of h istorical
pain t layers h as begun to be successfu lly iden t ified . With
th is developm en t, som e previously obsolete colou rs, such
as sm alt an d lead-t in yellow h ave com e back in to th e
palet tes of con tem porary artists. Sim ilarly, h istorically
im p ortan t p ain t b in d ers, su ch as lim e-fresco an d
en caust ic h ave been revived .
For m an y artists, th e ch oosin g of colou rs rem ain s a
daun tin g task with out som e supervision . For each pain t
m edia, a select ion of basic colou rs is suggested . Th ese can
be adopted as a start in g poin t: th ere will be m an y oth ers
to explore. Again , th e p igm en t section provides a lin k
between colour an d appropriate bin din g agen t .
Modern artists' pain t ran ges offer th e opportun ity to work
with p igm en ts th at h ave a h igh perm an en ce to both ligh t
an d air. Most art ists' m aterials com pan ies offer th eir own
perm an en ce ratin gs in th eir catalogues an d on colour
ch art s/ tu be labellin g. In t h e p igm en t sect ion , an
in dicat ion of perm an en ce accord in g to in depen den t
auth orit ies (Blue Wool Scale/ASTM) is provided wh ere
available.
Som e artists con tin ue to use older colours, som etim es of
a less-perm an en t n atu re. Th e p igm en t section con tain s
m uch relevan t in form at ion about all th e p igm en ts th at
are cu rren tly available to th e m arket. Th e ch oice of
colou rs listed relates to m y own travels with in th e last few
years, th rough Europe an d North Am erica. Th e section
in cludes all th e p igm en ts I h ave foun d listed as bein g
availab le in cu rren t art ist s' su p p ly cat alogu es an d
associated literatu re.
Sim ilarly, oth er m aterials (oils, gum s, resin s, waxes, etc)
are in cluded because on e can fin d th em on th e m arket
today. Wh ile som e of th e tech n iques discussed h ave
h istorical im portan ce (e.g. egg tem pera pain tin g), all
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14 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
m edia are con sidered an d given value. For exam ple, th e
properties of acrylic pain t system s are d iscussed at len gth ,
with th e aim of givin g th e reader a clear overview of h ow
best to u se th is relatively n ew m edium .
In m akin g th is book as com preh en sive as possible, m y
aim h as been to provide in form ation on each m aterial
com m on ly used in pain tin g practice, from wh ich artists
can ch oose th e appropriate m aterials for th eir own work.
My h ope for th is book is th at it becom es a stan dard
resource for all art ists, p rovid in g a practical lin k between
m aterial an d pract ice.
Pip Seym our, Lon don . 2003
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Th e colourin g substan ces em ployed in pain t m an ufacture are
derived from m an y sources. In sim ple term s, colour can be
presen ted in th e form of p igm en ts (com posed of fin ely divided
part icles) or dyestuffs (wh ich d issolve wh en in troduced to water or
alcoh ol to form coloured liqu ids). In m ost in stan ces, dyestuffs are
n ot used in pain t m an ufacture, because th ey are a) resoluble, b)
with out body/solidity an d c) liable to fade wh en exposed to th e
u ltra-violet ligh t rays con tain ed with in sun ligh t .
By con trast , p igm en ts always h ave a part icle structure, even wh en
th e part icle size is m in uscu le. Con sequen tly, pigm en ts are easier to
con trol wh en m ixed with bin d in g m edia an d create stable pastes of
colour, wh ich can be expressed by brush in g or spreadin g on to a
surface. In addit ion , p igm en ts usually h ave a greater resistan ce to
fad in g on exposure to sun ligh t wh en com pared to dyestuffs.
A sim ple way to ch eck th e quality of a p igm en t is to p lace a sm all
quan tity of powdered pigm en t (e.g. 20g) in to a glass jar (100m l).
Fill th e jar with cold water, st ir, an d th en leave to stan d for 2-3 days.
After th is t im e, all th e p igm en t part icles (bein g h eavier th an water),
will h ave sett led at th e bottom of th e jar, leavin g th e water clear. If
th e pigm en t con tain s an addit ion of dyestuff, th e water m ay
rem ain coloured, even after bein g left to sett le for m an y days or
weeks.
Th e pigm en ts used in th e m an ufacture of th e best quality of art ists'
colours are carefu lly ch osen , to p rovide optim um resu lts.
Pigments
Pigment s: An Int roduct ion
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16 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Th e ideal pigm en t for use in an art ists' colour would be:
� Fast to light . Does not lose it s br illiance when exposed to
sunlight .
� Permanent to atmospheric condit ions (e.g. some lead-based
pigments are known to darken when exposed to sulphurous
compounds in the air).
� Regular in part icle size, helping to provide a uniform/stable paint
paste.
� Free of impurit ies: some earth pigments have inclusions of
�foreign� mat ter, which can cause diff icult ies in the mixing
process, when preparing colours.
� Free of addit ives: some pigments are topped up wit h f iller
material (low t int ing st rength white pigments, such as blanc fix,
or chalk), or admixed with other pigments.
In p ract ice, th ere are som e pigm en ts in use wh ich do n ot con form
to th is wish list, sim ply because th ey h ave always been used by
tradit ion . Alizarin crim son , a syn th etic organ ic pigm en t first
in troduced in th e m id-19th cen tury, is a good exam ple. Desp ite th e
fact th at it is kn own to fade wh en app lied as a glaze (a th in ,
tran sparen t layer), it h as rem ain ed in art ists' colour assortm en ts
because art ists still dem an d it, even th ough th ere are a n um ber of
m odern altern at ives wh ich cou ld easily be subst itu ted.
Sim ilarly, m an y art ists dislike m odern syn th etic iron oxides (e.g.
m ars red, m ars yellow), because, alth ough th ey h ave sim ilar colour
values to th e tradition al earth pigm en ts, th ey lack ch aracter.
Syn th etic iron oxides are super-opaque, absolu tely regu lar in
part icle size an d do n ot ten d to alter from on e batch of pigm en t to
an oth er. By con trast , n atural och re p igm en ts, dug from th e earth ,
are always irregu lar in term s of part icle size an d can alter in sh ade
from batch to batch , due to in clusion s of varyin g am oun ts of ch alk
an d silica. Wh en prepared in to pain t form , such earth p igm en ts
ten d to be sligh tly grit ty in texture an d m ay take lon ger to m ix in to
an accep table pain t paste. Desp ite th is, or perh aps because of it ,
art ists often ch oose such colours, because th ey sh ow ch aracter,
id iosyn crasy an d con trast wh en com pared with m odern , in dustrial
p roducts.
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PIGMENTS 17
It is th is facet in regard to th e raw colourin g m aterial th at m akes th e
un derstan din g of pigm en ts so vital to an yon e learn in g to pain t, or
in volved in th e p ract ice of pain tin g.
Th e ch aracter of each p igm en t is differen t . Th e way th at each
pigm en t is m ixed with a bin der to form a pain t paste can be
d ifferen t . It is also true th at as artists, we express each colour
d ifferen tly on to th e pain t in g support , accordin g to th e ch arac-
teristic of th at part icu lar colour. For exam ple, viridian is a brigh t ,
cold green wh ich sh ows great tran sparen cy wh en applied as a glaze.
Wh en m ixed with oth er colours, it loses its in fluen ce with in th at
m ixture (i.e. it h as a low t in t in g stren gth ). Wh y is th is? How can we
recogn ise th is? In p ract ice, we fin d such in form ation th rough trial
an d error: by takin g each colour in tu rn an d workin g with it ;
m ixin g it with wh ite to see h ow it beh aves as a t in t ; applyin g it to
wh ite groun ds an d to black groun ds to see h ow tran sparen t it is
(very tran sparen t pigm en ts h ard ly sh ow at all wh en applied to
black groun ds).
Th is section aim s to p rovide in -depth in form ation about th e
ch aracterist ics of all th e pigm en ts th at are com m on ly used in
art ists' m aterials, or th at h ave been used in pain t in g practice. In
addit ion , a n um ber of h istoric p igm en ts are m en tion ed because in
recen t years th ey h ave becom e available to th e m arket again ,
especially in d ry pigm en t form .
For each pigm en t, a table h as been created to p rovide as m uch
in form ation as is curren tly available. Th e tables are laid ou t in th e
followin g form at:
Colour Index Name
Th e Society of Dyers an d Colourists h ave assign ed m an y colourin g
substan ces an in dex n am e an d n um ber as a m ean s of iden tification .
Su ch in form at ion is u sed by th e pain t in dust ry to iden t ify
Key t o Pigment Informat ion
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18 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
in gredien ts an d is also often in cluded on th e labellin g of art ists'
colours or associated product in form ation . For exam ple, lead wh ite
is kn own as PW 1 (Pigm en t Wh ite Num ber 1).
Colour Index Number
Th e Colour In dex Num ber is a fu rth er m ean s of iden tificat ion used
with in th e pain t in dustry. For exam ple, lead wh ite is Colour In dex
Num ber CI 77597.
A com plete up-dated list of all colourin g m atter is available from
th e Society of Dyers an d Colourists in th e form of both book an d
CD-Rom (see Bibliograph y).
Common Names
Th e tradit ion al colour n am e (e.g. ven etian red , is th e com m on
n am e for a n atural red earth p igm en t with a sligh tly p in k-violet
un dersh ade). Oth er com m on ly accep ted n am es for th e sam e
pigm en t are in cluded (e.g. u ltram arin e is often referred to as fren ch
ultram arin e. Th is relates to its developm en t in th e 19th cen tury,
wh ere it was first paten ted in Fran ce).
Origin
A descrip t ion of th e m an ufacturin g process an d/or wh ere th e raw
m aterial is sourced . An ou tlin e of th e use of each pigm en t in
pain t in g pract ice cit in g, in som e cases, specific use by in dividual
art ists.
Composit ion
Th e accepted ch em ical form ula for a p igm en t. For exam ple, lead
wh ite is basic lead carbon ate (2PbCO3).
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PIGMENTS 19
Tint ing St rength
Th e relative t in t in g stren gth of a p igm en t (e.g. wh en adm ixed with
wh ite).
Shade
A descrip t ion of th e sh ade (warm , cold, blu ish , reddish , etc) of each
pigm en t.
Suitability to Media
Certain p igm en ts are n ot com patible with som e of th e bin din g
agen ts used for pain t m akin g. For exam ple, lead-based pigm en ts do
n ot work well in acrylic bin ders, because th ey are too h eavy to
rem ain stable in th e acrylic resin d ispersion bin der.
Opacity/ Transparency
Pigm en ts can give eith er t ran sparen t or opaque pain t film s,
depen din g on th e part icle size an d structure. For each pigm en t, th e
relative tran sparen cy/opacity is in dicated � a useful aid wh en
selectin g colours.
Defects
Som e colours can n ot be in term ixed , or m ay ch an ge appearan ce on
exposure to ligh t/atm osph ere. In som e cases, th is can be coun tered
by select ion of specific bin din g m edia (e.g. lead wh ite is less pron e
to su lph urous com poun ds wh en prepared as an oil pain t th an
wh en prepared in a water-based bin der, because th e oil film
protects th e p igm en t from exposure to th e atm osph ere).
Availability/Cost
Th e relative availability of a p igm en t th rough regular suppliers of
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20 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
art ists' m aterials is m en tion ed an d , wh ere n oteworth y, referen ce is
m ade to its cost (e.g. rock-m in eral based pigm en ts ten d to be qu ite
cost ly, wh ereas m odern , in dustrial iron oxides are in expen sive).
Th e cost of th e raw m aterial (pigm en t) m ay h ave som e in fluen ce on
th e buyin g price of a pain t product .
Special Comments
If a p igm en t requ ires a wett in g agen t in order to aid d ispersion in to
th e ch osen pain t bin der, th is is in d icated . Th e ch oice of correct
wettin g agen t is vital. Th e followin g wett in g agen ts are com m on ly
used in th e m an ufacture of art ists' pain ts:
Wett ing Agent for Oil Colours
Min eral (wh ite) spirit . It is n ot advised to use tu rpen tin e, because
th is solven t takes lon ger to evaporate th an m in eral sp irit . Special
dispersion form ulat ion s m ay be available for oil colours, un der
bran d n am es (e.g. �Disperse aid�).
Wett ing Agent for Acrylic Colours
Special syn th etic wettin g agen ts are available, usually in th e form
of very d ilu te detergen t (e.g. �Orotan�, �Dispon il�). Ch eck with
supplier as to th e m ost appropriate wett in g agen t wh en purch asin g
acrylic resin s.
Wett ing Agent for Watercolours/Gouache
Alcoh ol, or ox-gall. Ox-gall is n orm ally sold as a dilu te liqu id,
som etim es deodorised. Neat ox-gall m ay be over-stron g (causin g
too m uch wett in g, dispersion of pain t paste) an d pron e to th e
release of bad odour. Alcoh ol sh ould be 99% water-free an d n on -
coloured . It m ay be wise to dilute th e alcoh ol with a lit t le water,
p rior to use.
Wett ing Agent for Hand-made Soft Pastels
Alcoh ol, dilu ted with water in th e rat io on e part alcoh ol to ten
parts water.
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PIGMENTS 21
Wett ing Agent for Egg Tempera
Alcoh ol.
Wett ing Agent for Casein Binder and Animal Skin Glue
Binders
Alcoh ol.
Wh ere app licable, fu rth er in form ation is p rovided on th e special
ch aracterist ics of som e pigm en ts. For exam ple, som e of th ose
derived from m in erals, such as th e sem i-precious ston es m alach ite
an d azurite, n eed carefu l p reparation . Wh en such pigm en ts are
m ixed for too lon g, th e part icle size can be altered: as th e part icle
size reduces, so th e colour becom es paler an d paler. Con sequen tly,
it is n orm al with th ese two p igm en ts to m ix th em with th e relevan t
bin din g agen t usin g a sligh tly coarser part icle size th an would be
th e case with oth er pigm en ts.
Drying Rate (in Oil Paint)
Som e pigm en ts h ave a catalyt ic effect on th e vegetable oils used as
bin ders for art ists' oil colours. For exam ple, raw um ber (con tain in g
m an gan ese deposits) will cause lin seed oil to d ry out in perh aps a
day, or even less. As a con sequen ce, it is often em ployed for
un derpain t in g (th e first �sketch in g-in� coat of pain t). Such fast-
d ryin g colours can be adm ixed with oth er pigm en ts to im prove
th eir dryin g rate. Th is fast-d ryin g action is on ly seen in oil-based
pain t system s.
Heath & Safety Informat ion
Som e pigm en ts can be poten tially in ju rious to th e user, especially
in th eir dry, powdered form . All d ry, powder-form p igm en ts
represen t a h azard in th at th ey can be classed as n u isan ce dusts. It
is im perat ive wh en h an dlin g dry p igm en ts th at th e user wears an
appropriate dust m ask, protect ive gloves an d protective cloth in g.
An in dicat ion is given of th e relat ive h ealth h azard of each
pigm en t.
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22 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Th e supplier of each m aterial m ay offer fu rth er in form ation on its
correct use. It is pruden t to request up-to-date in form ation on all
th e m aterials discussed , as th e available in form ation is always
ch an gin g.
Pigm en ts can be derived from two dist in ct sources:
1. Inorganic Pigments.
2. Organic Pigments.
Inorganic Pigments
Colourin g m atter th at is derived from com poun ds th at were n ever
part of livin g m atter are con sidered to be in organ ic pigm en ts.
With in th is category th ere are coloured com poun ds th at are form ed
as a) earth deposits, b) m in eral/ rock, c) t reated m etallic com poun ds
an d d) fused m etallic com poun ds.
Some Examples of Inorganic Pigments
Pigment Types
Earth Deposit
Ear th Deposit
(naturally
calcined)
Earth Deposit
(ar t if icially
calcined)
Yellow ochre. Mix of clay with silica, t inted by iron
deposits which oxidise to give a coloured earth.
Pompeii red. A natural earth pigment , given a red
t inge through contact with heat from volcanoes.
Burnt sienna. Natural (raw) sienna is a special type
of ochre, which contains a high propor t ion of silica
(a t ranslucent mater ial). Raw sienna gives a
relat ively t ransparent paint f ilm, when applied as a
glaze. When raw sienna is calcined (heated) in a
closed furnace or kiln, it changes shade to give a
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PIGMENTS 23
Organic Pigments
Colou rin g m at ter th at is d erived from livin g su bstan ces o r
substan ces wh ich were on ce part of livin g th in gs, can be ascribed as
organ ic p igm en ts. With in th is cat egory, p igm en t s m ay be
com posed from a) an im als, b) p lan ts or c) syn th etic treatm en t of
p lan tstu ff.
Mineral/ Rock
Treated Metallic
Compound
Fused Metallic
Compounds
fiery-red colour. This calcining process also creates
a slight ly more t ransparent effect when t he
resultant paint paste is applied as a glaze.
Cinnabar. A red rock, fused from mercury wit h
sulphur, normally within volcanoes. It may also
contain ot her aggregates such as sandstone,
quar tz, etc. The rock is pulverised in a pest le and
mortar, t hen put through a fine sieve to separate
the different part icle sizes in order to gain a red
pigment with a regular part icle size. This pulverised
form of cinnabar is known as vermilion (�t he lit t le
worm� � Old French and Lat in).
Lead white. When sheets of lead are exposed to
vinegar, t he metal corrodes to form carbonate of
lead. This simple white pigment is one of the oldest
manufactured inorganic pigments, dat ing back to
ant iquity.
Cobalt blue. When two metallic compounds are
burnt together (fused), t hey can be employed to
create a new material. Cobalt blue, for example, is a
fusion of cobalt and aluminium oxides.
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24 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Pigm en ts are rated accord in g to th e size o f th e in d ivid u al
(m olecu lar) p art icles from wh ich th ey are com p osed . Th e
m easurem en ts are given in m icron s (�).
Th e relation sh ip between part icle size an d th e bin din g agen t used
can be a factor in th e m akin g of coh eren t pain t film s. For exam ple,
th e m icron size of n atural earth pigm en ts (n aturally occurrin g
oxides of iron ) m ay vary from between 20-50 m icron s an d th e
particle structure m ay be irregu lar. By con trast , syn th etic iron
oxides (art ificial oxides of iron ) m ay h ave a particle size as sm all as
10 m icron s. In add it ion , th e regu lar form of such m an ufactured
pigm en ts can m ake th em easier to in corporate with in th e ch osen
bin din g system .
Animal
Plant
Bone black. A simple black pigment can be
produced by calcining cat t le bones, which are t hen
pulverised to a f ine grain powder.
Madder red lake. Many plant roots, f ibres or leaves
can be used to make colouring substances. In the
case of madder red, the roots of the madder plant
are warmed with water t hat has been t reated with
potash. This produces a red dyestuff, which is then
fixed to a metallic subst rate (e.g. rock alum, a type
of salt ) to form a pigment with a part icle st ructure.
Synthet ic
Organic
Alizar in cr imson. Crude oil is conver ted into
pet roleum products. The solvents created t hrough
this process can be developed, through modern
organic chemist ry, into a wide range of coloured
dyes. Some of t hese dyes can be converted into
pigment form (at tached to a part icle st ructure).
These �synthet ic� organic pigments provide very
st rong, bright colour and are now widely employed
within the paint indust ry as colourants.
Par t icle Size of Pigment s
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PIGMENTS 25
Th e m icron size is represen ted by th e sym bol �. Th e term �grin d
size� is also som etim es used in con n ection with part icle size.
Com parat ive exam ples of m icron size in p igm en ts (sizes vary
accord in g to m an ufacturer an d processin g of th e origin al m aterial):
Natural Earth Pigments 20-50�
Synthet ic Iron Oxides 10�
Synthet ic Organic Pigments 0.1-5�
Titanium White 5-15�
Azurite 10-120� (larger part icle size
shows greater colour)
Glass Pigments 63-125�(larger part icle size
shows greater colour)
Th e com bin ation of larger part icle size p igm en ts with sm aller
part icle size pigm en ts m ay lead to a loss of colour reson an ce in th e
resu ltan t pain t film . Rath er th an in term ixin g p igm en ts with widely
d ifferin g part icle sizes, it m ay be bet ter to overlay on e colour on top
of an oth er to gain th e optim um effect .
Th e followin g in dex of p igm en ts in cludes in form ation on both
h istoric an d m odern colours. Wh erever possible perm an en ce
in form ation is in cluded. However, th e reader sh ould bear in m in d
th at such in form ation is always in flux an d liable to revision over
t im e. Wh ere a p igm en t h as been m en tion ed , its in clusion in dicates
its use in th e fin e arts, it does n ot n ecessarily con firm perm an en ce
or recom m en d use in perm an en t works of art.
Pigments Classif icat ion
Wh en purch asin g art ists' colours, th e colour n am e given on th e
product label m ay or m ay n ot relate to th e pigm en t(s) used in its
m an u factu re. It is im p o rt an t t h at art ist s u n d erst an d th e
com position of th e pain ts th ey use, to en sure a full un derstan din g
Art ist s� Pigment s
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26 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
of a) t h e workin g p rop ert ies o f t h e p ain t ch o sen , b ) t h e
com position of th e raw m aterials of th at pain t an d c) th e poten tial
toxicity of th e pain t . Th e art ists' m aterials in dustry often assign s
n am es to pain ts th at do n ot reflect th eir ch em ical com position . For
exam ple, sap green is often a com bin ation of two or m ore
p igm en ts. With in publish ed in form ation (e.g. colour ch arts), th e
m an ufacturer m ay in d icate th e p igm en t com posit ion of th e pain t.
In creasin gly, m an y com pan ies sh ow th e pigm en t com posit ion on
tube or can labellin g. However, th is approach h as n ot been adopted
by all m an ufacturers: as a con sequen ce, art ists m ay n eed to do som e
research before select in g th eir m aterials. Wh ere th e m an ufacturer
does in d icate th e p igm en t com posit ion of th eir pain ts, iden tifi-
cation is m ade by use of th e relevan t Colour In dex Nam e an d/or
Num ber.
Th e Colour In dex (C.I.) is th e in tern ation ally recogn ised system for
th e iden tificat ion of pigm en ts an d dyes. It is publish ed join t ly by
th e Society of Dyers an d Colourists in th e Un ited Kin gdom an d th e
Association of Textile Ch em ists an d Colorists in th e Un ited States.
Th e Colour In dex in cludes tech n ical in form ation an d classificat ion
of all coloured m aterials, in cludin g p igm en ts an d dyes th at m ay be
foun d in art ists' m aterials.
Th e com plete Colour In dex iden tificat ion com prises two separate
item s:
a) The Colour Index Name
An exam ple of a Colour In dex Nam e would be �C.I. Pigm en t Violet
23�.
Th e Colour In dex Nam e com prises th ree d ifferen t parts:
1. Use. What the colourant is used for (e.g. �Pigment�, or dye class
such as �Acid� or �React ive�).
2. Colour. Pigments are classif ied into ten colour groups, which are
abbreviated as follows:
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PIGMENTS 27
PB p igm en t blue, PBk pigm en t black, PBr p igm en t brown , PG
pigm en t green , PM p igm en t m etal, PO p igm en t oran ge, PR
pigm en t red, PV p igm en t violet , PW pigm en t wh ite, PY
pigm en t yellow. NR = n atural red, NY = n atural yellow, etc
(for colours based on p lan t or oth er organ ic source).
3. A Number. This number was assigned sequent ially as the
substance was added to the Index and has no chemical or
const itut ional signif icance.
b) The Const itut ion Number
C.I. Con stitu t ion Num bers are assign ed by ch em ical class an d run
from 10000 to 77999. From th is n um ber, th e exact form ula an d
structure of m ost dyes an d pigm en ts can be foun d. Wh ile th is
in form ation m ay n ot be requ ired by m ost art ists, it m ay assist
iden tificat ion of colours. At th e very least, an un derstan din g of
th ese classificat ion s allows art ists to recogn ise wh at pigm en ts m ay
h ave been used in th e pain ts th ey ch oose.
Th e full Colour In dex Nam e an d Con stitu tion Num ber for a
p igm en t com m on ly foun d in art ists' m aterials, alizarin crim son , is:
Colour Index Name Const itut ion Number Common Name
C.I. PR 83 C.I. 58000 alizarin
cr imson
Th e Am erican Society for Test in g an d Materials (ASTM) is often
quoted by m an ufacturers an d in tech n ical literatu re with regard to
art ists' p igm en ts. Th eir rat in gs refer to th e perform an ce of selected
p igm en ts wh en groun d in a variety of veh icles, for exam ple oil,
gum arabic (watercolour), acrylic. ASTM ratin gs relate to p igm en t
m ixed with a bin der (e.g. lin seed oil) rath er th an proprietary bran ds
of pain t. Man ufactured colours m ay con tain th e p igm en ts listed on
th e tube or in tech n ical in form ation bu t can also in clude oth er
un disclosed m aterials, wh ich could in th eory reduce perm an en ce.
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28 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
ASTM Ligh tfastn ess Ratin gs for oil pain ts h ave been based on
testin g don e of th e ch osen p igm en t(s), let down with titan ium
wh ite to a pastel-like t in t at approxim ately 40% reflectan ce.
Th e pigm en ts m en tion ed m ay fall in to th e followin g categories (in
relation to oil colours):
ASTM I Excellent light fastness
ASTM II Very good lightfastness
ASTM III Not sat isfactory (may be sat isfactory when
applied full st rength)
Note: ASTM rat in gs are con tin ually updated , an y in form ation
supplied in th is text m ay be subject to ch an ge.
The Blue Wool Scale
In th e textiles in dustry, dyed cloth is m easured for fastn ess again st
ligh t accord in g to th e Blue Wool Scale. Sam ples of wool are dyed
with eigh t differen t grades of blue dye an d exposed to sun ligh t for
a set period (e.g. twelve m on th s, sou th facin g Florida sun ligh t). Th e
eigh t separate dyes sh ow fadin g to differen t degrees: th e dye with
th e stron gest resistan ce to ligh t is graded n o.8 (n o ch an ge after 12
m on th s exposure), wh ile th e dye th at fades th e m ost is graded n o.1.
(com plete or virtually com plete fad in g after 12 m on th s).
Oth er colours (both dyes an d p igm en ts) can be exposed to sun ligh t
an d m easured again st th is scale. With regard to art ists' p igm en ts,
colours th at are graded 7-8 on th e blue wool scale m ay be
con sidered perm an en t (bein g m ore or less equ ivalen t to p igm en ts
accorded th e rat in g ASTM I, ASTM II un der th e ASTM rat in g
system ). Man y p lan t-based colours, alon g with th e earlier variet ies
of syn th etic organ ic p igm en ts m ay fall below th is ben ch m ark. For
exam ple, p igm en ts th at m easure 6 or lower on th e blue wool scale,
m ay perform less well wh en exposed to stron g sun ligh t , or wh en
stron gly m ixed with wh ite pigm en ts.
Permanence of Art ist s� Pigment s
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PIGMENTS 29
Th e in form ation supplied by m an ufacturers of art ists' m aterials an d
by suppliers or m an ufacturers of d ry pigm en ts is assum ed to be
correct an d diligen tly research ed. However, �h om e� test in g of
batch es of pain t or dry pigm en t m ay becom e appropriate for
specific p rocesses. For exam ple, a n um ber of publicat ion s h ave been
produced in recen t years th at attem pt to test an d evaluate th e
perform an ce of proprietary bran ds of watercolour pain t . Such
evaluation s often seem h igh ly subject ive, bu t it m ay be a usefu l
exercise for art ists to m ake th eir own , sim ilar tests. Such tests can
provide a usefu l record of, for exam ple, th e way a particu lar pain t
brush es out , or perh aps th e degree of gran u lat ion observed wh en
pigm en t is sim ply m ixed with gum arabic an d app lied to paper as a
wash . A register of pain t-ou t sam ples would be a usefu l resource for
an y profession al art ist 's studio, sh owin g pain t-ou ts of favourite
colours an d perh aps adm ixtures between differen t colours. It m ay
also be usefu l to expose such pain t-outs to sou th -facin g ligh t for a
period of weeks or m on th s, to ascertain an y ch an ge in term s of
fad in g.
For such tests, th e ch osen pain t sh ould be applied on to a support
wh ich is th e sam e as th at n orm ally used for pain t in g. For oil
colours, it cou ld be an off-cu t of p rim ed can vas, or perh aps a series
of prim ed pan els. For watercolour, a su itable paper is selected. For
each pain t sam ple, th e colour n eeds to be app lied at fu ll stren gth ;
adm ixed with 10% wh ite (adm ixture with perh aps m ore th an on e
variety of wh ite cou ld be con sidered); adm ixed with wh ite in th e
rat io on e part colour, to n in e parts wh ite; applied diluted (as a wash
in watercolour); applied com bin ed with a ch osen pain t m edium
(e.g. in oil pain t , co-m ixed with a 10% addit ion of stan d oil-
dam m ar m edium ). Th e fin ish ed pain t sam ples are left exposed to
sun ligh t (p referably in a sou th -facin g win dow). On e h alf of each
sam ple can be covered up, so th at it is p reserved an d th us acts as a
�stan dard� again st wh ich th e exposed sam ple can be com pared.
After on e m on th , th e pain t sam ple is in spected for an y ch an ges,
th en re-position ed for an oth er m on th , an d so on . After a period of
perh aps six m on th s, an y sign ifican t ch an ges are n oted an d
recorded for fu tu re referen ce. Alth ough th is p rocedure m ay seem
len gth y an d pedan tic, it m ay h elp in d ividual artists to recogn ise
subtle differen ces of quality between on e pain t bran d an d an oth er.
In th e case of dry p igm en ts, to m ake a colour sam ple, th e ch osen
pigm en t is m illed in to a specific bin der. For exam ple, a sim ple gum
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30 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
arabic solut ion can be used to m ake basic watercolours. Th is is
especially useful wh en select in g p igm en ts for watercolour pain t in g,
wh ere qualities such as th e stain in g or gran ulat ion propert ies of a
p igm en t are bet ter un derstood .
Staining Pigments
Som e sm all/ fin e particle size pigm en ts, such as th e syn th etic
organ ic p igm en ts an d also p russian blue, ten d to give a stain in g
effect wh en used in water-based tech n iques. Th is is part ially due to
th e very h igh t in t in g stren gth of such pigm en ts, bu t is also
con n ected to th eir fin e part icle size. Th ese stain in g colours ten d to
be difficu lt to wash ou t of brush h airs, especially soft sable h air
brush es. Th ey m ay also cause run n in g or bleedin g wh en applied to
th e pain t in g surface (e.g. pain t in g on paper in watercolou r
tech n ique), wh en on e wet colour con tacts with an oth er.
An addit ion of gum water (gum arabic solu t ion ) with such colours
m ay h elp to give m ore con trol in term s of applicat ion (th e colour
is slower to disperse). In som e gouach e pain t ran ges, colours m ay
be based on dyes rath er th an p igm en ts, wh ich will h ave a stron g
stain in g effect , o r rath er, bleed in g � wh ere colour is easily
redissolved an d react ivated on th e surface wh en re-wetted.
Granulat ion (in Watercolour)
Th e part icle structure of a pigm en t m ay cause th e app lied pain t to
sh ow an effect referred to as �gran ulat ion�, wh ere th e particles
part ially sett le out in th e pain t m ixture, to give a gran u lar effect.
Th is gran u lat ion of app lied colour can be aesth et ically p leasin g,
especially in th e con text of watercolour pain t in g, wh ere th e grain y
part icles set t le ou t in th e p its/grain of th e paper. Exam ples of th ese
gran ulat ion pigm en ts in clude cobalt blue, cobalt violet, ceru lean
blue, m an gan ese blue, cobalt green , n atural earth s, n atural m adder,
stil d i grain , n atural in digo, viridian , u ltram arin e violet . Alon gside
th ese co lou rs, m ost o f th e m in eral-based p igm en t s sh ow
gran ulat ion due to th eir crystallin e structure. Th e large particle size
of such pigm en ts m ay m ean th at th ey require greater bin din g
stren gth th an fin er part icle sized p igm en ts.
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PIGMENTS 31
Pigment Tables
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
77597
ASTM I
Kremnit z white, krems white, cremnit z white,
not t ingham white, london white, genoa white, silver
white, ceruse white, snowflake, or f lake white. The term
flake white is often used in tube oil paint to describe
lead white admixed with zinc white. It is common for
lead white oil colours also to include addit ions of blanc
fix (barium sulphate), which is incorporated to improve
the paint consistency.
2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2. Art if icial mineral pigment . Basic lead
carbonate. Used since ant iquity. Krems is a town in
Aust r ia, where lead white pigment was produced.
Good reducing power when mixed with other colours.
Pure white, not over bright . A warmish white as oil
colour.
Fair ly good � t it anium white has greater hiding
(covering) power.
Not suitable for use in water-based media. Lead white
is a heavy pigment, which set t les out in water-based
media. The pigment is more prone to darkening upon
exposure to sulphurous compounds in t he
environment , when used in water-based techniques. In
oil paint and also when carefully bound in egg yolk for
tempera, lead white performs well.
Fast .
In oil, lead white yellows with age, especially if kept in
the dark during drying. Can blacken on exposure to
(sulphur) polluted at mospheres, alt hough t his
tendency is reduced when the pigment is locked in an
oil binder.
WHITE PIGMENTS
LEAD WHITE PW 1
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
32 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Withdrawn from use in most indust r ial paints in Europe
and the US. Current EU legislat ion has made it more
cost ly and prohibit ive for art ists� colour-makers to
produce lead white as an oil paint . As a consequence,
prepared white lead oil colour has become expensive.
Similarly, the dry pigment is now more expensive and
more difficult to purchase. Demand from art ists for
this pigment is st ill high. The availabilit y of lead white
is limited by current UK regulat ions. It is available for
the restorat ion of works of art and buildings upon
applicat ion to the relevant authority. In the UK, this
has been The Council for Museums, Archives and
Libraries, who inherited this responsibility from the
Museums and Galleries Commission. This situat ion is
apparent ly due to change, however, and DEFRA
(Depar tment of Environment , Fisheries and Rural
Affairs) can advise as to the appropriate authority
henceforth.
As an oil colour, lead white can be prepared to provide
a r ich, but tery texture, ideal for mixing down with other
colours. Add to other colours to speed drying in
underpaint ing. Most f lexible of all whites, with a
smoot h, pasty consistency, of ten preferred for
admixing and modifying consistency of other colours.
Lead sulphate (PW 2/C.I. 77633) is sublimed lead
carbonate and not permanent for works of art � was
formerly used in indust rial paints.
Toxic, contains lead. Wear gloves and dust mask when
handling dry pigment . Wash hands thoroughly after
using pigment or paint . Lead can be ingested through
the skin � wear a barrier cream, applied to hands and
forearms to ease cleaning and prevent pigment/paint
from rest ing in contact with skin.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 33
ZINC WHITE PW 4
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
77947
ASTM I
Zinc oxide, chinese white (originally a special grade used to
make body colour for watercolour paint ing), permanent
white (not to be confused with blanc fix, which is also
somet imes afforded this name).
ZnO. An ar t if icial mineral pigment , pure zinc oxide.
Developed from 1746 onwards, int roduced to art ists in t he
1830s (by Winsor & Newton: chinese white, as a watercolour
paint).
Good.
Cold, bluish white.
Semi-opaque, admix with other colours to gain pastel
shades.
Stable in oil, watercolour, gouache, tempera, but not advised
for outdoor mural paint ing using acrylic, where the paint
surface can chalk.
Very slow.
Forms brit t le paint f ilms in oil, especially when applied
thickly.
Widely used.
Thick passages of paint may form hard, brit t le f ilms, leading
to a danger of cracking.
Zinc sulphate (PW 7/C.I. 77975) is formed when zinc oxide is
exposed to hydrogen sulphide. Although zinc sulphate is a
similar white colour to zinc oxide, it is rarely used in the
preparat ion of art ists� colours, but f inds use in indust r ial
products. It is also used in the manufacture of lit hopone,
where it is co-precipitated with barium sulphate. Zinc
sulphate is not stable in acidic mixtures. Exposure to heat
causes release of toxic hydrogen sulphide gas.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
34 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Health & Safety
Informat ion
with barium sulphate. Zinc sulphate is not stable in
acidic mixtures. Exposure to heat causes release of
toxic hydrogen sulphide gas.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 35
LITHOPONE PW 5
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77115
Not tested.
Lit hopone silver, ponolit h, carlton white, gr iff it h�s
patent zinc white, jersey lily white, orr�s zinc white.
BaSO4 + ZnS. An art ificial mineral pigment . First
produced in England in the 1870s. Early lit hopones had
a tendency to darken when mixed with oil. The modern
pigment (dat ing from 1926) is stable. A co-precipitate
of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate.
St ronger than zinc white, with more hiding power due
to bet ter opacity.
Similar to zinc white, a bright , coldish white.
Semi-opaque.
Oil, watercolour, gouache, tempera � although in oil it
shows a certain yellow-greenness.
Very slow.
�
Inexpensive, somet imes used to bulk out other white
oil paints.
�
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
36 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
TITANIUM WHITE PW 6
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
77891
ASTM I
Titanox, t itanium dioxide.
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
TiO2. An art if icial mineral pigment , Titanium dioxide is
derived from ilmenite, black t itanium ore. Int roduced in
the 1920s.
High.
Very bright pure white.
Very opaque.
Stable to all media.
Slow. Hand-ground oil colour can take months to dry
out .
Dries to a brit t le film (when ground in oil). For this
reason, it is not recommended for oil priming, or for
thick passages of oil paint ing.
Inexpensive, widely used.
An inert , non-toxic pigment with the highest t int ing
st rength of all whites and very high refract ive power.
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 37
A Note on Pearlescent Pigments
In Jap an ese p ain t in g, irid escen t o r n acreou s p igm en t s are
tradition ally p roduced by grin d in g th e in side of m oth er of pearl sea
sh ells. Th is tech n ique is st ill in use an d Japan ese art m aterials
catalogues detail various iridescen t wh ite an d pearl pigm en ts,
wh ich are m ixed with a skin glue bin der in th e trad it ion al Japan ese
pain tin g tech n ique on paper. Mica, called m uscovite, or m uscovy
glass, (h ydrous potassium alum in ium silicate) H2K Al3 (SiO4)3, is a
type of n atural quartz, wh ich occurs in th e form of com pressed th in
sh eets or p lates th at divide easily.
Mica h as been used as a p igm en t in pain t in g an d th e decorat ive
arts. Wh en groun d in to a fin e powder, it acts like th e Japan ese
groun d-sh ell p igm en ts, givin g a sligh t iridescen t effect . Mica is
available in a variety of grades, from fin e powder to sequin -size
p latelets. Th ey retain th eir lustre best wh en m ixed with water-based
bin ders, especially acrylic d ispersion , bu t also with an im al glue
(distem per), or gum arabic.
Mica is used as th e substrate for th e m odern pearlescen t pigm en ts.
In a costly p rocess, th e fin e m ica plates are coated with m etal
oxides. Th e pearlescen t pigm en ts are extrem ely ligh tfast an d stable
in all th e usual pain t bin ders: oil, acrylic, gum arabic, casein , lim e,
etc. Th e pearlescen t p igm en ts can be divided in to th ree d istin ct
groupin gs: Pearlescen t, Iridescen t an d In terferen ce.
Pearlescent types
Fin e particles of m ica are coated with a very th in layer of t itan ium
wh ite pigm en t (t itan ium dioxide, TiO2), to produce pearlescen t
an d silver, or rath er silver-wh ite sh ades. Th ese are gen erally referred
to as pearlescen t p igm en ts. Exam ples of th ese are th e Ekaton types.
Th ey h ave a m etallic surface sh een an d brush ou t to a tran sparen t
glaze wh en p rep ared with m ed iu m (e.g. acrylic p o lym er
d ispersion ).
Iridescent types
Iridescen t pigm en ts (for exam ple, Colibri types) are very sim ilar, in
th at th ey are derived from m ica, wh ich is coated with iron oxide
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
38 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
an d t itan ium wh ite, or just iron oxide, to p rovide a ran ge of yellow
gold, oran ge gold an d copper sh ades. However, th ey are less
tran sparen t wh en com pared with pearlescen t pigm en ts an d give a
very good approxim ation to sh ades of real gold, copper an d bron ze.
Th ese iridescen t gold , copper an d bron ze sh ades can be m ixed from
th e dry p igm en t to im itate gildin g effects, or in m an y cases, bough t
ready-d ispersed in to a bin din g m edium .
Th ese sh ades are already available in th e form of acrylic an d oil
pain t . Th e iridescen t p igm en ts can be m ixed with an im al glue
bin der to replicate fin e water gildin g effects but are perh aps closest
to gold, or sh ell gold , wh en m ixed in to an acrylic polym er
d ispersion .
By con trast to sim ilar sh ades available as bron ze powder, th e
iridescen t p igm en ts sh ow a greater subtlety with a softer fin ish , are
stable to ligh t an d do n ot tarn ish or oxid ise.
Interference types
In terferen ce p igm en ts (for exam ple, Ch rom a types) d iffer from th e
pearlescen t an d iridescen t types in th at th e com bin ation of
refraction an d reflect ion of ligh t upon th e t itan ium wh ite coatin gs
produces an in terferen ce effect , rath er like th e rain bow colours
visible wh en lookin g at a th in film of oil upon th e surface of water.
With in terferen ce pigm en ts, m ica is coated with t itan ium wh ite to
a specific th ickn ess, wh ich allows on ly a n arrow ban d of ligh t to
reflect . As a resu lt , th e eye sees just on e colour of th e spectrum ,
yellow for exam ple. Th e p igm en t is structured so th at it ed its ou t
oth er colours in th e spectrum , wh ich are th en n ot seen by th e eye.
Th e resu ltan t in terferen ce colour is best seen wh en th e pain ted
surface is t ilted , or viewed at an an gle. Th e colour is also m ore
visible wh en pain ted out again st a dark groun d.
By con trast , wh en lookin g at pearlescen t pigm en t types, th e on ly
colour seen is a lustrous wh ite, or silver-wh ite. Th is is because th e
coatin g of t itan ium wh ite is very th in an d ligh t wavelen gth s are
reflected as wh ite on ly.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 39
IRIDESCENT WHITE (MICA/ PEARL LUSTRE)
PW 20 or PW 26 (nat ural mica) +PW 6 (t it anium whit e)
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
77019, 77718 + 77891
Not tested.
Pearlescent white, mica white, glimmer white.
�
When mixed with t ransparent pigments, the result ing
colour takes on a pearlescent appearance.
Bright , pearl white.
Translucent .
Stable in all media. In oil, t he colour of t he oil used may
show st rongly. Tends to make poor paint pastes when
combined with drying vegetable oils such as poppy oil
or linseed oil. Bet ter suited to combinat ion with alkyd
resin.
Normally presented in oil colour ranges with fast-
drying alkyd resin as binder.
Difficult to make into a paste without addit ions of wax
paste. Best used as required, into glaze mediums, etc.
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Expensive but intense, now available in some paint
ranges and as dry pigment .
�
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
4 0 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
BLANC FIX PW 21 (ar t if icially prepared), PW 22 (nat ural
mineral baryt es, heavy spar)
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
77120
Not tested.
French: blanc fix; English: permanent white, constant
white, barytes, heavy spar.
Barium sulphate, Ba(SO4). Occurs naturally, but can
also be manufactured by precipit at ion of bar ium
chloride with sulphuric acid. The manufactured form
was int roduced by Kuhlmann (Lille, France) in 1830.
Poor. Blanc f ix has lit t le t int ing st rength.
When mixed with cold water only, blanc f ix appears as
a perfect snow white, having a high reflectance in light .
However, when mixed into any binding agent, it takes
on a dull white appearance, especially so with oil
binders.
Has some opacity: when admixed with other opaque
pigments, it can be used to emphasise or enhance
opacity. In water-based systems it retains an opaque
effect . When used as an addit ive in oil colours, blanc f ix
will enhance opacity when added in quant ity, but when
used sparingly, as an addit ion to coloured glazes, it
enhances the t ransparency of such glazes.
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Stable to all media, most often used as a f iller material
in oil paints and opacifier in gouache paints. When used
in water-based paints, blanc fix shows as a bright ish
white, especially so with binders that remain water
clear (e.g. klucel).
Slow.
If prepared alone as an oil colour, blanc f ix would show
a great tendency towards yellowing, due to weak
t int ing st rength.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 4 1
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Inexpensive and widely used as an addit ive in art ists�
paints.
Blanc f ix is primarily used as a f iller/extender in paint
systems. When added to pigments milled in linseed oil,
blanc f ix provides opacity but also adds bulk and
weight to the paint mixture. This weight can prove to
be decept ive when used in larger quant it ies to extend
paints: t he resultant tube of paint may be heavy in
weight and thus seemingly appears to indicate a high
pigment load. However, the inclusion of excess blanc
fix will render the paint mixture rather stodgy and
make the colour value somewhat dull. It is best used in
small amount s to improve t he consistency and
regulate the opacity of the pigments with which it is
mixed. In gouache paints, blanc fix may be used alone
as an alternat ive to white. It is also commonly used in
gouache paints to achieve a regular opacity across a
range of colours, giving a paint paste that has body and
will dry to leave a mat t paint film.
�
Contains barium.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
4 2 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
ALUMINIUM HYDRATE PW 24
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
77002
Not tested.
Alumina hydrate, aluminium hydroxide.
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in
oil)
Defects
Al(OH)3. A metallic soap, aluminium hydrate is
manufactured by mixing soda ash or potash with a
solut ion of aluminium sulphate.
Very low, almost negligible. It is often used as a
t ransparent extender for paint systems, notably oil
colours.
Soft , bright white as dry powder. When mixed with any
binder it takes on the colorat ion/ hue of t hat binder.
When milled with linseed oil, it creates a dull yellow-
orange paste, which if applied as a paint dries to show
intense yellowing/darkening.
Has lit t le or no hiding power when used in any binder,
but especially so in oil.
Iner t , can be used as a f iller/extender in any paint
system but most commonly with oil colours. Aluminium
hydrate quickly forms a pleasant but tery paste when
mixed with linseed oil. It is often added to oil colours to
improve consistency. However, overuse (e.g. more than
5-10%) will leave the resultant paint unworkable,
smeary in consistency. The inclusion of small amounts
of aluminium hydrate in oil paints may help to break up
light as it hits t he paint surface, so enhancing colour
resonance. Overuse will cause the paint f ilm to become
dull and lacking in luminosity.
Slow. When added to oil colours, aluminium hydrate will
act to retard drying t imes.
When overused as an extender/ filler, it encourages
yellowing/darkening of the paint film. Cheaper art ists�
oil colours may contain larger quant it ies, and as a
consequence may show excessive yellowing upon
drying. Overuse of aluminium hydrate makes the paint
paste unworkable and matts the dried paint f ilm. Due
to its very high oil absorpt ion rate, aluminium hydrate,
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 4 3
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
when added in quant ity will encourage wrinkling or
shrivelling of t he drying oil paint f ilm. In good-quality
oil colours it is added sparingly, no more than 5-10% of
the whole. This is especially important when adding to
t ransparent pigments with a high oil absorpt ion rate.
Overuse of t his f iller in such circumstances will
increase the likelihood of yellowing and may weaken
the st ructure of the paint f ilm.
Widely used in all art ists� oil colours, but its use is
governed by the quality of t he paint . Ideally it is only
added in small quant it ies.
Avoid paint mediums based on aluminium hydrate
milled into linseed oil: t heir use will encourage
darkening of the overall paint f ilm. When hand-making
oil colours, it is useful to add a small amount of
aluminium hydrate (5-10%): t his not only helps to
stabilise consistency but will also help to prevent
separat ion of oil from pigment when filling the paint
paste into empty metal tubes.
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
4 4 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
YELLOW PIGMENTS
HANSA YELLOW (t ypes)
RN = PY 65 � C18H18N4 O6
GX = PY 73 � C17H15ClN4O5
5GX = PY 74 � C18H18N4O6
10G = PY 3 � C16H12Cl2N4O4
G = PY 1 � C17H16N4O4
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
PY 65/ 11740, PY 73/ 11738, PY 74/ 11741, PY 3/ 11710, PY
1/ 11680
ASTM I (except PY 3, PY 1 = ASTM II)
Brilliant yellow, hansa yellow light , hansa yellow dark,
arylide yellow, monoazo yellow, azo yellow.
Synthet ic organic pigment . Originally dates from early
1900s, alt hough the modern equivalents have been
improved. These pigments are often adulterated in
cheaper paint ranges by the addit ion of extenders. The
high t int ing st rength allows for a greater amount of
extender to be incorporated without losing colour
st rength. However, such addit ions tend to cause
problems in terms of stability of consistency and loss
of t ransparency. In oil, t he slow drying rate makes
hansa yellow unsuitable for any technique t hat
involves a degree of impasto, as the paint f ilm may
wrinkle upon drying.
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Good.
Bright yellow, cool to warm shades, from light to dark.
Tends towards t ransparency.
Stable in all media.
Slow.
When too much extender is added, hansa yellow loses
its tendency towards t ransparency.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 4 5
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Fairly inexpensive and widely used, especially in cheap
paints to imitate expensive cadmiums.
New types have improved light fastness.
Requires wett ing agent . Hansa yellows tend to show
lit t le or no yellowing when ground in oil.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
4 6 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
BARIUM LEMON YELLOW PY 31
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
77103
Not tested.
Lemon yellow, barium yellow, yellow ult ramar ine,
permanent yellow.
An ar t if icial mineral pigment . Bar ium chromate,
(BaCrO4). Discovered by Vauquelin, 1809. Used in
wider indust ry as ingredient in ant i-corrosive paints.
Weak.
Dull, pale, yellow.
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Slight ly t ransparent as glaze.
Stable in all media, but liable to turn greenish in oil.
Medium.
Upon ageing, becomes slight ly greenish in oil paint .
Hard to find in manufactured ranges. Usually replaced
with non-toxic nickel t itanium yellow. The pigment is
available from specialist pigment suppliers.
�
�
Toxic, barium chromate.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 4 7
CHROME YELLOW PY 34
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
77600, 77603
Not tested.
Primrose yellow.
A group of art ificial mineral pigments. Lead chromate,
PbCrO4 . Developed by the French chemist , Nicholas
Louis Vauquelin (1763-1829), af ter st udying t he
propert ies of a Russian mineral called chrocoite, which
could be processed to give yellow, green and red
precipit ates. The discovery of French sources of
chrocoite led to the indust rial product ion of chrome-
based pigments, both in France and England.
Found in paint ings from early 1800s. Chrome yellow
was formerly used widely in indust ry and ar t ists�
colours. Due to its relat ive toxicity, EU direct ives have
reduced t he availabilit y of t he chrome pigments.
Chrome yellows can darken on exposure and with age.
In recent years, chrome yellows have been developed
in which the part icles have been silica encapsulated, so
prevent ing darkening upon exposure and with age.
When these pigments were in wider use, it would be
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
quite common to f ind chrome yellows, with barium
sulphate (blanc f ix) as a bulking agent . Similarly,
chrome yellows were often mixed with yellow ochres to
brighten the appearance of t he natural earth colour.
Very good, as a pure t int (i.e. without extender).
Lemon, light , mid-yellow, deep to orange shades.
Good.
Oil (but can turn dark on exposure to atmosphere and
show a greenish t inge, when too much oil is used in the
milling process).
Fast (lead-based). Somet imes used in oil gilding, co-
mixed with oil to act as a mordant .
Turns greenish or brownish with age, especially in oil
f ilms, where contact with acid in the oil can turn the
lemon and pale yellow variet ies to a greenish t inge
very quickly.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
4 8 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Unt il recent ly, this pigment was cheap and available in
many paint ranges. Withdrawn from colour ranges in
the early 1990s and now difficult to obtain through
pigment suppliers.
St ront ium yellow (PY 32/ C.I. 77839), st ront ium
chromate, is similar to chrome yellow, with a bright
lemon shade (SrCrO4). This pigment has been hard to
f ind in recent years, due in part to the toxicity of it s
manufacture. St ront ium yellow may also appear under
the name �ult ramarine yellow�.
An important art ists� pigment. No longer available
(from most sources in Europe), due to EU legislat ion.
Chrome green (PG 15) is formed from a mixture
between prussian blue and chrome yellow and may
vary in shade according to a) the amount of prussian
blue to yellow b) the tone of t he chrome yellow used
(e.g. lemon, mid, deep, etc).
Toxic, lead chromate.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 4 9
CADMIUM YELLOW (shades)
LIGHT PY 35 � CdSZn
MEDIUM PY 37 � Cds
DEEP PY 37 � CdS
ORANGE PO 20 � CdS. x CdSe
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
PY 35/ 77205, PY 37/ 77199, PO 20/ 77202
ASTM I
Cadmium lemon, cadmium yellow pale/ light , cadmium
yellow medium, cadmium yellow deep/dark, cadmium
orange.
CdS. The metal cadmium was discovered in 1817 and
first used by art ists in England in the 1840s. However,
due to the scarcity of t he material, it was not fully
developed as a pigment for art ists unt il t he early 20th
century. An art if icial mineral pigment , pure cadmium
sulphide is somet imes mixed with cadmium selenide.
Cheaper cadmium pigments may be co-precipitated
with barium sulphate. According to ASTM, the pigment
can include up to 15% barium sulphate. PO 20:1 is
cadmium orange blended wit h bar ium sulphate
(cadmium lit hopone orange, CdS. x CdSe.yBaSO4). The
purest grades are derived only from cadmium sulphide
and this is generally ref lected in the price.
Good.
Cool lemon, light yellow, mid yellow, dark yellow to
orange shades.
Tends towards t ransparency in ext remely thin layers,
otherwise opaque.
Stable in all media. Exterior applicat ion is not advised,
because when cadmium is exposed to damp and/or air,
it changes to cadmium carbonate, showing a degree of
discolorat ion.
Slow.
Can fade, when exposed in combinat ion to damp and
sunlight .
Expensive but widely used.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
50 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Mixt ures wit h lead-based colours are not
recommended, although mixtures with lead white tend
to remain unchanged. Aurora yellow was a patented
form of cadmium yellow, developed by Winsor &
Newton in 1889. Their catalogue of 1925 suggests that
this yellow vies with chrome yellow in terms of opacity
and brightness. Orient yellow is a deeper shade of
aurora yellow.
Contains cadmium.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 51
ZINC YELLOW PY 36
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
77955
Not tested.
Zinc chrome yellow, primrose yellow, cit ron yellow.
An art ificial mineral pigment , zinc chromate, ZnCrO4 .
Developed by Vauquelin, 1809.
Weak.
Cold pale yellow, almost lemon in shade.
Semi-opaque.
Stable in oil, but reduced in permanence when admixed
st rongly with white. In water-based media, zinc yellow
remains part ially soluble and is soluble when in contact
with alkalis (i.e. avoid in lime-fresco).
Fast .
Sensit ive to moisture and alkalis.
No longer widely available in pigment form: st ill offered
by some Italian manufacturers as prepared oil colour
and dry pigment .
Was formerly used in the product ion of mixed greens,
such as zinc green (with prussian blue). In some cases,
such admixtures were fur ther complicated by the
inclusion of blanc fix. The author has in recent years
bought a variety of zinc greens from old pigment
stores in Italy (which were closing down), showing a
wide range of colours, from light , acid greens, to murky,
subdued shades.
Special Note �
Health & Safety Toxic.
Informat ion
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
52 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
ORPIMENT PY 39
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77085
Not tested.
Kings yellow (denotes the art ificial product).
As2S3, mineral cont aining a nat urally occur r ing
sulphide of arsenic. It can be prepared ar t ificially from
arsenic t richloride and sodium thiosulphate. Due to its
ext remely poisonous nature, orpiment is used with
great caut ion. Also, because it is sulphide-based, it can
react with other pigments.
Good.
Bright yellow, similar to cadmium yellow light or
medium.
Not especially t ransparent .
Stable in egg tempera, and when used in oil-resin
mixtures where t he pigment is protected f rom
exposure to the atmosphere and other pigments.
�
�
Expensive as dry pigment.
�
In historical paint ings, somet imes found admixed with
blue (e.g. lapis, azurite) to make green shades.
Toxic, contains arsenic.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 53
COBALT YELLOW, AUREOLIN PY 40
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in
oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77357
ASTM II
Sunshine yellow.
CoK3(No2)6] .H2O. Ar t if icial mineral pigment , from
cobalt salt s and potassium nit rate � Pot assium
cobalt init rite. Int roduced as an art ists� pigment in the
1860s, primarily as a watercolour.
Good.
A pure golden yellow, similar to t rue indian yellow
when applied as a glaze. When ground in oil, it takes on
a slight ly greenish cast at full st rength but appears as
a t rue yellow when thinned to a glaze.
Almost t ransparent as a glaze colour.
Stable in all media, except lime-fresco.
Slow.
�
Very expensive. Available in many paint ranges, in all
media.
�
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
54 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
NAPLES YELLOW PY 41
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
77589
ASTM I
Ant imony yellow.
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in
oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Pb3(SbO4 ). An ar t if icial mineral pigment . Lead
ant imoniate (lead and ant imony oxides). Often
confused wit h lead t in yellow in histor ical paint
samples.
Good.
Lemon, mid-yellow to reddish-yellow shades.
Good hiding power, opaque. Heavy powder makes thick
paint pastes with st iff ish consistency.
Stable in oil, lime, casein, egg but some variet ies may
be liable to darkening (on exposure to sulphurous
compounds) in water-based media. Also, in water-
based media the heavy powder tends to set t le out in
mixtures.
Fast (contains lead). Can also be used to speed up
drying t ime of pigments intermixed with it .
�
Hard to find in manufactured ranges, alt hough the
pigment is st ill available f rom specialist pigment
suppliers.
Naples yellow in modern colour ranges usually refers
to the shade rather than the t rue pigment . Excellent
for f lesh t ints. Avoid using steel palet te or paint ing
knives with the dry powder, as this can cause a
greenish/darkening effect .
Jaune brilliant is a mixed colour, originally based on
naples yellow with cadmium yellow, vermilion and lead
white. Modern examples may be based on admixtures
of lead white (or other whites) with cadmium red and
cadmium yellow.
Toxic, contains lead.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 55
LEAD TIN YELLOW,
TYPE I PY 46
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Giallorino (as ment ioned by Cennini).
Pb2SnO4 , lead stannate, prepared from a heated
mixture of lead dioxide with t in dioxide. Thought to be
a by-product of t he glass-making indust ry in former
t imes. Two dist inct shades can be produced in this
manner; at temperatures of around 700-800�C, a cold
lemon yellow is achieved. At lower temperatures, a
slight ly warmer shade is created. Lead t in yellow was
often incorrect ly ident ified as either naples yellow or
massicot in historical paint ings. In 1941, the Doerner
Inst itute in Munich ident ified the presence of t in in
lead-based yellow histor ical paint samples. The
pigment was subsequent ly remade according to
chemical analysis, t he development of cool lemon and
warm yellow shades being effected in the early 1960s.
Weak. Best used alone, or as very pale yellow when
admixed with lead white.
Pale lemon, or warm mid-yellow.
Both pale lemon and warm shades are milky and
opaque when mixed into binder. Lead t in yellow is
somet imes found in old paint ings as an underpaint ,
subsequent ly overpainted with a green glaze (copper
resinate), to achieve bright , st rong green shades.
Stable in oil, tempera and oil-tempera emulsions.
Dries fast (contains lead).
Can turn black in watery binders (e.g. gum arabic),
where the lead content darkens on contact wit h
sulphur in the atmosphere.
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
77577
Not tested.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
56 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Available as dry pigment .
�
�
Contains lead, toxic.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 57
LEAD TIN YELLOW,
TYPE II PY 46
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77577
Not tested.
Giallorino.
Lead and t in oxides, with the inclusion of free t in oxide
and silicon (quartz). As with type I, type II may
originate from glass colouring fabricat ion. It is a yellow
lead-glass pigment , most probably a by-product of lead
crystal glass manufacturing. The inclusion of quartz
effects a degree of t ransparency to the pigment ,
making it possible to use in glaze techniques. The
colour is warmer and st ronger than type I. The pigment
is sif ted through a fine mesh to provide a grind size
suitable for use in oil, tempera and egg-oil paint ing.
Weak.
Warm, t ranslucent yellow.
Transparent .
Oil, egg-oil emulsions, egg tempera. The grainy part icle
size makes it unsuitable for use in very thin paint f ilms
where the paint f ilm can show a textured f inish.
Fast drying.
May discolour (darken) in aqueous media.
Available as dry pigment .
A t ransparent glazing pigment with a warm hue.
�
Contains lead, toxic.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
58 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
MASSICOT PY 4 6
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77577
Not tested.
Lit harge (pale variet ies); massicot (warmer variet ies).Lead monoxide may be named according to t hecount ry of origin. For example in France, pigmentsbased on lead oxide are known as �massicot�.
PbO. Manufactured inorganic pigment , derived fromlead monoxide (PbO). Manufactured by oxidisat ion oflead, at temperatures of 500-700�C. At one stage,pale yellows in old paint ings were ident ified as beingforms of massicot . However, this is due in part to thefact that while lead was ident if ied in such paintsamples, no tests were done to ident ify the presenceof t in. In 1941, t he Doerner Inst it ute in Munichident if ied t in in many paint samples previouslythought to contain only lead (such as forms of lead-t inyellow).
Weak.
Pale yellow to warm yellow-orange.
Milky, opaque.
More stable in oil than other media, but st ill liable to
darken upon contact with sulphides in the atmosphere.
Also unstable in dry form, turning paler when exposed
to air.
Fast . Often used as a drying agent in old paint medium
recipes.
Unstable in all media (tends to darken), especially in
any water-based binder. Due to its part icularly heavy
nature, tends to set t le out in paint mixtures.
Inexpensive but never used in art ists� paints due totoxicity and instability.
Discarded as a pigment for most techniques. May have
some pract ical relevance as a drying agent when
added to paint mediums or varnishes. For example, in
t he manufacture of sun-t hickened linseed oil, an
inclusion of perhaps 10% massicot into the oil bath
may impart fast-drying propert ies to the resultant oil.
�
Contains lead, toxic.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 59
NICKEL TITANIUM YELLOW PY 53
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77788
ASTM I
Nickel yellow, lemon yellow (hue), naples yellow (hue).
(Ti,Ni,Sb)O2. A group of art ificial mineral pigments,
developed since the 1960s. Oxides of nickel, t itanium
and ant imony. Available in a variety of shades of cool
lemon yellow, yellow-green.
Fairly st rong.
Similar to barium lemon yellow, or naples yellow
light / lemon.
Good.
Stable in all techniques.
Slow.
When mixed with other colours, t he opacity of nickel
t itanium yellow tends to t ransfer to the co-mixed
pigment . This is especially so wit h t ransparent
pigments, which tend to become lost within mixtures.
However, the opacity and bulky nature of paint pastes
made with nickel t itanium make this pigment an ideal
subst itute for barium lemon yellow and naples yellow.
Widely used (especially in acrylic paints) as lightfast ,
permanent and safe to use alternat ives to barium
lemon yellow and genuine naples yellow.
Soft , f luffy powder, easy to hand-grind into oil colour.
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
60 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
PYRAMID YELLOW PY 108
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
68420
ASTM I/ BWS 8
Anthrapyrimidine yellow.
C30H15N3O4 . Synthet ic organic pigment .
Good.
Warm, mid-yellow, with slight ly mustard shade at mass
tone. As a thinned glaze, shows a warmer t inge.
Tends towards t ransparent (semi-opaque).
Not stable to lime.
Medium.
�
�
Permanent to light .
Requires wett ing agent.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 61
IRGAZINE YELLOW PY 110
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS
Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
56280
ASTM I/ BWS 7-8
Isoindolinone yellow, chromophtal yellow.
Synthet ic organic pigment, tet rachloroisoindolinone.
Int roduced 1960s.
High.
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to
Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Bright , warmish yellow, similar to cadmium yellow mid-
deep.
Good, similar to cadmium pigment.
Stable in all media, including lime.
Slow.
�
�
�
Requires wett ing agent .
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
62 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
PALIOTOL YELLOW PY 139
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
56298
ASTM I
Isoindoline yellow.
C16H9N5O6. Synthet ic organic pigment , int roduced
1960s.
Good.
Warm yellow-orange, reddish yellow.
Semi-t ransparent .
Not stable to lime.
Slow.
�
�
Similar in tone to cadmium yellow deep but with more
t ransparency.
Requires wett ing agent.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 63
PRIDERITE YELLOW PY 157
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77900
Not tested.
Nickel barium, t itanium primrose.
Art if icial mineral pigment . A complex mat rix of nickel,
barium and t itanium.
Medium.
A bright lime green-yellow (similar in shade to the old
chrome based cinnabar green hue).
Good.
Stable in all media.
Slow.
�
Available as dry pigment .
�
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
64 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
BISMUTH-VANDATE YELLOW PY 184
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
11777
Not tested.
Bismuth yellow, bristol yellow, sicopal yellow.
Ar t if icial mineral pigment , mixed crystal of t he
bismuth-vanadium oxide system. Stable and light fast .
Int roduced 1980s. A new class of bismut h-based
pigments, known as bristol yellows have recent ly been
int roduced.
Good.
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Very pure, st rong bright lemon shade. Bristol yellows
are also available, ranging in shade from light yellow,
mid-yellow to reddish yellow. Br istol yellows are
opaque, permanent colours which offer a good
alternat ive to zinc yellow, chrome yellow or cadmium
yellow.
Good � use in mixtures with t ransparent synthet ic
organic pigments to create opaque mixtures.
Stable in all media.
�
Lemon shades may appear greenish when poorly
mixed with oil.
Becoming available in paint ranges.
�
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 65
INDIAN YELLOW GENUINE
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
�
Not tested.
�
C19H16MgO11. 6H2O. Magnesium salt of euxanthic acid.
True indian yellow is derived from the urine of cows fed
on mango leaves. The urine is mixed with a clay base to
make a pur�e, which is then dried out and ground into
a light fast powder. It is now banned on grounds of
cruelty. Indian yellow was formerly imported from
Calcut ta to London, t he pigment being produced at
Monghyr, in the Indian state of Bihar.
Good.
A st rong, warm yellow orange.
Excellent t ransparency.
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Stable in all media but dest royed by alkalis, so never
used in lime-fresco.
Slow.
�
No longer available, except perhaps in the t rade of
ant ique pigments between collectors.
Modern synthet ic organic pigments such as Indian
Yellow Subst it ute (PG10) can make a reliable
alternat ive. Earlier synthet ic organic pigments such as
tart razine lake are less permanent, especially when
mixed with whites and exposed to direct light .
By 1925, Winsor & Newton record that the genuine
colour being �no longer available�, was replaced at
that t ime by a coal tar yellow with a similar shade.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
66 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
GAMBOGE Nat ural Yellow 24
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
�
Not tested.
Camboge, gomma gut t i (Italian).
Gamboge is a t ree resin, from the species Garcinia,
found in India and South East Asia. In the crude �pipe�
form, the resin, or sap is tapped from the t ree,
collected into a mould and left to dry. The resin
contains both pigment and binding agent. With just a
brush and water, one can take colour from the solid
resin and apply the resultant �paint� to paper as a
watercolour (i.e. it requires no binding medium).
Gamboge is sold in lump form or as a powder.
Weak when admixed with other pigments, alt hough in
watercolour mixed greens can be made by combinat ion
with small amounts of prussian blue or indigo.
A warm orange-yellow.
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Very t ransparent , often used as a colouring agent for
alcohol (sandarac/shellac) varnishes, in t he toning of
furniture or musical inst ruments.
The resin part ially dissolves in water to form a st icky,
resinous form of watercolour (i.e. does not require the
addit ion of gum arabic to adhere to paper). Gamboge
can also be dissolved in alcohol and warm turpent ine
and thus used as a colouring agent for t ransparent
warm-yellow varnishes, such as those employed over
silver leaf, to imitate gold.
Soluble in oil, t herefore unsuitable.
Not fast to light (fugit ive).
Available in powder or resin form.
Subst itute with cobalt yellow.
�
Toxic.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 67
STIL DE GRAIN
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
�
Not tested.
Brown lake, yellow lake, persian lake, buckthorn lake,
dutch pink, yellow carmine, italian pink.
C16H12O7. Plant-based pigment , derived from unripe
buckthorn berries. Similar yellow �lake� pigments
could be processed from quercit ron bark and fust ic.
The plant berries are steeped in a lye (potash), t hen
precipitated with alum to create a t ranslucent yellow
�lake� pigment . Some yellow pigments derived from
plant material (e.g. weld) may be st ruck on to opaque
subst rates such as finely ground marble dust .
Weak.
Warmish yellow, can vary from batch to batch of
pigment .
Very t ransparent , especially in oil.
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Compat ible with all media, except lime, but liable to
fade on exposure to sunlight .
Slow.
Fugit ive to light .
Available as dry pigment, also as dried berries which
can be hand-t reated with potash and alum to create a
pigment.
Somet imes used as overpaint , on top of blue
underpaint , to achieve a green colour. However, may
part ially or wholly fade when used in this manner. In oil,
the binder saturates the pigment to give very dark,
almost brown-yellow character; in watercolour, t he
pale, warm yellow hue is preserved.
In old watercolour ranges, various mixed hues were
prepared using st il de grain as an ingredient :
Olive green � st il de grain, indian yellow genuine, indigo
Olive lake � st il de grain, bone black (brown shade),
ult ramarine.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
68 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Sap green is also obtained from buckthorn berries, but
is expressed from the ripe (dark) fruit . By t radit ion it is
prepared as a watercolour paint by immersing the
berries into a warm solut ion of alum and water. To ease
the process, the berries may be left to steep in water
for a few hours, drained and then crushed in a pest le
and mortar before placing in the alum-water bath. The
alum-water solut ion with the berries in it is slowly
st irred over a gent le heat for 15-30 minutes. The
result ing liquid is st rained through muslin to form a
thick syrup or jelly, which is applied in this semi-liquid
state as a watercolour paint . When f irst applied, t he
colour is a warmish green, turning a warm yellow-
brown upon drying. Sap green in this form is very
unstable to light , bleaching out quickly when exposed
to sunlight , turning a poor green-brown. Genuine sap
green is no longer available in this form, other than by
processing the berries by hand. Early 20th century
subst itutes for this colour were derived from non-
light fast coal tar colours, such as alizarin green. In
recent years, sap green is usually a mixed colour, based
on more permanent synthet ic organic pigments.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 69
INDIAN YELLOW (SUBSTITUTE) PG 10
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
12775
ASTM I
Nickel azo yellow.
Nickel-based synthet ic organic pigment . A reliable
alternat ive to genuine Indian yellow (not available in
Europe since the 1920s).
Good.
Greenish as mass tone, gives a t ransparent yellow
when used as glaze.
Gives perfect t ransparent glazes.
�
Slow.
�
Relat ively expensive, but high t int ing st rength means a
lit t le goes a long way as a glaze colour.
�
Requires wett ing agent . Has a more greenish tone than
genuine indian yellow.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
70 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
ORANGE PIGMENTS
CINQUASIA YELLOW GOLD PO 48
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
�
ASTM I
Quindo gold, quinacridone gold.
C20H12N2O2. Synthet ic organic pigment .
Good.
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Warm yellow-orange, similar to raw sienna but with
higher t int ing st rength.
Tends towards t ransparent .
Diff icult to disperse without a wett ing agent, paint film
may not remain consistent over t ime. In all other
respects, stable to all media.
Medium-slow.
Some uncertaint ies remain with regard to stable f ilm
format ion, more likely to become apparent in cheaper
paint ranges, where less t ime has been spent on
mixing.
Available in some acrylic ranges and as dry pigment .
�
Requires wet t ing agent .
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 71
CINQUASIA RED GOLD PO 49
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
�
ASTM I
Quindo red gold, quinacridone red gold, quindo gold
deep.
C20H12N2O4 . Synthet ic organic pigment .
Good.
Warm red-orange, yellow-orange, similar to burnt
sienna but with higher t int ing st rength.
Tends towards t ransparent .
Diff icult to disperse without a wett ing agent , paint f ilm
may not remain consistent over t ime. In all other
respects, stable to all media.
Medium-slow.
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Some uncertaint ies remain with regard to stable f ilm
format ion, more likely to become apparent in cheaper
paint ranges, where less t ime has been spent on
mixing.
Available in some acrylic ranges and as dry pigment .
�
Requires wett ing agent .
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
72 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
PALIOTOL ORANGE PO 59
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
12075
ASTM II/ BWS 8
Permanent orange, dinit raniline orange.
C16H10N4O5. Organic synthet ic monoazo pigment .
Good.
Bright red-orange.
Tends towards t ransparent .
Stable to all media (may st reak or run when in contact
with mineral solvents).
Medium.
�
�
�
Requires wet t ing agent .
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 73
HOSTAPERM ORANGE PO 60
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
11782
ASTM I
Benzimidazolone orange HGL.
Synthet ic organic pigment . Monoazo benzimidazolone.
Good.
Warm orange as mass tone, thins to warm orange
glaze.
Good t ransparency.
Stable to all media.
Slow.
�
�
�
Requires wett ing agent .
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
74 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
ISOINDOLINE ORANGE PO 61
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
11265
BWS 8
Chromophtal orange.
Synthet ic organic pigment .
Good.
Warm, dark orange as mass tone, takes on a colder hue
when diluted to a thin glaze.
Good t ransparency as glaze.
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
�
Slow.
�
Available as dry pigment and in some updated oil
colour ranges.
Good glazing colour.
Requires wett ing agent.
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 75
IRGAZINE ORANGE PO 73
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
�
BWS 8
Pyrrol orange, irgazine orange DPP (Di-Keto-Pyrrolo-
Pyrrol).
Synthet ic organic pigment , int roduced 1980s.
Good.
Warm, deep orange.
Relat ively opaque � glazes when thinned r ight down
with binder/medium.
Stable in all media, including lime.
Slow.
The raw pigment tends to form together in clumps.
Before combining into binder, break the part icles down
and separate t hem by wet t ing f irst with alcohol
(watercolour, casein); a disperse agent for acrylic such
as orotan (acrylic); mineral spirit (oil).
Available as dry pigment .
Offers an excellent alternat ive to cadmium pigments,
with a similar opacity.
Requires wett ing agent .
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
76 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
RED LEAD PR 105
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77578
Not tested.
Minium, saturn red, orange mineral.
Red tet roxide of lead, Pb3O4 . Manufactured by heat ing
eit her lead white or lit harge (massicot ) over a
prolonged period at a constant temperature of 480�C.
If t he temperature varies during manufacture, t he
colour can be ruined. Lead red is often found in gilding,
as an underpaint and as a mordant for oil gilding. Its
fast -drying character ist ic is also ut ilised for t he
coat ing of iron exterior st ructures (e.g. bridges).
Good.
Bright red-orange.
Good.
Not stable in any medium, especially water-based
binders.
Fast .
Turns brown in oil (on react ion to acidic compounds);
turns black in water-based media (on react ion to
sulphides). When ground in oil, tends to harden quickly
when packed into tubes.
Inexpensive, in pigment form only.
Replaced by more reliable pigments (e.g. cadmium
orange, irgazine orange).
�
Toxic, contains lead.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 77
TITANIUM ORANGE PBr 24
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
77310
Not tested.
Chrome t itanate orange, ironstone brown.
An ar t if icial mineral pigment . Cr-Sb-Ti, mixed phase
system.
Moderate (weak in mixtures with other colours).
Dull orange.
Good.
Found in some acrylic paint ranges but may also be
useful in the making of gouache colours, due to its
opacity.
Slow.
�
Available as dry pigment and in some paint ranges.
�
�
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
78 THE ARTIST�S HANDBOOK
REALGAR
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
�
Not tested.
Arabic name: Rahj al ghar �powder of the mine�.
Sulphide of arsenic, similar to orpiment , naturally
occurring in mineral form. Can also be prepared ar t if i-
cially. As2S2. Often found in nature in conjunct ion with
or alongside orpiment . Somet imes confused with red
lead, which is a similar colour.
Poor, due to crystalline st ructure.
Solid orange-red.
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
Good.
Often found in egg tempera paint ings, somet imes
admixed with blues to make greenish shades.
�
�
Expensive.
�
�
Toxic, contains arsenic.
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
PIGMENTS 79
RED PIGMENTS
STUDIO RED PR 3
Colour Index
Number
ASTM/ BWS Rat ing
Common Names
Composit ion and
Origin
Tint ing St rength
Shade
Opacity
Suitability to Media
Drying Rate (in oil)
Defects
Availability/Cost
12120
BWS 7
Helio red, lit hol red, scarlet lake*, imitat ion vermilion,
monoazo red, hansa red, toluidine red.
Synthet ic organic pigment (based on organic dyestuff).
Int roduced early 1900s.
Good, alt hough cheaper grades may be premixed with
extender which gives a more subdued effect .
Variety of shades: mid-red to deep red, part icularly
shades close to vermilion.
As pure pigment , t ransparent : when admixed with
extender, less so.
�
Slow.
�
Often used in place of cadmium reds, or as subst itute
for vermilion, especially in cheaper paint ranges.
Comments
Special Note
Health & Safety
Informat ion
When mixed st rongly with white, prone to fading.
Requires wett ing agent .
Scarlet lake is an old colour name, referr ing to the
preparat ion of alizarin crimson with vermilion, or
vermilion with natural madder lake or carmine (as
commonly used in 18 th and 19th century port rait
paint ing pract ice).
�
B
9A3852A-9
7C
E-4
181-B
E41-D
71C
6F8B
5631
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