54
8. Two Mahasiddhas and Two Sakya-pa Monks, ca. 1400 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 28 in., w. 26', in.
opposite: 7. Arhat Lam bstan (Panthaka). Fourteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 25 V4 in., W. 19'
55
P^Ojh 11
1
9. Mi ak'rugs pa (Aksobhya) in his Abhirati Heaven. Early fifteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 58 'A in., w. 49 in.
56
io. Mandala of Vajranairatma. 1479 a.d. Gouache on cotton, h. 59s;, in., w. 38':, in.
57
io. (detail) Mandala of Vajranairatma. 1479 a.d. Gouache on cotton, H. 59 6/le in., w. 38%. in.
58
ii. Thousand-armed Kuan-yin. Fifteenth century (China). Tempera on cloth, H. 54'/,. in., w. 31% in.
59
12. Vajrabhairava. ca. 1500 a.d. Gouache on cotton, h. 39H in., w. 3254 i.
60
13- The Life of Mila-repa. Early sixteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 51 ', in., w. 41 ' in.
61
14- Mandala ofbDe-mchog (Samvara). Sixteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 16% in., w. 13% in.
opposite: 15. Jataka Tales, ca. 1600 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 28 in., w. 19 in.
62
63
J&. "^17. Mahasiddhas. Early seventeenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 27% in., w. 18% in.
64
19- Atlsa. ca. 1700 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 26% in., w. 17^ in
65
20. The Life of the Buddha. Early eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 35 in., w. 22 in.
66
21. Episodes from the life of Gcsar of Ling. Early eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 32S in., w. 23 Y*
67
22. Rab abyor. First halfofeighteenth century. Tanka: wood block print, with color, on cloth, h. 27%s in.w. 16 Vz in.
68
23. Jataka Tales, ca. 1750 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 32V, in., w. 20:
,
69
24. Bhaisajyaguru. ca. 1750 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 30'/2 in., w. 25 m.
opposite: 26. mGon po (Mahakala). Eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on linen, h. 3 5 Me i., w. 24% in.
70
7i
27. bSe'i khrab can. Eighteenth century. Tanka: color on silk, h. 27?i in., w. 20 y2 in.
72
28. Life of the Buddha. Late eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 21% in., w. 15 3 , in.
73
29. Jataka Tale. Late eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 27% in., w. i7 6/i 9 in.
74
30. Jataka Tales. Late eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 27?;, in., w. i7 5 , fa.
75
76
32. rGyan-tshogs (Sets ofOrnaments). Eighteenth century. Tempera on linen, h. 26 in., w. 381
, in.
opposite: 31. King Trhisong-dctsen. Eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 34s, in., W. 24% in.
77
32. (detail) rGyan-tshogs (Sets ofOrnaments). Eighteenth century. Tempera on linen, H. 26 in., w. 38% m.
78
33- rGyan-tshogs (Sets ofOrnaments), ca. 1800. Tanka: gouache on linen, h. 36s
', in., w. 25%, in.
79
34. Mandala of Vasudhara. Dated 1829 A.D. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 33 'A in., w. 24% in.
80
35- mGon-po (Mahakala). Early nineteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 21 '/ in., w. 16% in.
8l
36. rGyan-tshogs {Sets of Ornaments). Nineteenth century. Color on linen, H. i75/ie in., w. 12% in.
82
37- The hell of gShin-rje (Yama). Nineteenth century. Painting: gouache on linen, H. 17% in., w. i2\ in.
3
ft- ' ' Tc
38. sGrol-dkar (White Tara). Nineteenth century. Tanka: gouache on linen, h. 29 ft ., w. 19%! JK.
84
39- Temple Hanging. Nineteenth century. Embroidered silk applique, l. 45 ft., 5 in., d. 40-53 in.
85
U,4 k *>
40. Chos-gyal (Yama). Early twentieth century. Embroidered tanka, h. 97% in., w. 55 Y in.
86
L
41. Buddha. Eighth-ninth century (Kashmir, India). Gilt bronze, h. 38V8 in.
87
42. P'yag na rdo rje (Vajrapani). Eleventh-twelfth century. Bronze with 43. sPyan-ras-gzigs (Avalokitesvara). Eleventh-twelfth cen-
gold paint, H. 6 6/i6 in. tury. Bronze, H. 9 in.
88
44- sPyan-ras-gzigs (Avalokitesvara). ca. 1300 a.d. Brass, 46. Hp'ags-pa-spyan-ras-gzigs (Eleven-headed Avalokitesvara). Four-
with paint, h. 12 in. teenth century. Brass with gold paint, H. 13 V2 in.
89
47- bYams-pa (Maitreya). ca. 1600 a.d. Gilt bronze, H. 25^in. (including base).
90
49- Hayagriva. Eighth century (India or Nepal). Copper,H. 12 in.
50. Chorten. Eleventh century. Bronze, h. 6%e in.
91
51. Prajiiaparamita. Thirteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 8 in. 52. A Bodhisattva. Thirteenth-fourteenth century (?). Giltbronze, with paintedface, H. 7 He in.
92
53- Buddha Yuddhajaya. Thirteenth century. Gilt bronze, h. 8 i4 in.
54. Savari. Fourteenth century. Bronze, H. 3 M in.
93
55- Vasya-Vajravarahi. Fourteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 14 in.
S6. Miak'rugs psi(Aksobhya). Fifteenth century. Bronze,n. SV* in.
94
57- The Buddha. Fifteenth century. Silver with gilt paint, h. 8%in.
58. sPyan-ras-gzigs(Avalokitesvara). ca. 1500 a.d. Giltbronze,
with paint and inlay, H. 6/ in.
95
,-. iTluj liim* 1
above left: 59. Mahamantranusarini. Sixteenth century. Gilt bronze, inlaid
with stones, h. 11% m.
above right: 60. sGrol ma (Tara). Sixteenth century. Bronze, with paint, h.
8Vi in.
61. Nairatma. Seventeenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 9% in.
96
62. Hp'ags-pa-spyan-ras-gzigs (Eleven-headed
Avalokitesvara). Sixteenth century. Ivory, h. io 5 e in.
63. Tsho day ser po (Ganesa). Eighteenth century. Bronze, h. 2i lA in.
97
64. A Dharmapala. T'ang Period (China) . Gilt bronze, H. 17 in. 65. mGon po (?) (Mahakala). Thirteenth century. Bronze, with paint,h. ii'/4 in.
98
66. P'yag na rdo rje (Vajrapani) and his Consort, ca. 1400 a.d.
Gilt bronze, with paint, H. 11 in. 67. P'yag na r& rje (Vajrapani). Sixteenth century. Silver, h. ioVi in.
99
*jf
i t:/^f^
68. Jambhala. Sixteenth century. Bronze, h. 47
8 in.
100
69. rTa mgrin (Hayagriva). Sixteenth century. Silver, with paint,H. 8 in.
70. P'yag na rdo rje (Vajrapani) and Consort. Sixteenth century.
Bronze, with paint, H. I5 ls/i in.
ior
71. Krsna Yamari. Seventeenth century. Bronze, H. 9K in.
72. gShin-rje or Chos-gyal (Yama). Seventeenth century. Gilt
bronze, with paint, h. 14% in.
102
73- gShin-rje-gshed (Yamantaka). Seventeenth century. Bronze,
with paint, H. i4 3/i e in.
103
74- Jambhala and his Consort. Seventeenth century. Gilt copper,
h. 8'/2 in.
75. dPal ldan lha mo. Seventeenth century. Silver, h. 6yt in.
104
76. Pe har. Eighteenth century. Giltbronze, h. 8% in.
77. White Dragon Mother. Ch'ienLung Period, 173 5-1795 a.d. (China).
Gilt bronze, H. 6'/2 in.
t^^i6^i#^|0^^]
105
78. Jambhala. Eighteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 6%, in.
79. Beg tse. Eighteenth century. Bronze, with polychromy, h.
5 y* in.
106
8o. mGon po (Mahakila). ca. 1800 a.d.Gilt bronze, h. 9 yt in.
81. Kurukulla. Nineteenth century. (Mon-golia). Copper, withpolychromy, H. I4 15 i, in.
/ *
107
82. Vaisravana (God of Wealth). Nineteenth century (Mongolia). Polychromed copper, H. i$Va in.
108
cr
83. Mahasiddha Heruka. ca. 1400 a.d. Bronze, with
polychromy, H. 7 in.
84. Mahasiddha Virbapa (or Virupa) . Fourteenth cen-
tury. Bronze, with silver, H. 11 in.
109
85- Mahasiddha Nag po pa. Fifteenth century. Bronze, with copper
and silver inlay, H. 8 3/4 in.
86. Thang Thong Gyalpo. Fifteenth century. Bronze, with paint,
H. 6M> in.
no
87. Arhat Dus ldan (Kalika). Fifteenth century. Gilt bronze, h.6/2 in.
88. Mila-repa. Sixteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 13 in.
Ill
i' d
aiiiiii^ 3*-
Vl*^
92. Tiw Illuminated Leavesfrom a Prajiiaparamita Manuscript. Thir-teenth century. Gouache on paper, h. j 1 ., in., w. 26 in. (Lower right:detail)
113
93. Medicine Sutra; Covers and First Page. Sixteenth century. Gilt wood covers, h. 3 %/., w. i 5 B i 6 in. Page, paper, h.3 3 4 in., w. I5 3/S in.
94. Illuminated Page from a Prajnaparamita Manuscript. Sixteenth-seventeenth century. Gouache on paper, h. 9> 18 in., w. 26 3 in.
114
95- Manuscript Cover, ca. 1600 a.d. Bronze, with gilt and inlaid stones, h. 10 Ylt in., w. 30*1, in.
KMBi^B^Bfll^^*
96. Illuminated Folio showing Battle Scene. Seventeenth century. Color on paper, h. 4 3 4 in., w. 23% in.
Y noiuMii' luiu'ijiuim"" vo^yJuuiuut Milium ^iqgJ)(aih]iuliuTil)^iaMiuuiuLifUit'l)
r. 6
rK
98. Manuscript of Sorcery Manual. Nineteenth century. Color on paper, h. 3> 1/1., l. 15 Vt in.
99. Book of Drawings. Nineteenth century. Ink onpaper, H. 5% 1/1., w. 4 6/16 t.
Il6
ioo. Lamaist Shrine. Sixteenth century. Painted wood and terracotta, H. 34% in., w. 22 in. (exterior)
117
ioo. Lamaist Shrine. Sixteenth century. Painted wood and terracotta, h. 34% in., w. 22 in. (interior)
Il8
^% % % ^ S ill* 4& feA A B Jlif iSfIfwmm-**~r^^mi
ioi. Mold for Dough Images (zan-par). Seventeenth-eighteenth century. Birch wood, l. I4 3 4 in., w. i in., u. a ih.
ioi. (detail) Mold for Dough Images (zan-par). Seventeenth-eighteenth century. Birch wood, l. i4 3 4 hi., w. i in., D. 7 , m.
119
102. Wheel of the Law (ch'os 'k'or-bskor). Eighteenth century or earlier. Silver, H. 20'i in., w. 12
120
above left: 103. Butter Lamp (Cho-kung). Eighteenth cen-.tury. Silver, h. 6% in., diam. (top) 5% in.
above right: 104. A Small Container. Eighteenth century-Silver, inlaid with jewels and gold wire, H. 3% in., diam. 6% in.
105. Water Pot (Chi-luk). Eighteenth century. Gilt silver, with
pearls, h. 8 yt in.
121
io6. Mandala. Seventeenth century. Gilt
bronze, inlaid with turquoise, H. 6% in.
107. Mandala. Eighteenth century. Copper,
with gilt, h. 6% in-, diam. 11% in.
122
!
II
Hfv* /s'
108. Magic Dagger (phur-bu). ca. 1800 a. d. Wood, paint-
ed, L. i6',i in.
109. Magic Dagger (phur-pa-kila). Nineteenth century. Bronze, 1.
8% in.
123
no. Prayer Wheel (mani chho-khor). Eighteenth-nineteenth century.Gilt silver, inlaid with stones, h. 1 1 ' 2 in.
124
H2. Gau. Early nineteenth century. Silver and copper, h. 8 7 in., w. j~ in., d. 3 J , in.
125
113- Conch Shell Trumpet. Nineteenth century. Brass, and shell, l. 16 in., d. 8'/2 in.
114. Conch Shell Trumpet. Nineteenth century. Silver, inlaid with stones, and shell, l. 22% in., d. 13% in.
126
115- Beer Jug (Bay-lep). Nineteenth century. Iron, h. 12', in.,diam. 6}4 in.
116. Cup with Stand. Cup, porcelain, h. 4%, in.; Stand, silverwith gold, H. 6V in.
127
117- Butter Lamp (scrkong). Twentieth century. Gold, H. 5 1 - in. 118. Vase of Immortality (tse-bum). Twentieth century.
Gold, with ruby, H. 10 'A in.
128
ii9- Saddle. Twentieth century. Gilt silver, with brocade, h. 13% in., w. 18
129
Catalogue
Since Tibet's art is largely anonymous and undated, the chronology suggested here is tentative and is meant only to serve as aframework.
i . Ts'e dpag med (Amitayus)
Thirteenth century
Tanka: gouache on linen; h. Bft., 6 in., w. 59 in.
Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York
A Tathagata of green complexion is seated in the yogicposture on a lotus in the center of this tanka, his hands inthe samadhimudra and holding the vase containing the elixir
of eternal life (tse bum). Despite the color, we propose toidentify him as Ts'e dpag med (Amitayus) or "the God ofEndless Life," as both his Tibetan and Indian names imply.
The two standing Bodhisattvas flanking him are Maitreyaand Avalokitesvara. Along the top are eight other Bod-hisattvas and two monks. At the bottom are three moreBodhisattvas, probably Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, and
Vajrapani, and two standing, wrathful protectors, Maha-kala and Vajrapani.
This is the largest of a group of tankas, distinguished
both by their compositions and color, which may representthe earliest known Tibetan style of painting. The inscrip-tion below the lotus seat is badly effaced and thus difficult
to interpret. It seems to imply that this is a painting in the
"renewed" Nepali style, although the fact that it was meant
for a Tibetan patron is apparent from the Tibetan language
used in the inscription. The form of the language suggestsa date earlier than the fifteenth century.
There seem to be two principal sources for the style ofthis and other related worksNepal and Central Asiaaswe have discussed in the Introduction, where we have alsopointed out that the style probably originated in the
monastery of Iwang in western Tibet, where artists from
Nepal and Khotan were at work. Its furthest extension maybe seen in tankas recovered from Khara-khoto.
Published: The Art of India and Nepal : The Nasli and Alice
Heeramaneck Collection, Boston, 1966, p. 109.
2. Adoration of the Goddesses
Tlurteenth century (?)
Ink and paint on hemp cloth; H. 67/8 in., L. 18 ft. 10 in.
Virginia Museum ofFine Arts, Richmond
This scroll is of unusual interest both for its subject matter
and its style. In its present state it appears to be incomplete,
but the narrative character of the subject is evident, al-
though difficult to identify. The scroll is painted on bothsides ; the obverse depicts narrative scenes and the reverse
a continuous floral scroll design. It has been suggested that
the scroll represents thejourney of priests and civil officials
through a Buddhist paradise (cf. A. Priest, A BuddhistParadise, Virginia Museum ofFine Arts, Richmond, 1963).Two main themes seem to be prominent in the narration
:
i) journeys undertaken by groups ofmen carrying manu-scripts and several of the auspicious symbols, such as the
conch, a horse carrying a flaming jewel, a relic casket car-
ried by an elephant, etc., and ii) encounters by these travel-ers with goddesses of the class known as Yoginis or Dakiniswhom they worship, and who appear on or within clouds,often dancing or playing upon drums, flutes, or lutes. Attimes the goddesses appear alone and elsewhere with a
retinue, which in one instance consists of three cherubic
boys, one ofwhom carries the flaming jewel and anotherthe auspicious banner. Thejourney and the adorations takeplace in purely fanciful landscapes ofblue-green mountains
and contorted trees enveloped in a misty haze. Sometimes
the scene is a pastoral one, as where one woman is seenmilking a cow and another cooking, and elsewhereincidents are portrayed in settings of elaborate buildings
that seem to echo the architectural style of the T'ang
period. We may notice still other instances where thetravelers are borne on clouds. It is difficult to determine,
however, whether the scroll represents a continuous tale or
is episodic.
Relations with Chinese paintings are obvious, and the
scroll may have been inspired by Sung paintings as has beensuggested by Alan Priest. Certainly there are stylistic cor-
respondences with twelfth century paintings such as the
Vimalaklrti scroll in the Metropolitan Museum, or the
Yunnan scroll by Chang Shen-wen, where we see cherubicboys almost identical to those in this scroll (cf. Kokka, No.
895 [Oct., 1966] and No. 898 [Jan., 1967]). At the same
time, the dancing goddesses, light and graceful, with
swirling scarves which emphasize their movement, are
remarkably similar to those painted on the Boston wooden
shrine (No. 100). The fluffy clouds, floating like balls of
cotton, the blue-green mountains and the craggy trees,
although derived from Chinese landscapes, belong to the
modified "Tibetan" tradition, while the figure ofa devotee
carrying the conch is very similar to that in the painting of
Arhat Vajriputra (No. 3). The cloth may have been of
Nepali manufacture, and the tone of the red seems to be of
the exact intensity employed in Nepali paintings.
131
The closest Stylistic analogy, however, is offered by sonic
of the fourteenth century murals in the main chapel (sku
ahum) at Narthang(G.Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, 3 vols.,
Rome, 1949, Figs. 45, 48). Almost identical figures, wear-
ing the same dress, carrying banners and emblems, and
walking in procession towards a divinity against a similar,
mountainous landscape, occur there also, while the archi-
tectural stylewith pillars supporting the stepped, invert-
ed, pyramidal brackets is common to both. What is evenmore striking is that in both the mural and the scroll we
have an almost identical composition with three figures
watching from a window and engaged in conversation. It
seems clear that the mural and the scroll portray the same
theme, and almost certainly the artists of the Narthang
murals were responsible for this scroll. However, no matter
what its date, the scroll is a magnificent example of the
subtle interplay of form and fancy, which was one of the
principal traits of the Tibetan genius with the brush.
Shown only at Asia House Gallery.
3 . Arhat rDo rje moi bu (Vajriputra)
ca. 1300 A.D.
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 25% in., w. 21*4 in.Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York
A tanka of unusual beauty, this must be one of the fewknown examples of Tibetan art inspired by the Lohanpaintings of the Sung period, which, as we know fromliterature, were brought into Tibet and assiduously copied.
The large figure seated in the center, holding a staff withhis right hand and displaying the gesture ofexposition with
the left, is the Arhat rDo rje moi bu or Vajriputra. He wascalled Vajriputra (son of Vajri) because he was the son of
king Jatrayana and queen Vajri ofKausambl. He is usuallyaccompanied by a yaksa and a monk or a celestial being.The figure to his right probably represents a yaksa, whilethe divine character of the manuscript-bearing monk isemphasized by the halo. The kneeling devotee offers hima bowl containing jade mountains. Two other arhats areportrayed in the two upper corners and are probablyAbheda and Bhadra.
That the painting is by a great master is evident not onlyfrom the superb quality of the draftsmanship but also fromthe delicate use of colors in varying gradations, and the
rendering of details with incredible finesse. The same at-tention and skill have been devoted to the delineation ofthe expressive faces, whether of the arhat himself, the
smiling yaksa, the somber monk, or the ardent devoteewhose eyes seem to bulge out of their sockets. This is alsotrue of the miniature deer grazing in the foreground andthose resting in the background. The figure ofthe devoteehas an almost identical parallel both in the Virginia Mu-seum scroll (No. 2) and in a Sung painting ofthe Lohans byChou Chi-ch'ang (cf. K. Tomita, Portfolio ofChinese Paint-ings in the Museum [Han to Sung], Cambridge, Mass. 1933,pi. 77). There seems little doubt that this type of devotee,who is shown offering a bowl withjade objects and is oftenseen in Tibetan tankas, may be traced back to such Sung
originals, where the figure is supposed to represent an
Indian merchant. Curiously enough, also, the treatment of
the lotus below the feet of the arhat in the upper left corner
is almost identical to that in a manuscript illumination of
about the thirteenth century (No. 92).
Published: Tlie Art of India and Nepal; Heeramaneck Col-
lection, p. 114; M. W. Mcistcr, "The Arts of India andNepal," Oriental Art, n.s. xiv, 2 (1968), p. 109.
4. Usnlsavijaya
Fourteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 26 in., w. 21 y2 in.
Bodleian Library, Oxford
Usnlsavijaya is commonly represented in both the Nepaliand the Tibetan traditions within a chorten or a stupa. She
has three heads and eight arms, her most distinctive
emblem being the effigy of a Tathagata carried in her up-permost right hand. She is represented in the womb of achorten because she is an emanation of the Tathagata
Vairocana, who resides in the center ofa chorten, and who ishere portrayed as the central figure in the upper row ofdivinities. Usnlsavijaya is here shown in the company of
two Bodhisattvas, probably Avalokitesvara and Manjusri,although both bear lotuses and banners. The four demo-niacal figures guarding the chorten are Acala, Acala-Tak-
kiraja, Acala-Vajrapani, and Acala-Nilandanda. In sche-
matic rows along the margin are other divinities, whoconstitute her mandala. Thus, this tanka could also be
considered as a mandala of the rectangular variety.
Stylistically, the tanka is very closely related to con-
temporary Nepali painting, and was probably executed by
Nepali artists, in Tibet, for a Tibetan patron. This is ap-
parent from the inclusion of the four Sakya-pa monks whoare not known to have been part of the Nepali pantheon.The shape of the chorten itself is of the type seen more
commonly in Tibet, while the peonies in the garlandshanging from the umbrella, above the chorten, are more
characteristic of the Tibetan artist's repertoire than that of
his Nepali counterpart. (Compare these flowers with those
in the early painting of the Arhat rDo rje moi bu, No. 3.)The cloud forms, derived from Chinese or Central Asian
traditions, are distinctly Tibetan, and, as a matter of fact,
were incorporated into later Nepali paintings. The drafts-
manship, fluent and refined, is more calligraphic and
articulate than that seen in contemporary Nepali paintings,
and is more typical of the Tibetan tradition with its greater
affinity with Chinese techniques. The style seems to be a
continuation of the thirteenth century Iwang style (see
No. 1), although here it has become slightly more rigid and
hieratic.
Published: H. J. Stooke, "Some Tibetan T'ankas at Ox-ford," Ars Orientalis, IV (1961), pp. 215, 216.
5. The Life of K'a ce pan e'en (Sakyasri)
Fourteenth century
Gouache on cloth; h. 33 yt in., w. 26% in.Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York
132
The principal figure, seated in the yogic posture and dis-playing the gesture ofpreaching with his hands, represents
Sakyasri, "the pandita from Kashmir" as he is called by the
Tibetans. A remarkable personality of late Buddhism inTibet, he expounded the doctrine principally in the region
of gTsah. Around him are represented those scenes fromhis life which were spiritually important, portrayed as
they are described in a litany written by his chief Tibetan
disciple, the lotsava of K'ro p'u. (For detailed identification
of the scenes see Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 334-339.)
Stylistically, this tanka is closely related to die Nepali man-
ner of the fourteenth century, especially in the miniature
character of the framed compositions along the margins,
the trees, and the curious method of showing the cross-
section of a building. The shrine within which Sakyasri isseated is derived from eastern Indian miniatures. Elements
that are specifically Tibetan appear in the design of the
robes, the physiognomy ofthe monks and the lotsavas, andin the tradition of portraiture. A fourteenth century datefor this tanka is here suggested after a close comparison
with contemporary Nepali paintings. The earliest tanka ofthis type seems to be that in the Litang monastery, dated
1039 a.d. (cf. Liu I-se, Hsi-tsang Fo-chiao I-shu, Peking,
1957, pi. 17).
Published: Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, pp. 334 ff., pi. 6.
6. Arhat gSer beu (Kanakavatsa)
Fourteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 27% in., w. 2oy2 in.Anonymous Loan
The Arhat gSer beu, or Kanakavatsa, sits on a throne and
holds a rope with his hands. On the day when Kanakavatsawas born into a middle class family in Magadha in India,
a she-elephant gave birth to a golden-colored calf, and
hence the arhat came to be known as Kanakavatsa (goldencalf). He was sent to preach to the nagas, who offered hima jeweled string in return, which is why the arhat carries apiece of string or rope. He resides on the saffron hill inKashmir and preaches that form of the Dharma whichuplifts the heart and develops intuition. He is accompaniedhere by two lay disciples and a monk. At the top of the
tanka, on either side, are portrayed four divinities. The
expressive face of the arhat probably continues a Central
Asian type, but the robes he wears, the elaborate throne,
and the general background are strongly Chinese both in
their forms and colors. The predominant colors are red and
blue, the bright and glowing blue that one finds in early
Ming paintings. This is obviously another superb example
of the Gyadri (or Chinese) style ofpainting arhats, and was
probably inspired by a Sung or Yuan original. At the same
time, Nepali influences seem to be present in the four figures
of divinities in the four vignettes. This and the British Mu-seum painting ofPanthaka (No. 7) appear to be ofthe same
vintage, and the strong Chinese influence upon bothasdistinct from the eighteenth century Tashilunpo style (No.
22)may be attributed to the close liaison between theSakya-pas and the Yuan court in the thirteenth century.
7. Arhat Lam bstan (Panthaka)
Fourteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 25% in., w. 19 in,British Museum, London
The arhat is seated on leaves covering a rock ; his right handholds a manuscript and the left makes the gesture ofexposition (uyakhyanamudra). A devotee stands in front ofhim and offers a bowl containing a flowering jade tree.Panthaka was born into a brahmin family in Sravasti inIndia and was converted by the Buddha. He resides in thethirty-third paradise, and as he is responsible for the
propagation of the Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutranta, and
Abhidharma) his attribute is the manuscript.
The strong Chinese influence in this tanka is obvious,and it was either painted by a Chinese artist or modeled
closely on a Chinese original. The landscape with its blue-green mountains towering behind the arhat and the
convulsively twisted, dead tree-trunk with branches
spreading like tentacles, which contrasts strongly with the
softness of the smaller, living and leafy tree, has the vision-
ary quality of Chinese landscape, although it is difficult to
find exact parallels. The portrait of the arhat is remarkablyexpressive, a characteristic of other Tibetan paintings of
arhats. Especially intriguing are the deeply expressive eyes
with their darting yet penetrating gaze. Despite the
representation of the dead tree and the sharp, craggy edges
of the rocks, the artist has admirably captured the tranquil
atmosphere of a secluded mountain cavern, emphasized
further by the gently curled-up deer on the grassy knoll in
front of the arhat. Indeed, the entire painting reflects a
curious but pleasing combination of natural form and
conceptual formalism. This play of contrasts is also ap-
parent in the delineation of the devotee, whose expressive
face betrays, in a realistic manner, the pleasure ofconfront-
ing the arhat, while at the same time his diminutive size is
determined by his functional importance.
Published: P. H. Pott, "Tibet" in Griswold, et al., Tlie Art
ofBurma, Korea, Tibet, New York, 1964, p. 173.
Shown only at Asia House Gallery
8. Two Mahasiddhas and Two Sakya-pa Monks
ca. 1400 A.D.
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 28 in., w. 26 3/8 in.
Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York
The two Mahasiddhas in the upper row are probably
Virupa, of pink complexion and holding a skull-cup, and
Siddhapada (Seiiiihipa?) who holds a skull-cup and a drum,
and is of gray complexion. In the bottom row are two Sa-
kya teachers, one ofwhom is probably Kun dga' sfiiri poand the other dKon mchog rgyal po, who founded the
Sakya monastery in the year 1073 a.d. Both make the same
gesture with their hands and have the same attributes, the
bell and the thunderbolt, thereby declaring their affiliation
to either Vajrasattva or Vajradhara, which makes it dif-
ficult to identify the monks with any certainty. Mahasiddha
Virupa, who had ransomed the sun for a cup of ale, is the
133
patron Mahasiddha of the Sakya-pa school. Other deities
and monks, represented in little vignettes, are too damaged
to be recognizable.
The composition of this tanka, dominated by four major
figures and with smaller figures distributed symmetrically
over a background strewn with flowers, is totally Tibetan.
It is also a striking example of the use ofglowing colors in
contrasting effect. Not only is the use of the blue as the
background rather unusual, but so also is the deep and
warm quality of its tone. In fact, all the colors and shadesemployed by the artist red, green, yellow, pink, and grey
show a warmth and richness rarely seen in other tankas.
Not shown at Asia House Gallery
9. Mi ak'rugs pa (Aksobhya) in his Abhirati Heaven
Earlyfifteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 58^2 in., w. 49 in.
Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York
The Tathagata Aksobhya, wearing monastic robes, is seat-
ed in the yogic posture (vajraparyanka), his right hand mak-
ing the gesture of touching the earth (bhumisparsamudra)
and his left holding a thunderbolt (vajra). Two Bodhisattvasflank him as attendants, while the remaining part of the
tanka is filled with monks, saints, gods and goddesses,
Bodhisattvas, and celestial beings, listening to the expo-
sition of the Tathagata. The heaven is adorned with birds,jewels, and flowering trees. As Tucci {Tibetan Scrolls, pp.347-349), has rightly suggested, the artist probably drewhis inspiration from the brief but picturesque description
of the Abhirati as found in the Vimalakirtinirdesa, while
paintings of other heavens such as those of Amitabha,
which were more popular both in Central Asia and Tibet,must have served as his visual models.
The present tanka is one of the finest examples of theGuge school, where Central Asia, Kashmir, and Nepalcontributed simultaneously to form a lively new style underthe enlightened patronage of the kings of Guge. Central
Asian traits linger in the treatment of the drapery ofAksobhya, in the fluttering scarves, the lotus design, the
choir of monks, and the soft and muted colors. Nepalifeatures predominate in the forms ofthe trees, in the design
of the architecture, and in the delineation and proportionof die enshrined figures, while Kashmiri influence isperceptible in the forms and proportions of the twoBodhisattvas flanking the Tathagata as well as in an oc-casional attempt at naturalistic modeling. Nevertheless,
the Guge style is distinctive and already bears the stamp ofthe Tibetan genius. The artist has not confined himself tobreaking up his composition into little panels, as theNepali artists did, but rather continues the mural traditionof more sprawling compositions. The other characteristicfeatures of the Guge style, as reflected in this painting, arethe slim and elongated figures with their distinctivelyTibetan physiognomy (despite the strong and variedextraneous influences). The close similarity of this tankawith the murals ofTabo leads us to suggest that it probablybelongs to the Tabo school (cf. G. Tucci, Indo-Tibetica,vol. HI, Rome, 1935, pi. XLvm).
10. Mandala of Vajranairatm.i
1 47g a.d.
Gouache on cotton; H. 59^'u in., w. 38^0 in.
Museum ofFine Arts, Boston; SpecialJapanese Fund
Altogether, forty-two divinities are represented in this
rectangular mandala. Each is sitting or standing on a sepa-
rate lotus which is in full bloom, all the lotuses being inter-
connected. Each of the three principal goddesses is four-
armed and each dances, with one leg raised, on a corpse.
The goddess drawing the bow and shooting an arrow isKurukuOa, while the two others with the same attributes
but ofdifferent colors are two distinct forms ofVajranairat-
ma. In fact, all three goddesses are manifestations of
Nairatma (cf. R. Vira and L. Chandra, A New Tibeto-Mongol Pantheon, pt. 12, p. 25). Nairatma or Nairatmya
(meaning "no soul") is the same as void (sunyata) or gnosis
(prajna), and in the Hevajra-tantra, she is identified with
Hevajra himself (cf. The Hevajra-tantra, pt. I, pp. 30, 31).
In the middle of the top row is seated Vajrasattva, and inthe middle of the bottom row Mahakala. The remainingthirty-seven are all female and include the fifteen yoginis
who form the immediate troupe of Nairatma : the fouranimal-faced guardian goddesses, the four goddesses of
the dance, the four musical instrument goddesses, the four
dakinis, and others.
The importance of the painting lies in its Chinese in-scription which gives a date corresponding to 1479 a.d. It
was possibly commissioned by a Chinese patron in a
monastery in central Tibet. Although in general the tanka
reveals lingering influences ofthe Nepali manner, especial-
ly in the color tones, it is clear that it was painted in Tibet
because of the style of ornaments, the form of the lotuses,
and the shape of the corpses below the three principal im-
ages. Thus, this is the earliest known dated painting fromTibet, and is of great importance to the history of Tibetan
painting.
11. Thousand-armed Kuan-yin
Fifteenth century (China)
Tempera on cloth; H. 54716 in., w. 3i 1/2 in.Museum ofFine Arts, Boston; SpecialJapanese Fund
Although the artist has not drawn all of his many arms, itseems clear that this is a modified form of Avalokitesvara
with the thousand arms. An interesting deviation here fromstereotyped representations is the manner in which two ofhis arms hold the effigy ofthe parental Tathagata Amitabha
above his head. Three other TathagatasAksobhya,Vairocana, and Amoghasiddhi are portrayed in theclouds, while two celestial beings (uidyddhara) adore the
Bodhisattva. The two guardians on either side ofthe throneare probably the two Lokapalas, Virudhaka with the sword,and Virupaksa, although the latter is represented in an un-
usual fashion with his arms displaying the gesture of
adoration. At each side of the Bodhisattva are four figures,
all identical, who are blessing the kneeling devotee. Pos-sibly they represent eight aspects of the Bodhisattva allay-
ing the eight fears.
134
This Chinese painting has been included for several
reasons. There are many similarities in the details of thispainting and ofthat portraying the mandala ofVajranairat-
ma (No. 10). The seated figure of Avalokitesvara, hererepeatedly shown in the marginal vignettes, is almostidentical, in type though not in posture, to the corpse be-
low the representations ofNairatma in No. 10. The lotusesin both paintings are very similar, as are the ornaments and
the designs of the crowns. Clothes such as those worn hereby Avalokitesvara, and the cloud designs, appear inTibetan paintings, although the tones of the colors are
quite different. Thus, there seems little doubt of the close
relationship of Tibetan tankas and Chinese Buddhist
paintings, and other Chinese paintings such as this example
could well have been influenced by Tibetan tankas.
12. Vajrabhairava
ca. 1500 A.D.
Gouache on cotton; H. 39% in., w. 32% in.Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York
Vajrabhairava is one of the many manifestations ofgShin-rje-gsed or Yamantaka (the exterminator of Death, orYama). Yama was primarily the Hindu god ofDeath (seeNo. 72), and the Buddhists, to give expression to theirsectarian feelings, created Yamantaka in order to show hissuperiority. As Vajrabhairava, Yamantaka has nine heads,thirty-four arms and sixteen legs. Of his nine heads theprincipal one is that of the bull or buffalo. The one at thesummit is appropriately that of Mafijusri, as Yamantaka isa ferocious emanation of this Bodhisattva. Under his feethe tramples not only birds and beasts but also human beingsand several of the gods, among whom may be recognizedBrahma and Siva. A sea offlames serves as his backgroundand along the edges at either side are represented the eight
great cemeteries. At the top are portrayed monks andSiddhas, while along the bottom other terrifying divinities
appear.
The close stylistic relationship of this work with theNepali manner of about the fifteenth-sixteenth century isevident on comparison with the 1543 a.d. painting ofMahakala (Fig. 15). It has been suggested that this style of
painting was especially favored in the Nor monastery inwestern Tibet, which was founded towards the end of the
fifteenth century and where Nepali artists were imported
to paint the murals. Whatever its origin, it is clear that the
painter ofthis tanka was a consummate master ofthe brush.
Every detail of ornamentation is rendered with great
delicacy and care, while the use of greys on the body and
the arms creates a remarkable, illusionistic effect.
13. The Life of Mila-repa
Early sixteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 5154 in., w. 41% in.Anonymous Loan
The most celebrated poet-saint ofTibet, Mila-repa (1040-1123 a.d.) was one of the chief disciples of Marpa, the
founder of the Kargyiipa sect. Marpa is primarily remem-bered as the translator-teacher, but Mila-repa, with his
gnostic belief, appealed more to the sentiments of thepeople than to their minds and, of the two, was probablymore directly responsible for the rise and popularity of thesect. Fortunately, there is a detailed biography of the poet-saint, known as the Jetsiin-Kahbum (cf. W. Y. Evans-Wentz, Tibet's Great Yogi Milarepa, Oxford, 1928), whichnot only is an admirable social commentary of the period,but reveals that by the eleventh century the Tibetans werealready distinguished for their exegetical theories andphilosophical speculations. In this sixteenth century paint-
ing the poet-saint is represented in his characteristic
iconographyseated and wearing a single piece of clothand with his hand raised to his right ear (see No. 88). He issurrounded by several monks and lay disciples. At the levelofhis head we see hordes of fiendish creatures convergingtowards him, reminiscent of Mara's attack upon theBuddha. Above the demons are rows of Tathagatas,Siddhas, and monks of the Kargyii-pa sect. All around, inseparate rectangular frames, the principal events of his life
are represented in great detail.
Within each frame several incidents are portrayed to-gether, but they are related only spatially. This manner ofnarration along the margin, which derived ultimatelyfrom the Nepali tradition, is a continuation of that seen inthe tanka depicting the life of Sakyasri (No. 5). However,there is one important difference; while the style in the
earlier painting is chiefly figural, as in Nepali narrative
paintings, here landscape plays a more important role. Theinspiration, no doubt, came from China, but the mannerof rendering the landscape is distinctly Tibetan. We havealready met with two types of narrative painting : thatwhere the scenes are separated by frames and the style ispurely figural (No. 5), and that where the figures still
predominate but the narration is spread over the entire
tanka, more in the tradition of murals, derived probablyfrom Central Asia (No. 9). We know definitely that themore familiarand what may be regarded as the moretypicalTibetan manner of narration (where, within asprawling composition the various incidents are inter-
woven, so to say, with rivers and hills, which also serve the
purpose of frames or separators) was already developed by
the end of the sixteenth century (see No. 15). But, in this
tanka ofMila-repa the older form persists, although, with-
in each frame, landscapes, figures, and events are inter-
woven. Thus, it would seem that this tanka was done in a
period oftransition, probably the early part ofthe sixteenth
century.
14. Mandala of bDe-mchog (Samvara)
Sixteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. I6V4 in., w. 13% in.
Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York
bDe-mchog or Samvara is the principal divinity of a
tantric or esoteric school which draws its authority from
the Cakra-sanwaratantra. He is an immensely popular andpowerful god ofEsoteric Buddhism and his cult is exclusive
and secret. In Tibet he has the rank ofa Yi dam or a Tutelary
divinity. The Tibetan name of the god implies "Supreme
Bliss," which is what the (antra offers as the reward for his
135
worship. The Sankskrit word samuara means "bond" or
"union," and the two figures in yab-yum in the center of
the mandala symbolize the union between macrocosm and
microcosm. And since this unity is "conceived as a consum-ing by cosmic fire," the mandala is surrounded by a circle
of flames.
As bDc-mchog is the wrathful emanation of the Tatha-
gata Aksobhya, he is usually portrayed as a wrathful divini-
ty (as we see here in the center of the mandala), and this isalso his most common form. His four heads are blue, white,green, and red, and his complexion is blue, the color of
Aksobhya. He stands in an aggressively militant postureand firmly clasps his Prajiia or partner, Vajravarahi, whose
red complexion symbolizes passion. His principal hands
carry the thunderbolt and the bell in the gesture known asthe vajrahumkaramudra. Two of his arms stretch the flayedelephant hide, while die others display attributes peculiar
to a wrathful tantric deity, such as the skull-cup, the
chopper, the snare, etc. Vajravarahi holds in her two hands
the chopper and the skull-cup and is completely naked.
The four goddesses in the circle surrounding the pair areDakini, Lama, Khandoroha, and Rupinl. Then followthree more circles of divinities : the first circle representscittacakra (circle of the mind), the second vakcakra (circle of
speech), and the third kayacakra (circle of form). Thecitadel of the mandala is guarded by the eight guardiandeities, the animal-headed goddesses Kakasya, Ulukasya,
Svanasya, and Sukarasya at the cardinal points, and in the
corners, Yamadahi, Yamaduti, Yamadamstri, and Yama-mathani, each double-colored. Finally, the outer circle of
the mandala represents the eight cemeteries, each presided
over by a Dikpala. Outside the mandala pioper areVajradhara and Vajrasattva in the top left corner, twelve
Mahasiddhas, seven monks of the Sakya-pa school, andDolma.
The painting was probably executed in the Nor monas-tery in western Tibet, the style being distinguished by thelavish scroll design used as the background. In such paint-
ings the artist had little freedom in the choice of colors, forthe colors of the mandala are rigidly prescribed in thetexts. However, like other examples of this style of paint-ing (No. 12 and Fig. 15), this tanka is a beautiful exampleof excellent draftsmanship and meticulous rendering ofdetails.
15. Jataka Tales
ca. 1600 A.D.
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 28 in., w. 19 in.British Museum, London
This tanka is important not only for its excellent quality
but also because it bears the seal of the emperor Wan Li(1573-1612 a.d.), which makes it one of the few firmlydated tankas yet known. The principal Jatakas depictedhere are : the HamsaJataka, when the Bodhisattva was bornas a duck; the Kapi Jataka, when the Bodhisattva, born asa monkey, saved a man by carrying him on his back up asteep precipice; the Savara Jataka, when the Bodhisattvawas born as a deer ; the MahakapiJataka, when he was againborn as a leader of monkeys and sacrificed himself to save
his subjects (see No. 30); and the HastiJataka, when, bornas an elephant, he sacrificed himself to feed a hundred
hungry men.
No doubt this tanka was the result of an imperial com-mission by Wan Li, and probably formed one of a set. Itis evident that it was painted by some of the best available
artists ofdie time and it may be considered as an example ofwhat we know to be the typically Tibetan manner of nar-rative painting. Thus, it seems reasonable to assume that
the style had already developed and matured by the end of
the sixteenth century. The landscape is totally Tibetan.Chinese elements, still strong in the earlier part of the cen-
tury (see No. 13), have now been completely absorbed, anda style has emerged that has almost nothing to do with the
concept of landscape in Chinese painting, although the
buildings still simulate Chinese structures. Here the land-
scape is more formal and visionary, more sparse andreflective ofthe natural environment in Tibet. The typical-ly Tibetan manner ofvisual narration is evident in die total
integration of figures, landscape, clouds, and architecture
into one sprawling composition. The individual tales arenot separated from one another by frames, as is the case in
the tanka depicting the life of Mila-Repa (No. 13), but bynatural devices, which thus have a dual function. During
the next three centuries, as we may see, the Tibetan artistsdeveloped this basic manner in a number of different ways.
Shown only at Asia House Gallery.
16. Mahasiddhas
Early seventeenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27% '". w. i8!/8 in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi
This is tanka No. 9 of a set of eleven tankas depicting theeighty-four Mahasiddhas. The nine Mahasiddhas repre-sented here are, from top left and across, Bikkana, Tillipa,
Kamaripa, Sarvaripa, Manibhadra, Kaiikhala, Mekhala,
and Kili-Kili. As their names imply, Tillipa and Kamaripa
were by profession an oil-merchant and a metalsmith.
Kaiikhala, Mekhala and Manibhadra were female, the
first two being sisters who did not hesitate to chop off theirown heads to repay the debt to their guru Kanhapa.Kanhapa was also a Mahasiddha, and he is shown seated on
a rock to the right of the two sisters.
So far as we know this is the only set of tankas renderedin this unusual style. All that is known of its history is thatit belonged to a monastery ofthe Kargyii-pa sect in eastern
Tibet. According to the Tibetans the paintings are done in
the Karmai-ga-dri style (cf. R. Bartholomew, "Tibetan
Thankgas," The Times of India Annual, 1967, and Tibet
House Museum: Catalogue Inaugural Exhibition, New Delhi,1965, pp. 21 ff.), but exactly what is implied by this is not
entirely clear. The originality of the creator of this set isevident from the fact that these tankas do not seem to be
related stylistically, except in minor details, to any other
known Tibetan paintings.What immediately strikes the beholder is the complete
rejection of horror vacuii and the presentation ofspace in its
unending vastness. It seems as if the artist had intended to
136
convey the idea that before the divine presenceindicatedby the figure ofVajradhara within the shrine at the summit
even the great Siddhas are like little particles floating inthe cosmic space. The groups of figures, arranged inminiature compositions, accentuate this conception of
vastness. Yet there is a remarkable sense of realism in the
grouping and orientation of the figures around the central
figure of the Mahasiddha, as for example the mother and
child playing in front of Kamaripa, or the devotee ap-
proaching the two sisters with a retinue ofservants carrying
offerings, or the astonished relatives ofManibhadra watch-
ing her fly through the clouds. Nature here is not over-
whelming as in some of the other tankas (Nos. 20, 22) and
the landscape is sparse but gentle, and yet revelatory ofthe
artist's acute power of observation. At the same time the
conceptual and formal character ofthe art is retained in the
rendering of the figures according to their functional
significance, the important figures being shown muchlarger than the others.
On the whole the style is remarkably delicate andharmonious, especially in the application of colors, the soft
yellows, greens, and browns merging with each other in
subtle gradations. According to some Tibetan authorities,
these paintings were executed as early as the fifteenth cen-
tury, but comparing them with the Guimet Jataka paint-
ing (No. 23) or the British Museum dated example (No. 15)we are inclined to attribute them tentatively to the earlyseventeenth century.
Published : Chibetto-no-Hihoten (Exhibition ofSecret Treas-
ures from Tibet), Tokyo, 1967, No. 12.
17. Mahasiddhas
Early seventeenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27% '", w. 18% in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi
This is tanka No. 2 of the set of eleven tankas portraying
the eighty-four Mahasiddhas. The eight Mahasiddhas
represented here are, from top left and across, Savaripa,
Sarahapa, Kankaripa, MInapa, Goraksa, Tsorangipa,
Vinapa, Santipa. At the summit is the unusual representa-
tion of the four-armed Amitabha in yab-yum with his
Prajiia. For a discussion of the style see No. 16.
Not shown at Asia House Gallery
18. Sakya Pandita
Seventeenth century
Tanka: gouache on linen; h. 20% in., w. 16% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden
In the center of the tanka is seated Sakya Pandita on a lotus
throne. His hands make the gesture ofturning the wheel ofthe Law (dharmacakrapravartanamudra) as they hold thestalks of two flowers. The lotus flower on his right up-
holds a flaming sword, and on his left a manuscript rests on
the nagakeasara flower. It may be noted that these at-tributes, as well as the gesture, are those of ManjusYi, and
are also given to other teachers and preceptors such as
Tsongkha-pa. On either side are portrayed successiveteachers of the Sakya-pa sects, Tathagatas and Bodhisatt-
vas. At the top, in the center, is rDo-rje c'an (Vajradhara)from whom the Sakyas claim descent, with Mahasiddhasand monks on either side. In the center at the bottomare Kurukulla accompanied by Vajrasattva, Vighnantaka,Mahakala, Acala-Candamaharosana and Acala-Vajrapani,
all included as guardian deities.
Sakya Pandita (1182-1251) was one of the most giftedteachers of the Sakya school. Not only was he responsiblefor the dominance of the school in his time, but it is due
to his efforts that the Mongols were converted to Lamaism.He was a prolific and versatile writer, equally adept at com-menting on and synthesizing Mahayana philosophy, Indi-an logic, and grammar. (Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 100 ff).
In this beautifully designed tanka, the composition is
dominated by symmetry, which is an essential require-
ment for hieratic subjects. The colors are soft, and point tothe affiliation ofthis school with fifteenth-sixteenth century
Nepali paintings. Details are rendered with incredible care
and refinement, especially in the scroll background, the
pillars supporting the arch, and the throne, which follows
Chinese models.
19. Atisa
ca. 1 700 A.D.
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 26?'8 in., w. 17% in.
Tibet House Collection, New Delhi
Atisa Dipankara, known also as Dipankara Srijnana, aBengali, was probably the greatest historical name inIndian Buddhism after Nagarjuna. He had just been ap-pointed as the chiefabbott ofthe Vikramasila monastery in
Bihar by the emperor Nayapala, about 1040 A.D., when hewas invited to western Tibet by King Changchup-6. Hewas already over sixty, but, displaying the fervor that was
usual with great Buddhist missionaries, he accepted the
invitation and arrived in Tibet in 1042. The other luminary
in western Tibet at the time was Rinchen-sangpo who wasalready active in reviving Buddhism after a long period of
neglect. It was due mainly to these two personalities that,
from then on, Buddhism became the established religion in
the country. Atisa traveled to central Tibet and died in the
year 1054 in the monastery of Netang near Lhasa. The
Tibetan king could not have found a more qualified
apostle of the faith, for Atisa was not only a great dialecti-
cian but was also proficient in tannic liturgy, which had a
special appeal for the Tibetans.
Since Buddhism, as a religious force, was already waning
in India, we do not know whether Atisa would have been
apotheosized as readily in India as he was in Tibet. He is
always portrayed as seated, wearing a cap and the three
garments (tricivara) of the Indian monk, and making the
gesture of turning the wheel of the Law. Beside him are a
bell and a vase. It is curious, however, that his physiognomy
is always that ofa Tibetan although it is known that he was
Indian; while Thang Thong Gyalpo (No. 86), who was a
Tibetan by birth, is represented as an Indian yogin. Atisa
is surrounded here by his tutelary and protective deities, his
Indian preceptor, and his eminent Indian disciples. This
137
tanka is of the style that had developed in central Tibet by
the early eighteenth century. Bright, linear, and somewhat
hieratic, it is nevertheless soft and tranquil in its total
expression.
20. The Life of the Buddha
Early eighteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 3 s in., w. 22 in.
Muse'e Guimet, Paris
The life ofthe historical Buddha, Sakyamuni, was naturally
one of the favorite subjects among the Tibetan artists.
Usually it required a number oftankas to portray his entire
life story, and this painting is one of a set of eleven. As in
the tankas representing Jatakas or other narrative subjects,
the incidents here are distributed around a central figure of
Sikyamuni (see Nos. 15, 23). This manner of composition
seems to have become typical in Tibet as early as the end
of the sixteenth century. The tanka illustrates some of the
principal incidents of his life, between his enlightenment
and his mahapariniruana, as recorded in the Dulva, the
Tibetan version of the Vinaya (the Book of Discipline).In the compositions, which are quite clearly separated
from one another, the Buddha is shown seated in a woodedgrove, or beside a pool, or sometimes against an archi-
tectural background (thus differentiating the locales), and
is depicted as he expounds the Law to an audience consist-ing of Prasenajit, the King of Kosala, and monks andascetics. In the left center he is seen performing a number ofmiracles at Sravasti to convert the heretics, and the
"psychedelic" manner in which the artist shows him as dis-appearing is quite interesting. Above is shown the greatmiracle of Sravasti, when he multiplied himself, while themiracle of fire is shown to the right. The scene at the bot-tom center probably represents his conversion of his half-brother Nanda, through giving him a glimpse of hell.
21. Episodes from the life of Gesar of Ling
Early eighteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 32% in., w. 23% in.Muse'e Guimet, Paris
The saga of Gesar of Ling is perhaps the major epic ofthe Tibetans. Although redacted over the centuries andimpregnated with religious sentiments, this heroic talemay be classified as literature of a secular (or "profane")character. Thus, this painting portraying some episodesfrom the life of Gesar, despite the presence of divinitiesalong the top, may be regarded as essentially an example ofsecular painting, although it is executed in the same style asare religious subjects ofa narrative character. As is custom-ary in tankas depicting the life of the Buddha (No. 20) orofJatakas (No. 23), the episodes unfold around a centralfigurein this case a hybrid divinity (his lower portionbeing serpentine) riding a green dragon. He holds a snakein his left hand and a manuscript in his right. He is Klu-sprul thod-dkar, the celestial brother of Gesar, and ispresent here as his tutelary divinity. Along the top areKun-tu bzan-po (Samantabhadra) in yab-yum, dGa'-rab
rdo-rje, one of the divinities of the Bardo, and rDo-rjc
scms-dpa or Vajrasattva.
The tanka illustrates a well-known episode of the epic:the battle of Hor. The principal incidents arc: the chasing
of the savage horses at Hor; the elaborate encampment of
Ling; the abduction of Brug-mo; the offensive of Ling;
the capture of a Bonpo who is tied to a cross and piercedwith arrows; and scenes of batde (for a detailed identifica-
tion see R. A. Stein, "Peintures Tibctaines de la vie de
Gesar," Ars Asiatique, V, 4 [1958], pp. 243 ff.).
Formal mountain ranges, whose sloping edges appear to
be sewn, serve both as indications of the terrain and
demarcations of the scenes. The architecture revealscontemporary Tibetan forms, but the warriors are all
dressed in the Mongolian fashion. Both in the delineation
of the mountainous landscape and of the riders on their
horses, more than mere familiarity with Persian miniatures
is evident, but all borrowed elements are completely
integrated into the Tibetan style. Essentially linear, the
style is free and spontaneous, even gay and humorous,
and nothing really disturbs our vision except the tumul-
tuous rhythm of the battle scenes.
22. Rab abyor
First halfofeighteenth century
Tanka: wood block print, with color, on cloth;u. 27'A, in.,
w. 16% in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi
According to the inscription along the bottom of this
tanka, Rab abyor was an arhat who was converted by theBuddha. At the command of the "four great kings of thepoints," Rab abyor then converted the nagas of the oceanthrough miracles. The four great kings are here portrayedin the lower section on the left, while above, Rab abyorcarries out their command. The feat reminds us of the
Arhat Kanakavatsa (No. 6), who is also said to have con-verted the nagas. At the top right corner of the tanka wesee Rab abyor, portrayed as a little boy, being introducedto the Buddha by his mother. In the left corner he is shownas a fully grown monk.
This tanka is actually a painted wood block print. Afterthe eighteenth century, because of the growing demandfor tankas, designs were often cut into wood blocks, print-ed in large numbers on cloth, and then handpainted. This
particular example belongs to a set which is firmly datable
to the eighteenth century (Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 410-
413). As Tucci has suggested, works such as these reveal a
renewed stylistic liaison with China, and must be distin-
guished from those of the earlier style (Nos. 3, 6, 7). Al-
though derived from the Chinese tradition, their Tibetan
character is evident in the manner in which the figures, the
land, and the clouds have been integrated into an organic
and harmonious design. The style of landscape in thesewoodcuts is not as subtle and lyrical as that of Chinese
landscape paintings, but is more visionary and luxuriant.
These qualities are apparent here in the treatment of the
ocean, with its fantastic waves and their curling, dancing
crests, emphasized by white highlights. There seems little
138
doubt that some of the best available artists of the periodmust have been commissioned to make these woodcuts.This Tashilunpo style is distinguished by the sumptuoususe of colors employed with a gay abandon, which iscontinued in later Tibetan paintings.
23. Jataka Tales
ca. 1750 A.D.
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 32% in., w. 20% in.Muse"e Guimet, Paris
The two Jataka tales represented here, one in the upperand one in the lower half of the painting, are numbers
eighteen and nineteen of the Tanjur. The Ayo Jataka, oreighteenth tale, depicted below, relates that the Bodhisatt-
va, by birth a pious king, renounced his kingdom and thenretired to a distant country, where his fame spread far andwide as people flocked to hear him preach. A friend of hisfather tried to persuade him to return to his kingdom butthe steadfast Bodhisattva replied, "What good are pos-sessions and attachment? They only confine the self." Inthe upper half is depicted the nineteenth tale. As a hermit,the Bodhisattva preaches the virtues of solitude to the
members of his family and household. Likewise renounc-ing the world, they follow him into the forest, where theBodhisattva gives each a hut and asks them to subsist onlyon lotus-stalks. Desirous of testing the Bodhisattva's
patience, Indra casts a spell over his companions, and each
morning steals the Bodhisattva's food. The Bodhisattva,however, does not complain and continues to preach.
With each day he becomes more emaciated but his com-panions swear, by raising their hands (as we see in the scenein the upper left corner), that they did not steal the food.
Indra is impressed and leaves the Bodhisattva in peace.
This painting is rendered in a style altogether different
from the more usual narrative scrolls (No. 20), where thelandscape is more overpowering and the compositionrelatively dense and filled with figures. Instead, as we seehere, line is used with telling effect, and the landscape tends
to recede into the background. Moreover, there is no over-
crowding with figures and the total composition is muchmore free and light in its visual effect. Each incident is a unit
or a composition in miniature, almost complete in itself.
There seems litde doubt, in fact, that this style of painting
was considerably influenced by the Rajput miniatures of
the Panjab Hills. The composition of the scene within thepavilion, where the king, lying in bed, holds the hand of
his son, the Bodhisattva, could easily have been taken from
a Basohli Rasamanjari painting ofthe late seventeenth cen-
tury. The design of the pavilion with its frilled canopy andspherical roof, the rendering of the trees with the leaves
catching the shimmering light, the rolling, undulating hills
are all typical features of Pahari miniatures.
But other influences are present too. Buildings like those
along the bottom are seen in Nepali paintings depicting
Buddhist and Vaisnava legends from ca. 1700, while the
two crouching figures along the margin (immediatelyabove and to the right) who are engaged in domestic tasksbefore stone slabs, are Nepali types complete with their
characteristic caps. In general, however, the figural typesare Tibetan, as arc the clouds, while the tent within whichthe Bodhisattva sits conversing with his late father's friend(along the left center margin) occurs much earlier in theBritish Museum Jataka painting (No. 15). Thus, onceagain, we find the Tibetan artist open to extraneousinfluences, but quick to absorb them and to create a styleof his own soft, lyrical and remarkably expressive in itsnaturalism.
24. Bhaisajyaguru
ca. 1750 A.D.
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 30V2 "*> w. 25 in.
Bodleian Library, Oxford
The central figure here is Bhaisajyaguru, one of the six-teen Buddhas ofHealing. He is seated in the yogic posture,on a lotus surmounting a throne under the Bodhi tree. Hisright hand displays the gesture of calling the earth to wit-
ness (bhiimisparsamudra), while the left holds the mendi-
cant's bowl. Once again we see how an iconic type may beused for different figures, whether to portray the Tathagata
Aksobhya (No. 9), the historical Buddha (No. 57), or, here,Bhaisajyaguru. His complexion is orange-colored and the
monastic robes are red. He is flanked by two Bodhisattvas.That on his right carrying the jewel on the flower is
probably Ratnapani, while the other, on his left, is
Avalokitesvara. Immediately above them are two arhats,
Lam bstan or Panthaka carrying a manuscript, and Mip'yed or Abheda holding the chorten. Above the arhats aretwo monks in the two corners, probably Sariputra andMahamaudgalyayana, and two representations of aTathagata making the gesture of turning the wheel of the
Law. Both may represent Vairocana. hi the lower sectionof the tanka, immediately below the Bodhisattva Ratna-
pani, is mGon po, or Mahakala, as the protector ofthe tent,and below him is a goddess, perhaps a special form ofLha
mo. On the other side, the eight-armed white goddess isUsnisavijaya, and the figure below is that of a Tibetan
priest performing rituals. A beautifully designed tankaboth in its linear quality and in its well-balanced and sym-
metrical composition, it can be more or less firmly dated
because of its stylistic closeness to the Fogg tanka of 1765
A.D. (No. 25).
Published: Stooke, "Some Tibetan T'ankas," pi. 2, pp.213,214.
25. Acala Candamaharosana
Dated 1765 A.D.
Tanka: embroidered silk; H. 59 1 2 in., w. 28' < in.
(including borders)
Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge,
Mass.; Gift ofMr. and Mrs. Earl Morse.
The terrifying god in the center, standing in a militant
posture (pratyaiidha) and holding the sword and the noose,
is Acala Candamaharosana, a wrathful deity belonging to
the family of the Tathagata Aksobhya. His worship was
139
performed in great secrecy and none but the initiated was
allowed to behold his image. The two divinities above him
are probably Acala Takkiraja, with two hands, and Acala
Niladanda (or Mahakala?), with six hands. The dancing,
lion-headed goddess below is Simhavaktr.i, while the other
is perhaps Acala Mahabala. Apart from being one of the
finest examples of an embroidered tanka, it is of great
historical importance as it is dated. The needlework is so
refined that it is clear that the emperor Ch'ien Lung must
have employed the best available craftsmen. The style is
so closely related to Tibetan tankas that, if the artists were
Chinese, they must have copied a Tibetan model. Especial-
ly noteworthy are the soft and muted colors of the gentle
and tranquil landscape, which contrast strongly with the
representations of the wrathful deities.
26. mGon po (Mahakala)Eighteenth century
Tanka: gouache on linen; h. 3 5 Me in., w. 24% in.Rijksiuusemn voor Volkenkunde, Leiden
In this manifestation the god is known as "the four-handedwise mGon po, according to the style of 'Tshal" (' Tshallugs kyi ye shes mgon po phyags bzhi pa). Of a dark bluecomplexion, his ferocious face has three eyes. He isadorned with a crown of five skulls, jewels, and snakeornaments and wears the skin of a tiger as his loin cloth.
His retinue includes the raven-headed Las kyi mGon po,Legs Idan nag po, Sha za nag po or "the black flesh-eater,"the goddess Remati, a form of Lha mo, and eight otheranimal-headed Dakinls dancing below him in a sea offlames. With his four hands mGon po carries the flamingsword, the trident, the skull-cup, and a cocoanut. In the
clouds above can be seen Vajrasattva in yab-yum (unto
mystico) with his Prajfia, several Mahasiddhas and teachers,
such as Sarahapa, Nagarjuna, et. al., two monks, and theGom-kar form ofMahakala, when he appears as white andsix-armed. At the bottom center is mTa-grin or Hayagriva.Against a blue-black ground, lurking flames of yellow,
orange, blue, and brown create fantastic back-drops for theterrifying divinities who seem to be involved in a dansemacabre. One can hardly imagine the impression suchtankas would have made upon the mind of the credulousbeholder as, on entering a dark room, he saw this strangeworld of figures dancing in the flickering light of lamps.The terrifying god and his companions would appear tocome alive.
Published: Pott, in Burma, Korea, Tibet, p. 219; F. Sierksma,
Tibet's Terrifying Deities, Tokyo and Rutland, Vt., 1966,pi. 5, p. 269.
27. bSe'i khrab can
Eighteenth century
Tanka: color on silk; H. 27%, in., w. 20V2 in.Musee Guitnet, Paris
bSe'i khrab can is a divinity peculiar to the Tibetanpantheon, and like Lha mo or Pehar, is a Tibetan creation.He is classified as a protective god and is the wrathful
emanation of Tshangs pa dkar po or Brahma, the creative
force in the Hindu Trinity. Apart from a conceptual basis,however, Tshangs pa, in his multifarious forms in Tibetan
iconography, has little in common with Brahma. BothTshangs pa and his wrathful emanation, bSe'i khrab can,
are common to the Buddhists and the Bonpos, and pos-sibly represent original Bon deities who were incorporatedinto the Lamaist pantheon, and given an Indian pedigree by
equating them with Brahma.
In a Tibetan text, translated by Nebsky-Wojkowitz,
bSe khrab is described as follows: "The great yaksa, thegreat wild btsan bSe'i khrab can is of a red color; he has one
face, two hands, and three rolling eyes. His forehead andeyebrows are angrily contorted. Baring his fangs, he gnaws
the lower lip with his upper teeth, which are sharp like the
ice of a glacier. With his right hand he brandishes a bigclub, dispersing with it the war-hordes of evil spirits. His
left hand, which rests in front of his breast in the tarjani-
mudra, holds a snare with which he ties the heads and bodies
of the enemies of religion. In the crook of his left arm restsa lance with a fluttering red banner on top. On his head hewears a helmet adorned with flags and his body is covered
with a flowing garment of red silk, on top of which he
wears a cuirass. From his garland are suspended a quivermade of tiger-skin, a bow-case made from the skin of aleopard, and a sword. He rides an excellent horse ofa light-brown color, with a saddle, bridle, and head ornaments ofsilk. On his side he leads a vermilion-coloured cock."(R. Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Oracles and Demons of Tibet, TheHague, 1956, pp. 149, 150).
The above description is illuminating not only becauseit demonstrates in what detail the forms of gods were
described in the text (revealing the imaginative powers of
its author), but also because it shows how closely the artistsfollowed the iconographic injunctions. The text furtherindicates, especially by its emphasis on red and its various
shades, and on the terrifying aspect of the god, why theartist used the essentially linear technique with red and gold
as his principal colors. The entire design is carried out withgreat delicacy and refinement, and the fluid and agitated
line imbues the figures with buoyancy and movement.
Tankas such as this, employing principally red and gold
with telling effect, are known technically as gScr t'an (cf.Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 579-581).
The other members of bSe khrab's retinue here includ-ed are: Klu btsan, "the body-emanation" at the bottom
left; LHa rigs, "emanation of mind" at the bottom center;
and bTsan rgod "emanation of speech" at the bottom
right. The figure astride the cock is gTer gyi bsrung ma,"emanation of excellence," and the one riding a horse
above bSe khrab's left shoulder is bTsan gyi dmag dpon,the "karma-emanation." At the summit are represented
the Tathagata Amitabha and three monks. (For further
discussion of the iconography of this painting cf. Nebesky-
Wojkowitz, Oracles, pp. 149 ff".)
28. Life of the Buddha
Late eighteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 21% in., w. 15% in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi
140
This is the second of a set of seven tankas representing the
principal events of the life of the Buddha (see also No. 20).Clearly the set was painted for a monk or monastery oftheGeluk-pa sect, as images ofmany of its prominent mastersare included in it. As is usual with such tankas, the incidents
are depicted around a central figure ofSakyamuni display-
ing the bhumisparsamudra in his right hand and holding a
bowl with the left. At the top is the effigy ofAmitayus, the
Tathagata of endless life. On the right the three successivescenes from top to bottom represent : i) Siddhartha preach-
ing to the gods in heaven before bis birth; ii) Siddhartha
discussing with other divinities the auspicious time and
place of his birth as well as the suitable caste; iii) the
episode in which he crowns Maitreya, and requests him tosubstitute for him while he is away. On the left the threeevents are, again from top to bottom : a) the Nativity, the
ritual bath and the seven steps which signified his spiritual
conquest ofthe universe; b) the drive to the temple for the
naming ceremony ; c) presentation to the sage Asita (shown
in a sea of clouds) who foretold the prince's future great-ness. At the bottom center of the painting a vase has been
depicted which incorporates all the eight auspicious sym-
bols.
Although the colors are bright and gay in their tonality,
as is characteristic in the tankas of this period, the style has
a softness and tranquility well suited to the subject matter.
In contrast to the Guimet painting (No. 20) the artist has
here chosen to represent fewer incidents in each tanka, and
to present them with greater clarity. Although the scenes
are separated, the entire composition is integrated by a
continuous, wavy, rhythmic movement from the top tobottom on either side of the more hieratic central figure.
This flowing movement seems to pervade the work and tounite the landscape, the architecture, and the figures in an
organic design. Stylistically, the tanka seems to be slightly
earlier than the 1829 mandala of Vasudhara (No. 34).
29. Jataka Tale
Late eighteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27% in., W. 17M6 in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi
Every set ofJataka paintings has a principal tanka bearing
the hieratic representation of the Buddha. This is the
principal tanka of the Tibet House set (see No. 30). In the
center, within an elaborate arch of a type commonly seenin Nepali works, is seated the Buddha, his right hand dis-
playing the gesture of touching the earth and his left hand
holding a vase. He is accompanied by his two chiefdisciplesSariputra and Mahamaudgalyayana. At the bottom right
corner is portrayed the enthroned Songtsen-gampo, the
first king ofTibet, with his two queens and members ofhis
court. The seven symbols of royaltya minister carryingthe wheel, the queen carrying the gem, the warrior, the
elephant, and the horsesymbolize his universal sover-
eignty. Above the Buddha and on either side is representedthe Vyaghri Jataka, when the Bodhisattva sacrificed him-self to feed a hungry tigress who was about to devour hercubs. For a discussion ofthe style ofthe painting see No. 30.
Not shown at Asia House Gallery.
30. Jataka Tales
Late eighteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27?i e in., w. 17%, in.
Tibet House Collection, New Delhi
The painting depicts four stories of the Jataka Talcs (17, 18,27, and 28). In the middle of this tanka the Buddha is
seated on a lotus supported by a dragon. In the lower right
hand section is represented the tale of King Sarvamitra of
Videha (or Brahma Jataka) who constantly spent his timedrinking in the company ofhis courtiers. The Bodhisattva,
as Brahma, appears in the cloud with a pot ofwine and of-
fers it to the King and his courtiers, warning them how-ever, that the liquor would poison not only this life but the
next. This convinces them of the futility of drinking and
they become teetotallers. Immediately above this is shown
the twenty-eighth tale, or Ksanti Jataka, in which the
Bodhisattva was born as a hermit and lived in the forest.
A king, accompanied by his two queens, came into theforest. One day, while the king rested, the queens wanderedoff" into the forest, and coming upon the Bodhisattva, sat
at his feet to listen to his sermon. On waking and learningwhere the queens were, the king rushed to the hermitage
and in his anger drew his sword and cut off the Bodhisatt-
va's limbs. Then, seeing the Bodhisattva still unperturbed
the king fainted, and was swallowed by flames emerging
from the earth. To the right ofthe Buddha is portrayed theeighteenth tale, or Ayo Jataka (see entry No. 23). The
twenty-seventh tale, illustrated here, is the fascinating
MahakapiJataka, in which the Bodhisattva was born as the
leader ofmonkeys and sacrificed himself to save them.
There can be little doubt that stylistically this tanka is
closely related to the Guimet Jataka painting (N0.23). In
both, theAyoJataka is recounted with astonishing parallels.
In the Guimet painting the tale is represented along the
lower half, while in this tanka it is depicted in the middle
and on either side of the Buddha. The closely analogous
compositions in both scenes, with similar figures engaged
in the same action and making identical gestures, lead us to
believe that either the painter of the present tanka modeled
it on the Guimet painting or that they are both copies ofthe
same original. On the whole, however, the landscape andthe figures in this painting are rendered in a slightly more
stylized and formal manner. Compare, for instance, the
trees with their identical, unvaried shape, in contrast to the
variety seen in the Guimet painting. Here the tree associat-
ed with the monkeys, which, according to the texts, should
either be a fig or a mango tree, is straight and formal and
decorated with giant, blooming lotuses. (Compare the
same theme represented with greater naturalism in the
British Museum Jataka painting [No. 15]). Thus, if the
Guimet painting was painted around 1750perhaps, in the
first half of the eighteenth centurythe tanka under
discussion would have been executed towards the end of
that century.
3 1
.
King Trhisong-detsen
Eighteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 34s 8 in., w. 24* s in.
Musee Guimet, Paris
141
King Trhisong-detsen is one of the most important
political and religious personalities in the history of Tibet.
He ruled Tibet with an iron hand for the greater part ofthe
second half of the eighth century, and not only was he
responsible for commissioning the translation of a large
number of Buddhist canonical works but he also promul-
gated Buddhism as the state religion. He participated in the
organization of the Buddhist clergy and invited noted
teachers such as the famous Padmasambhava and Santarak-
sita to establish the religion firmly in the country. The
foundation of the monastery of Samyc (bSam yas) under
his patronage marks the victory of the new religion over
the older Bon. At his death in 797 Tibet had reached the
apogee of her territorial expansion.
In the center of the painting the king, richly attired and
provided with an aureole to signify his deification, sits with
one leg pendant (latitasna) on a cushion placed over a lotus.
His right hand holds the stem of a lotus on which rests a
manuscript and a flaming sword, the symbols of ajam
dpal's or Manjusri, who is supposed to have been rein-carnated in the person of the king. A group of saints isportrayed at the summit ofthe painting. The distinguished
figure in the center represents Santaraksita. Other saints sit
on either side, while at the bottom ofthe tanka are the two
protectors Ma-Ning and Vajrapani.The tanka is remarkable for the refinement of the draw-
ing as well as for its subdued colors. Rather unusual is the
presentation of the palms of hands and feet, which seem to
emerge out of the background to confront the beholder.
According to some, these represent the hands and feet of
Buddha Sakyamuni and according to others, those of the
Panchen Lama (cf. Pott in Burma, Korea, Tibet, p. 212).
32. rGyan-tshogs (Sets of Ornaments)
Eighteenth century
Tempera on linen; H. 26 in., W. 38^ in.The Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio;
gift ofMr. Jefferson Patterson
This type of painting, peculiar to Tibet, is known asrGyan-tshogs, meaning "sets of ornaments" or Bskang-
rdsas, meaning "material for the banquet." Making of-ferings to appease the gods is a very important activity in
the life of the Tibetans (cf. R. B. Ekvall, Religious Observ-ances in Tibet: Patterns and Function, Chicago, 1964, pp.150 ff.). The center of the painting, in accordance withBuddhist cosmology, is occupied by the mythical MountSumeru, the center of the Universe. Three kinds of specialgifts (lha-rdsas) are offered around the Mount: i) mchod-ndsas or oblations, such as the eight offerings, the five
"gratifications of the senses,,' the seven and eight preciousthings, the eight auspicious objects, the "secret offerings,"
etc.; ii) spyan-rdsas, objects to gratify the eyes of the god,such as various kinds of animals; iii) dam-rdsas or "holy
objects," such as the bell, the thunderbolt, and other ritualobjects.
Not content with offering material objects, the Tibetanshung such paintings over the altar as symbolic, but morepermanent, offerings. (For a fuller discussion of such paint-
ings see F. D. Lcssing, Yung-Ho-Kung, Stockholm, 1942,
pp. 100 ff.). The composition is vast and well-balanced, like
that of a mural, and the drawing of the animals, especially
ofthe horses, is particularly skillful. Although the technique
is essentially linear, shading has been effectively employed
to indicate volumes. Woolly clouds hovering around the
schematically rendered mountain peaks add to the visionary
quality of the painting.
33. rGyan-tshogs (Sets of Ornaments)
ca. 1800
Tanka: gouache on linen; H. 36% in., w. 25i w. 24% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden
In the center of the mandala is Vasudhara, goddess of
wealth and consort of Kuvera, the Lord of Wealth. She is
three-headed and six-armed, and displays the following
attributes: a rosary, a jewel, the gesture of charity, a
manuscript, a sheaf of grain, and a vase. She is surrounded
by eight figures who probably represent the eight personi-fied treasures (nidhi). At the bottom center is Mahakala
flanked by tiny portraits of the donor and members of his
family, who are identified by inscriptions. The portraits arestereotyped representations and no attempt has been made
to delineate the actual appearance of individuals. At the
bottom corners, in two shrines, are shown two other forms
of Vasudhara, accompanied by smaller images of Tara.
142
Along the top ofthe tanka are, in the middle, the Tathagata
Ratnasambhava flanked by Manjusri and Lokcsvara;
Amitabha and Jambhala appear in the corners. The re-maining portion of the tanka, outside the mandala, illus-
trates the Asvaghosa-Nandimukha avadana, a story extolling
the merits ofperforming the rites ofVasudhara (for further
details see P. Pal, Two Buddhist Paintings from Nepal,Amsterdam, 1967, pp. 22, 23).
Historically, the importance of the tanka lies in its in-
scription, which states that the donor commissioned this
painting in Lhasa while making a commercial visit. Anumber of such paintings are known, all of which bearinscriptions recording their execution and donation either
in Lhasa or in Tashilunpo monastery (see Introduction.)
Thus, such tankas are of invaluable help in determining
the dates of others. The style of landscape, conceived asearly as the sixteenth century (No. 15), still continues with
remarkable tenacity after well over two centuries, anddemonstrates the extreme conservatism of the tradition as
well as the difficulty of establishing a firm chronological
sequence in the development of the style.
35. mGon-po (Mahakala)
Early nineteenth century
Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 21% in., w. 16% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden
mGon-po or Mahakala is here represented in his six-armedmanifestation, when he is called mGon-dkar, a god ofwealth. In this form he is the special protector ofMongolia,
and this painting may in fact have been made for a Mon-golian patron. This is also suggested by the caravan of
merchants arriving with their mules at the gates of a
monastery, pictured in the lower part of the tanka.
Mahakala stands against a sea of flames, carrying in his
three left hands the skull-cup, the elephant-goad, and the
trident, while his three right hands hold the chopper, the
drum, and the jewel against his chest. With his feet hetramples two elephant-headed beings, probably two forms
of Ganesa; below the lotus a yaksa, accompanied by musi-
cians, is pouringjewels from a bag. Formal but picturesque
landscapes with hills and streams have been added simply
as decorative devices, as were two cranes that are represent-
ed with remarkable naturalism. Tibetan painting is
generally linear in style but in tankas such as this the line is
used with incredible purityin a way similar to the illus-trated frontispieces of Japanese sutras (see J. Rosenfield,
Japanese Arts ofthe Heian Period, New York, 1967, No. 35).In such paintings colors seem to play a secondary role.
From a distance or in a reproduction these tankas lookmore like dry-point etchings than paintings.
Published: Pott in Burma, Korea, Tibet, p. 219; Sierksma,
Tibet's Deities, Fig. 5.
36. rGyan-tshogs (Sets of Ornaments)
Nineteenth century
Color on linen; H. i7 5/i 6 in., w. 12% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden
This painting, with No. 37, is part of a set. Here we sec thehell over which gShin-rje or Yama, the god of death,reigns. His attendants are busy dragging in sinners and
punishing them. Everything in this painting of the rGyan-
tshogs class, including the guardians, the terrifying acolytes,
and the outstretched skins along the top, is probably
considered as an offering to gShin-rje.
37. The hell of gShin-rje (Yama)
Nineteenth century
Painting: gouache on linen; h. 17% in., w. 12% in.Rij
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