54

8. Two Mahasiddhas and Two Sakya-pa Monks, ca. 1400 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 28 in., w. 26', in.

opposite: 7. Arhat Lam bstan (Panthaka). Fourteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 25 V4 in., W. 19'

55

P^Ojh 11

1

9. Mi ak'rugs pa (Aksobhya) in his Abhirati Heaven. Early fifteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 58 'A in., w. 49 in.

56

io. Mandala of Vajranairatma. 1479 a.d. Gouache on cotton, h. 59s;, in., w. 38':, in.

57

io. (detail) Mandala of Vajranairatma. 1479 a.d. Gouache on cotton, H. 59 6/le in., w. 38%. in.

58

ii. Thousand-armed Kuan-yin. Fifteenth century (China). Tempera on cloth, H. 54'/,. in., w. 31% in.

59

12. Vajrabhairava. ca. 1500 a.d. Gouache on cotton, h. 39H in., w. 3254 i.

60

13- The Life of Mila-repa. Early sixteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 51 ', in., w. 41 ' in.

61

14- Mandala ofbDe-mchog (Samvara). Sixteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 16% in., w. 13% in.

opposite: 15. Jataka Tales, ca. 1600 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 28 in., w. 19 in.

62

63

J&. "^17. Mahasiddhas. Early seventeenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 27% in., w. 18% in.

64

19- Atlsa. ca. 1700 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 26% in., w. 17^ in

65

20. The Life of the Buddha. Early eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 35 in., w. 22 in.

66

21. Episodes from the life of Gcsar of Ling. Early eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 32S in., w. 23 Y*

67

22. Rab abyor. First halfofeighteenth century. Tanka: wood block print, with color, on cloth, h. 27%s in.w. 16 Vz in.

68

23. Jataka Tales, ca. 1750 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 32V, in., w. 20:

,

69

24. Bhaisajyaguru. ca. 1750 a.d. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 30'/2 in., w. 25 m.

opposite: 26. mGon po (Mahakala). Eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on linen, h. 3 5 Me i., w. 24% in.

70

7i

27. bSe'i khrab can. Eighteenth century. Tanka: color on silk, h. 27?i in., w. 20 y2 in.

72

28. Life of the Buddha. Late eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 21% in., w. 15 3 , in.

73

29. Jataka Tale. Late eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 27% in., w. i7 6/i 9 in.

74

30. Jataka Tales. Late eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 27?;, in., w. i7 5 , fa.

75

76

32. rGyan-tshogs (Sets ofOrnaments). Eighteenth century. Tempera on linen, h. 26 in., w. 381

, in.

opposite: 31. King Trhisong-dctsen. Eighteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 34s, in., W. 24% in.

77

32. (detail) rGyan-tshogs (Sets ofOrnaments). Eighteenth century. Tempera on linen, H. 26 in., w. 38% m.

78

33- rGyan-tshogs (Sets ofOrnaments), ca. 1800. Tanka: gouache on linen, h. 36s

', in., w. 25%, in.

79

34. Mandala of Vasudhara. Dated 1829 A.D. Tanka: gouache on cotton, H. 33 'A in., w. 24% in.

80

35- mGon-po (Mahakala). Early nineteenth century. Tanka: gouache on cotton, h. 21 '/ in., w. 16% in.

8l

36. rGyan-tshogs {Sets of Ornaments). Nineteenth century. Color on linen, H. i75/ie in., w. 12% in.

82

37- The hell of gShin-rje (Yama). Nineteenth century. Painting: gouache on linen, H. 17% in., w. i2\ in.

3

ft- ' ' Tc

38. sGrol-dkar (White Tara). Nineteenth century. Tanka: gouache on linen, h. 29 ft ., w. 19%! JK.

84

39- Temple Hanging. Nineteenth century. Embroidered silk applique, l. 45 ft., 5 in., d. 40-53 in.

85

U,4 k *>

40. Chos-gyal (Yama). Early twentieth century. Embroidered tanka, h. 97% in., w. 55 Y in.

86

L

41. Buddha. Eighth-ninth century (Kashmir, India). Gilt bronze, h. 38V8 in.

87

42. P'yag na rdo rje (Vajrapani). Eleventh-twelfth century. Bronze with 43. sPyan-ras-gzigs (Avalokitesvara). Eleventh-twelfth cen-

gold paint, H. 6 6/i6 in. tury. Bronze, H. 9 in.

88

44- sPyan-ras-gzigs (Avalokitesvara). ca. 1300 a.d. Brass, 46. Hp'ags-pa-spyan-ras-gzigs (Eleven-headed Avalokitesvara). Four-

with paint, h. 12 in. teenth century. Brass with gold paint, H. 13 V2 in.

89

47- bYams-pa (Maitreya). ca. 1600 a.d. Gilt bronze, H. 25^in. (including base).

90

49- Hayagriva. Eighth century (India or Nepal). Copper,H. 12 in.

50. Chorten. Eleventh century. Bronze, h. 6%e in.

91

51. Prajiiaparamita. Thirteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 8 in. 52. A Bodhisattva. Thirteenth-fourteenth century (?). Giltbronze, with paintedface, H. 7 He in.

92

53- Buddha Yuddhajaya. Thirteenth century. Gilt bronze, h. 8 i4 in.

54. Savari. Fourteenth century. Bronze, H. 3 M in.

93

55- Vasya-Vajravarahi. Fourteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 14 in.

S6. Miak'rugs psi(Aksobhya). Fifteenth century. Bronze,n. SV* in.

94

57- The Buddha. Fifteenth century. Silver with gilt paint, h. 8%in.

58. sPyan-ras-gzigs(Avalokitesvara). ca. 1500 a.d. Giltbronze,

with paint and inlay, H. 6/ in.

95

,-. iTluj liim* 1

above left: 59. Mahamantranusarini. Sixteenth century. Gilt bronze, inlaid

with stones, h. 11% m.

above right: 60. sGrol ma (Tara). Sixteenth century. Bronze, with paint, h.

8Vi in.

61. Nairatma. Seventeenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 9% in.

96

62. Hp'ags-pa-spyan-ras-gzigs (Eleven-headed

Avalokitesvara). Sixteenth century. Ivory, h. io 5 e in.

63. Tsho day ser po (Ganesa). Eighteenth century. Bronze, h. 2i lA in.

97

64. A Dharmapala. T'ang Period (China) . Gilt bronze, H. 17 in. 65. mGon po (?) (Mahakala). Thirteenth century. Bronze, with paint,h. ii'/4 in.

98

66. P'yag na rdo rje (Vajrapani) and his Consort, ca. 1400 a.d.

Gilt bronze, with paint, H. 11 in. 67. P'yag na r& rje (Vajrapani). Sixteenth century. Silver, h. ioVi in.

99

*jf

i t:/^f^

68. Jambhala. Sixteenth century. Bronze, h. 47

8 in.

100

69. rTa mgrin (Hayagriva). Sixteenth century. Silver, with paint,H. 8 in.

70. P'yag na rdo rje (Vajrapani) and Consort. Sixteenth century.

Bronze, with paint, H. I5 ls/i in.

ior

71. Krsna Yamari. Seventeenth century. Bronze, H. 9K in.

72. gShin-rje or Chos-gyal (Yama). Seventeenth century. Gilt

bronze, with paint, h. 14% in.

102

73- gShin-rje-gshed (Yamantaka). Seventeenth century. Bronze,

with paint, H. i4 3/i e in.

103

74- Jambhala and his Consort. Seventeenth century. Gilt copper,

h. 8'/2 in.

75. dPal ldan lha mo. Seventeenth century. Silver, h. 6yt in.

104

76. Pe har. Eighteenth century. Giltbronze, h. 8% in.

77. White Dragon Mother. Ch'ienLung Period, 173 5-1795 a.d. (China).

Gilt bronze, H. 6'/2 in.

t^^i6^i#^|0^^]

105

78. Jambhala. Eighteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 6%, in.

79. Beg tse. Eighteenth century. Bronze, with polychromy, h.

5 y* in.

106

8o. mGon po (Mahakila). ca. 1800 a.d.Gilt bronze, h. 9 yt in.

81. Kurukulla. Nineteenth century. (Mon-golia). Copper, withpolychromy, H. I4 15 i, in.

/ *

107

82. Vaisravana (God of Wealth). Nineteenth century (Mongolia). Polychromed copper, H. i$Va in.

108

cr

83. Mahasiddha Heruka. ca. 1400 a.d. Bronze, with

polychromy, H. 7 in.

84. Mahasiddha Virbapa (or Virupa) . Fourteenth cen-

tury. Bronze, with silver, H. 11 in.

109

85- Mahasiddha Nag po pa. Fifteenth century. Bronze, with copper

and silver inlay, H. 8 3/4 in.

86. Thang Thong Gyalpo. Fifteenth century. Bronze, with paint,

H. 6M> in.

no

87. Arhat Dus ldan (Kalika). Fifteenth century. Gilt bronze, h.6/2 in.

88. Mila-repa. Sixteenth century. Gilt bronze, H. 13 in.

Ill

i' d

aiiiiii^ 3*-

Vl*^

92. Tiw Illuminated Leavesfrom a Prajiiaparamita Manuscript. Thir-teenth century. Gouache on paper, h. j 1 ., in., w. 26 in. (Lower right:detail)

113

93. Medicine Sutra; Covers and First Page. Sixteenth century. Gilt wood covers, h. 3 %/., w. i 5 B i 6 in. Page, paper, h.3 3 4 in., w. I5 3/S in.

94. Illuminated Page from a Prajnaparamita Manuscript. Sixteenth-seventeenth century. Gouache on paper, h. 9> 18 in., w. 26 3 in.

114

95- Manuscript Cover, ca. 1600 a.d. Bronze, with gilt and inlaid stones, h. 10 Ylt in., w. 30*1, in.

KMBi^B^Bfll^^*

96. Illuminated Folio showing Battle Scene. Seventeenth century. Color on paper, h. 4 3 4 in., w. 23% in.

Y noiuMii' luiu'ijiuim"" vo^yJuuiuut Milium ^iqgJ)(aih]iuliuTil)^iaMiuuiuLifUit'l)

r. 6

rK

98. Manuscript of Sorcery Manual. Nineteenth century. Color on paper, h. 3> 1/1., l. 15 Vt in.

99. Book of Drawings. Nineteenth century. Ink onpaper, H. 5% 1/1., w. 4 6/16 t.

Il6

ioo. Lamaist Shrine. Sixteenth century. Painted wood and terracotta, H. 34% in., w. 22 in. (exterior)

117

ioo. Lamaist Shrine. Sixteenth century. Painted wood and terracotta, h. 34% in., w. 22 in. (interior)

Il8

^% % % ^ S ill* 4& feA A B Jlif iSfIfwmm-**~r^^mi

ioi. Mold for Dough Images (zan-par). Seventeenth-eighteenth century. Birch wood, l. I4 3 4 in., w. i in., u. a ih.

ioi. (detail) Mold for Dough Images (zan-par). Seventeenth-eighteenth century. Birch wood, l. i4 3 4 hi., w. i in., D. 7 , m.

119

102. Wheel of the Law (ch'os 'k'or-bskor). Eighteenth century or earlier. Silver, H. 20'i in., w. 12

120

above left: 103. Butter Lamp (Cho-kung). Eighteenth cen-.tury. Silver, h. 6% in., diam. (top) 5% in.

above right: 104. A Small Container. Eighteenth century-Silver, inlaid with jewels and gold wire, H. 3% in., diam. 6% in.

105. Water Pot (Chi-luk). Eighteenth century. Gilt silver, with

pearls, h. 8 yt in.

121

io6. Mandala. Seventeenth century. Gilt

bronze, inlaid with turquoise, H. 6% in.

107. Mandala. Eighteenth century. Copper,

with gilt, h. 6% in-, diam. 11% in.

122

!

II

Hfv* /s'

108. Magic Dagger (phur-bu). ca. 1800 a. d. Wood, paint-

ed, L. i6',i in.

109. Magic Dagger (phur-pa-kila). Nineteenth century. Bronze, 1.

8% in.

123

no. Prayer Wheel (mani chho-khor). Eighteenth-nineteenth century.Gilt silver, inlaid with stones, h. 1 1 ' 2 in.

124

H2. Gau. Early nineteenth century. Silver and copper, h. 8 7 in., w. j~ in., d. 3 J , in.

125

113- Conch Shell Trumpet. Nineteenth century. Brass, and shell, l. 16 in., d. 8'/2 in.

114. Conch Shell Trumpet. Nineteenth century. Silver, inlaid with stones, and shell, l. 22% in., d. 13% in.

126

115- Beer Jug (Bay-lep). Nineteenth century. Iron, h. 12', in.,diam. 6}4 in.

116. Cup with Stand. Cup, porcelain, h. 4%, in.; Stand, silverwith gold, H. 6V in.

127

117- Butter Lamp (scrkong). Twentieth century. Gold, H. 5 1 - in. 118. Vase of Immortality (tse-bum). Twentieth century.

Gold, with ruby, H. 10 'A in.

128

ii9- Saddle. Twentieth century. Gilt silver, with brocade, h. 13% in., w. 18

129

Catalogue

Since Tibet's art is largely anonymous and undated, the chronology suggested here is tentative and is meant only to serve as aframework.

i . Ts'e dpag med (Amitayus)

Thirteenth century

Tanka: gouache on linen; h. Bft., 6 in., w. 59 in.

Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York

A Tathagata of green complexion is seated in the yogicposture on a lotus in the center of this tanka, his hands inthe samadhimudra and holding the vase containing the elixir

of eternal life (tse bum). Despite the color, we propose toidentify him as Ts'e dpag med (Amitayus) or "the God ofEndless Life," as both his Tibetan and Indian names imply.

The two standing Bodhisattvas flanking him are Maitreyaand Avalokitesvara. Along the top are eight other Bod-hisattvas and two monks. At the bottom are three moreBodhisattvas, probably Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, and

Vajrapani, and two standing, wrathful protectors, Maha-kala and Vajrapani.

This is the largest of a group of tankas, distinguished

both by their compositions and color, which may representthe earliest known Tibetan style of painting. The inscrip-tion below the lotus seat is badly effaced and thus difficult

to interpret. It seems to imply that this is a painting in the

"renewed" Nepali style, although the fact that it was meant

for a Tibetan patron is apparent from the Tibetan language

used in the inscription. The form of the language suggestsa date earlier than the fifteenth century.

There seem to be two principal sources for the style ofthis and other related worksNepal and Central Asiaaswe have discussed in the Introduction, where we have alsopointed out that the style probably originated in the

monastery of Iwang in western Tibet, where artists from

Nepal and Khotan were at work. Its furthest extension maybe seen in tankas recovered from Khara-khoto.

Published: The Art of India and Nepal : The Nasli and Alice

Heeramaneck Collection, Boston, 1966, p. 109.

2. Adoration of the Goddesses

Tlurteenth century (?)

Ink and paint on hemp cloth; H. 67/8 in., L. 18 ft. 10 in.

Virginia Museum ofFine Arts, Richmond

This scroll is of unusual interest both for its subject matter

and its style. In its present state it appears to be incomplete,

but the narrative character of the subject is evident, al-

though difficult to identify. The scroll is painted on bothsides ; the obverse depicts narrative scenes and the reverse

a continuous floral scroll design. It has been suggested that

the scroll represents thejourney of priests and civil officials

through a Buddhist paradise (cf. A. Priest, A BuddhistParadise, Virginia Museum ofFine Arts, Richmond, 1963).Two main themes seem to be prominent in the narration

:

i) journeys undertaken by groups ofmen carrying manu-scripts and several of the auspicious symbols, such as the

conch, a horse carrying a flaming jewel, a relic casket car-

ried by an elephant, etc., and ii) encounters by these travel-ers with goddesses of the class known as Yoginis or Dakiniswhom they worship, and who appear on or within clouds,often dancing or playing upon drums, flutes, or lutes. Attimes the goddesses appear alone and elsewhere with a

retinue, which in one instance consists of three cherubic

boys, one ofwhom carries the flaming jewel and anotherthe auspicious banner. Thejourney and the adorations takeplace in purely fanciful landscapes ofblue-green mountains

and contorted trees enveloped in a misty haze. Sometimes

the scene is a pastoral one, as where one woman is seenmilking a cow and another cooking, and elsewhereincidents are portrayed in settings of elaborate buildings

that seem to echo the architectural style of the T'ang

period. We may notice still other instances where thetravelers are borne on clouds. It is difficult to determine,

however, whether the scroll represents a continuous tale or

is episodic.

Relations with Chinese paintings are obvious, and the

scroll may have been inspired by Sung paintings as has beensuggested by Alan Priest. Certainly there are stylistic cor-

respondences with twelfth century paintings such as the

Vimalaklrti scroll in the Metropolitan Museum, or the

Yunnan scroll by Chang Shen-wen, where we see cherubicboys almost identical to those in this scroll (cf. Kokka, No.

895 [Oct., 1966] and No. 898 [Jan., 1967]). At the same

time, the dancing goddesses, light and graceful, with

swirling scarves which emphasize their movement, are

remarkably similar to those painted on the Boston wooden

shrine (No. 100). The fluffy clouds, floating like balls of

cotton, the blue-green mountains and the craggy trees,

although derived from Chinese landscapes, belong to the

modified "Tibetan" tradition, while the figure ofa devotee

carrying the conch is very similar to that in the painting of

Arhat Vajriputra (No. 3). The cloth may have been of

Nepali manufacture, and the tone of the red seems to be of

the exact intensity employed in Nepali paintings.

131

The closest Stylistic analogy, however, is offered by sonic

of the fourteenth century murals in the main chapel (sku

ahum) at Narthang(G.Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, 3 vols.,

Rome, 1949, Figs. 45, 48). Almost identical figures, wear-

ing the same dress, carrying banners and emblems, and

walking in procession towards a divinity against a similar,

mountainous landscape, occur there also, while the archi-

tectural stylewith pillars supporting the stepped, invert-

ed, pyramidal brackets is common to both. What is evenmore striking is that in both the mural and the scroll we

have an almost identical composition with three figures

watching from a window and engaged in conversation. It

seems clear that the mural and the scroll portray the same

theme, and almost certainly the artists of the Narthang

murals were responsible for this scroll. However, no matter

what its date, the scroll is a magnificent example of the

subtle interplay of form and fancy, which was one of the

principal traits of the Tibetan genius with the brush.

Shown only at Asia House Gallery.

3 . Arhat rDo rje moi bu (Vajriputra)

ca. 1300 A.D.

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 25% in., w. 21*4 in.Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York

A tanka of unusual beauty, this must be one of the fewknown examples of Tibetan art inspired by the Lohanpaintings of the Sung period, which, as we know fromliterature, were brought into Tibet and assiduously copied.

The large figure seated in the center, holding a staff withhis right hand and displaying the gesture ofexposition with

the left, is the Arhat rDo rje moi bu or Vajriputra. He wascalled Vajriputra (son of Vajri) because he was the son of

king Jatrayana and queen Vajri ofKausambl. He is usuallyaccompanied by a yaksa and a monk or a celestial being.The figure to his right probably represents a yaksa, whilethe divine character of the manuscript-bearing monk isemphasized by the halo. The kneeling devotee offers hima bowl containing jade mountains. Two other arhats areportrayed in the two upper corners and are probablyAbheda and Bhadra.

That the painting is by a great master is evident not onlyfrom the superb quality of the draftsmanship but also fromthe delicate use of colors in varying gradations, and the

rendering of details with incredible finesse. The same at-tention and skill have been devoted to the delineation ofthe expressive faces, whether of the arhat himself, the

smiling yaksa, the somber monk, or the ardent devoteewhose eyes seem to bulge out of their sockets. This is alsotrue of the miniature deer grazing in the foreground andthose resting in the background. The figure ofthe devoteehas an almost identical parallel both in the Virginia Mu-seum scroll (No. 2) and in a Sung painting ofthe Lohans byChou Chi-ch'ang (cf. K. Tomita, Portfolio ofChinese Paint-ings in the Museum [Han to Sung], Cambridge, Mass. 1933,pi. 77). There seems little doubt that this type of devotee,who is shown offering a bowl withjade objects and is oftenseen in Tibetan tankas, may be traced back to such Sung

originals, where the figure is supposed to represent an

Indian merchant. Curiously enough, also, the treatment of

the lotus below the feet of the arhat in the upper left corner

is almost identical to that in a manuscript illumination of

about the thirteenth century (No. 92).

Published: Tlie Art of India and Nepal; Heeramaneck Col-

lection, p. 114; M. W. Mcistcr, "The Arts of India andNepal," Oriental Art, n.s. xiv, 2 (1968), p. 109.

4. Usnlsavijaya

Fourteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 26 in., w. 21 y2 in.

Bodleian Library, Oxford

Usnlsavijaya is commonly represented in both the Nepaliand the Tibetan traditions within a chorten or a stupa. She

has three heads and eight arms, her most distinctive

emblem being the effigy of a Tathagata carried in her up-permost right hand. She is represented in the womb of achorten because she is an emanation of the Tathagata

Vairocana, who resides in the center ofa chorten, and who ishere portrayed as the central figure in the upper row ofdivinities. Usnlsavijaya is here shown in the company of

two Bodhisattvas, probably Avalokitesvara and Manjusri,although both bear lotuses and banners. The four demo-niacal figures guarding the chorten are Acala, Acala-Tak-

kiraja, Acala-Vajrapani, and Acala-Nilandanda. In sche-

matic rows along the margin are other divinities, whoconstitute her mandala. Thus, this tanka could also be

considered as a mandala of the rectangular variety.

Stylistically, the tanka is very closely related to con-

temporary Nepali painting, and was probably executed by

Nepali artists, in Tibet, for a Tibetan patron. This is ap-

parent from the inclusion of the four Sakya-pa monks whoare not known to have been part of the Nepali pantheon.The shape of the chorten itself is of the type seen more

commonly in Tibet, while the peonies in the garlandshanging from the umbrella, above the chorten, are more

characteristic of the Tibetan artist's repertoire than that of

his Nepali counterpart. (Compare these flowers with those

in the early painting of the Arhat rDo rje moi bu, No. 3.)The cloud forms, derived from Chinese or Central Asian

traditions, are distinctly Tibetan, and, as a matter of fact,

were incorporated into later Nepali paintings. The drafts-

manship, fluent and refined, is more calligraphic and

articulate than that seen in contemporary Nepali paintings,

and is more typical of the Tibetan tradition with its greater

affinity with Chinese techniques. The style seems to be a

continuation of the thirteenth century Iwang style (see

No. 1), although here it has become slightly more rigid and

hieratic.

Published: H. J. Stooke, "Some Tibetan T'ankas at Ox-ford," Ars Orientalis, IV (1961), pp. 215, 216.

5. The Life of K'a ce pan e'en (Sakyasri)

Fourteenth century

Gouache on cloth; h. 33 yt in., w. 26% in.Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York

132

The principal figure, seated in the yogic posture and dis-playing the gesture ofpreaching with his hands, represents

Sakyasri, "the pandita from Kashmir" as he is called by the

Tibetans. A remarkable personality of late Buddhism inTibet, he expounded the doctrine principally in the region

of gTsah. Around him are represented those scenes fromhis life which were spiritually important, portrayed as

they are described in a litany written by his chief Tibetan

disciple, the lotsava of K'ro p'u. (For detailed identification

of the scenes see Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 334-339.)

Stylistically, this tanka is closely related to die Nepali man-

ner of the fourteenth century, especially in the miniature

character of the framed compositions along the margins,

the trees, and the curious method of showing the cross-

section of a building. The shrine within which Sakyasri isseated is derived from eastern Indian miniatures. Elements

that are specifically Tibetan appear in the design of the

robes, the physiognomy ofthe monks and the lotsavas, andin the tradition of portraiture. A fourteenth century datefor this tanka is here suggested after a close comparison

with contemporary Nepali paintings. The earliest tanka ofthis type seems to be that in the Litang monastery, dated

1039 a.d. (cf. Liu I-se, Hsi-tsang Fo-chiao I-shu, Peking,

1957, pi. 17).

Published: Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, pp. 334 ff., pi. 6.

6. Arhat gSer beu (Kanakavatsa)

Fourteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 27% in., w. 2oy2 in.Anonymous Loan

The Arhat gSer beu, or Kanakavatsa, sits on a throne and

holds a rope with his hands. On the day when Kanakavatsawas born into a middle class family in Magadha in India,

a she-elephant gave birth to a golden-colored calf, and

hence the arhat came to be known as Kanakavatsa (goldencalf). He was sent to preach to the nagas, who offered hima jeweled string in return, which is why the arhat carries apiece of string or rope. He resides on the saffron hill inKashmir and preaches that form of the Dharma whichuplifts the heart and develops intuition. He is accompaniedhere by two lay disciples and a monk. At the top of the

tanka, on either side, are portrayed four divinities. The

expressive face of the arhat probably continues a Central

Asian type, but the robes he wears, the elaborate throne,

and the general background are strongly Chinese both in

their forms and colors. The predominant colors are red and

blue, the bright and glowing blue that one finds in early

Ming paintings. This is obviously another superb example

of the Gyadri (or Chinese) style ofpainting arhats, and was

probably inspired by a Sung or Yuan original. At the same

time, Nepali influences seem to be present in the four figures

of divinities in the four vignettes. This and the British Mu-seum painting ofPanthaka (No. 7) appear to be ofthe same

vintage, and the strong Chinese influence upon bothasdistinct from the eighteenth century Tashilunpo style (No.

22)may be attributed to the close liaison between theSakya-pas and the Yuan court in the thirteenth century.

7. Arhat Lam bstan (Panthaka)

Fourteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 25% in., w. 19 in,British Museum, London

The arhat is seated on leaves covering a rock ; his right handholds a manuscript and the left makes the gesture ofexposition (uyakhyanamudra). A devotee stands in front ofhim and offers a bowl containing a flowering jade tree.Panthaka was born into a brahmin family in Sravasti inIndia and was converted by the Buddha. He resides in thethirty-third paradise, and as he is responsible for the

propagation of the Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutranta, and

Abhidharma) his attribute is the manuscript.

The strong Chinese influence in this tanka is obvious,and it was either painted by a Chinese artist or modeled

closely on a Chinese original. The landscape with its blue-green mountains towering behind the arhat and the

convulsively twisted, dead tree-trunk with branches

spreading like tentacles, which contrasts strongly with the

softness of the smaller, living and leafy tree, has the vision-

ary quality of Chinese landscape, although it is difficult to

find exact parallels. The portrait of the arhat is remarkablyexpressive, a characteristic of other Tibetan paintings of

arhats. Especially intriguing are the deeply expressive eyes

with their darting yet penetrating gaze. Despite the

representation of the dead tree and the sharp, craggy edges

of the rocks, the artist has admirably captured the tranquil

atmosphere of a secluded mountain cavern, emphasized

further by the gently curled-up deer on the grassy knoll in

front of the arhat. Indeed, the entire painting reflects a

curious but pleasing combination of natural form and

conceptual formalism. This play of contrasts is also ap-

parent in the delineation of the devotee, whose expressive

face betrays, in a realistic manner, the pleasure ofconfront-

ing the arhat, while at the same time his diminutive size is

determined by his functional importance.

Published: P. H. Pott, "Tibet" in Griswold, et al., Tlie Art

ofBurma, Korea, Tibet, New York, 1964, p. 173.

Shown only at Asia House Gallery

8. Two Mahasiddhas and Two Sakya-pa Monks

ca. 1400 A.D.

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 28 in., w. 26 3/8 in.

Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York

The two Mahasiddhas in the upper row are probably

Virupa, of pink complexion and holding a skull-cup, and

Siddhapada (Seiiiihipa?) who holds a skull-cup and a drum,

and is of gray complexion. In the bottom row are two Sa-

kya teachers, one ofwhom is probably Kun dga' sfiiri poand the other dKon mchog rgyal po, who founded the

Sakya monastery in the year 1073 a.d. Both make the same

gesture with their hands and have the same attributes, the

bell and the thunderbolt, thereby declaring their affiliation

to either Vajrasattva or Vajradhara, which makes it dif-

ficult to identify the monks with any certainty. Mahasiddha

Virupa, who had ransomed the sun for a cup of ale, is the

133

patron Mahasiddha of the Sakya-pa school. Other deities

and monks, represented in little vignettes, are too damaged

to be recognizable.

The composition of this tanka, dominated by four major

figures and with smaller figures distributed symmetrically

over a background strewn with flowers, is totally Tibetan.

It is also a striking example of the use ofglowing colors in

contrasting effect. Not only is the use of the blue as the

background rather unusual, but so also is the deep and

warm quality of its tone. In fact, all the colors and shadesemployed by the artist red, green, yellow, pink, and grey

show a warmth and richness rarely seen in other tankas.

Not shown at Asia House Gallery

9. Mi ak'rugs pa (Aksobhya) in his Abhirati Heaven

Earlyfifteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 58^2 in., w. 49 in.

Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York

The Tathagata Aksobhya, wearing monastic robes, is seat-

ed in the yogic posture (vajraparyanka), his right hand mak-

ing the gesture of touching the earth (bhumisparsamudra)

and his left holding a thunderbolt (vajra). Two Bodhisattvasflank him as attendants, while the remaining part of the

tanka is filled with monks, saints, gods and goddesses,

Bodhisattvas, and celestial beings, listening to the expo-

sition of the Tathagata. The heaven is adorned with birds,jewels, and flowering trees. As Tucci {Tibetan Scrolls, pp.347-349), has rightly suggested, the artist probably drewhis inspiration from the brief but picturesque description

of the Abhirati as found in the Vimalakirtinirdesa, while

paintings of other heavens such as those of Amitabha,

which were more popular both in Central Asia and Tibet,must have served as his visual models.

The present tanka is one of the finest examples of theGuge school, where Central Asia, Kashmir, and Nepalcontributed simultaneously to form a lively new style underthe enlightened patronage of the kings of Guge. Central

Asian traits linger in the treatment of the drapery ofAksobhya, in the fluttering scarves, the lotus design, the

choir of monks, and the soft and muted colors. Nepalifeatures predominate in the forms ofthe trees, in the design

of the architecture, and in the delineation and proportionof die enshrined figures, while Kashmiri influence isperceptible in the forms and proportions of the twoBodhisattvas flanking the Tathagata as well as in an oc-casional attempt at naturalistic modeling. Nevertheless,

the Guge style is distinctive and already bears the stamp ofthe Tibetan genius. The artist has not confined himself tobreaking up his composition into little panels, as theNepali artists did, but rather continues the mural traditionof more sprawling compositions. The other characteristicfeatures of the Guge style, as reflected in this painting, arethe slim and elongated figures with their distinctivelyTibetan physiognomy (despite the strong and variedextraneous influences). The close similarity of this tankawith the murals ofTabo leads us to suggest that it probablybelongs to the Tabo school (cf. G. Tucci, Indo-Tibetica,vol. HI, Rome, 1935, pi. XLvm).

10. Mandala of Vajranairatm.i

1 47g a.d.

Gouache on cotton; H. 59^'u in., w. 38^0 in.

Museum ofFine Arts, Boston; SpecialJapanese Fund

Altogether, forty-two divinities are represented in this

rectangular mandala. Each is sitting or standing on a sepa-

rate lotus which is in full bloom, all the lotuses being inter-

connected. Each of the three principal goddesses is four-

armed and each dances, with one leg raised, on a corpse.

The goddess drawing the bow and shooting an arrow isKurukuOa, while the two others with the same attributes

but ofdifferent colors are two distinct forms ofVajranairat-

ma. In fact, all three goddesses are manifestations of

Nairatma (cf. R. Vira and L. Chandra, A New Tibeto-Mongol Pantheon, pt. 12, p. 25). Nairatma or Nairatmya

(meaning "no soul") is the same as void (sunyata) or gnosis

(prajna), and in the Hevajra-tantra, she is identified with

Hevajra himself (cf. The Hevajra-tantra, pt. I, pp. 30, 31).

In the middle of the top row is seated Vajrasattva, and inthe middle of the bottom row Mahakala. The remainingthirty-seven are all female and include the fifteen yoginis

who form the immediate troupe of Nairatma : the fouranimal-faced guardian goddesses, the four goddesses of

the dance, the four musical instrument goddesses, the four

dakinis, and others.

The importance of the painting lies in its Chinese in-scription which gives a date corresponding to 1479 a.d. It

was possibly commissioned by a Chinese patron in a

monastery in central Tibet. Although in general the tanka

reveals lingering influences ofthe Nepali manner, especial-

ly in the color tones, it is clear that it was painted in Tibet

because of the style of ornaments, the form of the lotuses,

and the shape of the corpses below the three principal im-

ages. Thus, this is the earliest known dated painting fromTibet, and is of great importance to the history of Tibetan

painting.

11. Thousand-armed Kuan-yin

Fifteenth century (China)

Tempera on cloth; H. 54716 in., w. 3i 1/2 in.Museum ofFine Arts, Boston; SpecialJapanese Fund

Although the artist has not drawn all of his many arms, itseems clear that this is a modified form of Avalokitesvara

with the thousand arms. An interesting deviation here fromstereotyped representations is the manner in which two ofhis arms hold the effigy ofthe parental Tathagata Amitabha

above his head. Three other TathagatasAksobhya,Vairocana, and Amoghasiddhi are portrayed in theclouds, while two celestial beings (uidyddhara) adore the

Bodhisattva. The two guardians on either side ofthe throneare probably the two Lokapalas, Virudhaka with the sword,and Virupaksa, although the latter is represented in an un-

usual fashion with his arms displaying the gesture of

adoration. At each side of the Bodhisattva are four figures,

all identical, who are blessing the kneeling devotee. Pos-sibly they represent eight aspects of the Bodhisattva allay-

ing the eight fears.

134

This Chinese painting has been included for several

reasons. There are many similarities in the details of thispainting and ofthat portraying the mandala ofVajranairat-

ma (No. 10). The seated figure of Avalokitesvara, hererepeatedly shown in the marginal vignettes, is almostidentical, in type though not in posture, to the corpse be-

low the representations ofNairatma in No. 10. The lotusesin both paintings are very similar, as are the ornaments and

the designs of the crowns. Clothes such as those worn hereby Avalokitesvara, and the cloud designs, appear inTibetan paintings, although the tones of the colors are

quite different. Thus, there seems little doubt of the close

relationship of Tibetan tankas and Chinese Buddhist

paintings, and other Chinese paintings such as this example

could well have been influenced by Tibetan tankas.

12. Vajrabhairava

ca. 1500 A.D.

Gouache on cotton; H. 39% in., w. 32% in.Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York

Vajrabhairava is one of the many manifestations ofgShin-rje-gsed or Yamantaka (the exterminator of Death, orYama). Yama was primarily the Hindu god ofDeath (seeNo. 72), and the Buddhists, to give expression to theirsectarian feelings, created Yamantaka in order to show hissuperiority. As Vajrabhairava, Yamantaka has nine heads,thirty-four arms and sixteen legs. Of his nine heads theprincipal one is that of the bull or buffalo. The one at thesummit is appropriately that of Mafijusri, as Yamantaka isa ferocious emanation of this Bodhisattva. Under his feethe tramples not only birds and beasts but also human beingsand several of the gods, among whom may be recognizedBrahma and Siva. A sea offlames serves as his backgroundand along the edges at either side are represented the eight

great cemeteries. At the top are portrayed monks andSiddhas, while along the bottom other terrifying divinities

appear.

The close stylistic relationship of this work with theNepali manner of about the fifteenth-sixteenth century isevident on comparison with the 1543 a.d. painting ofMahakala (Fig. 15). It has been suggested that this style of

painting was especially favored in the Nor monastery inwestern Tibet, which was founded towards the end of the

fifteenth century and where Nepali artists were imported

to paint the murals. Whatever its origin, it is clear that the

painter ofthis tanka was a consummate master ofthe brush.

Every detail of ornamentation is rendered with great

delicacy and care, while the use of greys on the body and

the arms creates a remarkable, illusionistic effect.

13. The Life of Mila-repa

Early sixteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 5154 in., w. 41% in.Anonymous Loan

The most celebrated poet-saint ofTibet, Mila-repa (1040-1123 a.d.) was one of the chief disciples of Marpa, the

founder of the Kargyiipa sect. Marpa is primarily remem-bered as the translator-teacher, but Mila-repa, with his

gnostic belief, appealed more to the sentiments of thepeople than to their minds and, of the two, was probablymore directly responsible for the rise and popularity of thesect. Fortunately, there is a detailed biography of the poet-saint, known as the Jetsiin-Kahbum (cf. W. Y. Evans-Wentz, Tibet's Great Yogi Milarepa, Oxford, 1928), whichnot only is an admirable social commentary of the period,but reveals that by the eleventh century the Tibetans werealready distinguished for their exegetical theories andphilosophical speculations. In this sixteenth century paint-

ing the poet-saint is represented in his characteristic

iconographyseated and wearing a single piece of clothand with his hand raised to his right ear (see No. 88). He issurrounded by several monks and lay disciples. At the levelofhis head we see hordes of fiendish creatures convergingtowards him, reminiscent of Mara's attack upon theBuddha. Above the demons are rows of Tathagatas,Siddhas, and monks of the Kargyii-pa sect. All around, inseparate rectangular frames, the principal events of his life

are represented in great detail.

Within each frame several incidents are portrayed to-gether, but they are related only spatially. This manner ofnarration along the margin, which derived ultimatelyfrom the Nepali tradition, is a continuation of that seen inthe tanka depicting the life of Sakyasri (No. 5). However,there is one important difference; while the style in the

earlier painting is chiefly figural, as in Nepali narrative

paintings, here landscape plays a more important role. Theinspiration, no doubt, came from China, but the mannerof rendering the landscape is distinctly Tibetan. We havealready met with two types of narrative painting : thatwhere the scenes are separated by frames and the style ispurely figural (No. 5), and that where the figures still

predominate but the narration is spread over the entire

tanka, more in the tradition of murals, derived probablyfrom Central Asia (No. 9). We know definitely that themore familiarand what may be regarded as the moretypicalTibetan manner of narration (where, within asprawling composition the various incidents are inter-

woven, so to say, with rivers and hills, which also serve the

purpose of frames or separators) was already developed by

the end of the sixteenth century (see No. 15). But, in this

tanka ofMila-repa the older form persists, although, with-

in each frame, landscapes, figures, and events are inter-

woven. Thus, it would seem that this tanka was done in a

period oftransition, probably the early part ofthe sixteenth

century.

14. Mandala of bDe-mchog (Samvara)

Sixteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. I6V4 in., w. 13% in.

Alice and Nasli Heeramaneck Collection, New York

bDe-mchog or Samvara is the principal divinity of a

tantric or esoteric school which draws its authority from

the Cakra-sanwaratantra. He is an immensely popular andpowerful god ofEsoteric Buddhism and his cult is exclusive

and secret. In Tibet he has the rank ofa Yi dam or a Tutelary

divinity. The Tibetan name of the god implies "Supreme

Bliss," which is what the (antra offers as the reward for his

135

worship. The Sankskrit word samuara means "bond" or

"union," and the two figures in yab-yum in the center of

the mandala symbolize the union between macrocosm and

microcosm. And since this unity is "conceived as a consum-ing by cosmic fire," the mandala is surrounded by a circle

of flames.

As bDc-mchog is the wrathful emanation of the Tatha-

gata Aksobhya, he is usually portrayed as a wrathful divini-

ty (as we see here in the center of the mandala), and this isalso his most common form. His four heads are blue, white,green, and red, and his complexion is blue, the color of

Aksobhya. He stands in an aggressively militant postureand firmly clasps his Prajiia or partner, Vajravarahi, whose

red complexion symbolizes passion. His principal hands

carry the thunderbolt and the bell in the gesture known asthe vajrahumkaramudra. Two of his arms stretch the flayedelephant hide, while die others display attributes peculiar

to a wrathful tantric deity, such as the skull-cup, the

chopper, the snare, etc. Vajravarahi holds in her two hands

the chopper and the skull-cup and is completely naked.

The four goddesses in the circle surrounding the pair areDakini, Lama, Khandoroha, and Rupinl. Then followthree more circles of divinities : the first circle representscittacakra (circle of the mind), the second vakcakra (circle of

speech), and the third kayacakra (circle of form). Thecitadel of the mandala is guarded by the eight guardiandeities, the animal-headed goddesses Kakasya, Ulukasya,

Svanasya, and Sukarasya at the cardinal points, and in the

corners, Yamadahi, Yamaduti, Yamadamstri, and Yama-mathani, each double-colored. Finally, the outer circle of

the mandala represents the eight cemeteries, each presided

over by a Dikpala. Outside the mandala pioper areVajradhara and Vajrasattva in the top left corner, twelve

Mahasiddhas, seven monks of the Sakya-pa school, andDolma.

The painting was probably executed in the Nor monas-tery in western Tibet, the style being distinguished by thelavish scroll design used as the background. In such paint-

ings the artist had little freedom in the choice of colors, forthe colors of the mandala are rigidly prescribed in thetexts. However, like other examples of this style of paint-ing (No. 12 and Fig. 15), this tanka is a beautiful exampleof excellent draftsmanship and meticulous rendering ofdetails.

15. Jataka Tales

ca. 1600 A.D.

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 28 in., w. 19 in.British Museum, London

This tanka is important not only for its excellent quality

but also because it bears the seal of the emperor Wan Li(1573-1612 a.d.), which makes it one of the few firmlydated tankas yet known. The principal Jatakas depictedhere are : the HamsaJataka, when the Bodhisattva was bornas a duck; the Kapi Jataka, when the Bodhisattva, born asa monkey, saved a man by carrying him on his back up asteep precipice; the Savara Jataka, when the Bodhisattvawas born as a deer ; the MahakapiJataka, when he was againborn as a leader of monkeys and sacrificed himself to save

his subjects (see No. 30); and the HastiJataka, when, bornas an elephant, he sacrificed himself to feed a hundred

hungry men.

No doubt this tanka was the result of an imperial com-mission by Wan Li, and probably formed one of a set. Itis evident that it was painted by some of the best available

artists ofdie time and it may be considered as an example ofwhat we know to be the typically Tibetan manner of nar-rative painting. Thus, it seems reasonable to assume that

the style had already developed and matured by the end of

the sixteenth century. The landscape is totally Tibetan.Chinese elements, still strong in the earlier part of the cen-

tury (see No. 13), have now been completely absorbed, anda style has emerged that has almost nothing to do with the

concept of landscape in Chinese painting, although the

buildings still simulate Chinese structures. Here the land-

scape is more formal and visionary, more sparse andreflective ofthe natural environment in Tibet. The typical-ly Tibetan manner ofvisual narration is evident in die total

integration of figures, landscape, clouds, and architecture

into one sprawling composition. The individual tales arenot separated from one another by frames, as is the case in

the tanka depicting the life of Mila-Repa (No. 13), but bynatural devices, which thus have a dual function. During

the next three centuries, as we may see, the Tibetan artistsdeveloped this basic manner in a number of different ways.

Shown only at Asia House Gallery.

16. Mahasiddhas

Early seventeenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27% '". w. i8!/8 in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi

This is tanka No. 9 of a set of eleven tankas depicting theeighty-four Mahasiddhas. The nine Mahasiddhas repre-sented here are, from top left and across, Bikkana, Tillipa,

Kamaripa, Sarvaripa, Manibhadra, Kaiikhala, Mekhala,

and Kili-Kili. As their names imply, Tillipa and Kamaripa

were by profession an oil-merchant and a metalsmith.

Kaiikhala, Mekhala and Manibhadra were female, the

first two being sisters who did not hesitate to chop off theirown heads to repay the debt to their guru Kanhapa.Kanhapa was also a Mahasiddha, and he is shown seated on

a rock to the right of the two sisters.

So far as we know this is the only set of tankas renderedin this unusual style. All that is known of its history is thatit belonged to a monastery ofthe Kargyii-pa sect in eastern

Tibet. According to the Tibetans the paintings are done in

the Karmai-ga-dri style (cf. R. Bartholomew, "Tibetan

Thankgas," The Times of India Annual, 1967, and Tibet

House Museum: Catalogue Inaugural Exhibition, New Delhi,1965, pp. 21 ff.), but exactly what is implied by this is not

entirely clear. The originality of the creator of this set isevident from the fact that these tankas do not seem to be

related stylistically, except in minor details, to any other

known Tibetan paintings.What immediately strikes the beholder is the complete

rejection of horror vacuii and the presentation ofspace in its

unending vastness. It seems as if the artist had intended to

136

convey the idea that before the divine presenceindicatedby the figure ofVajradhara within the shrine at the summit

even the great Siddhas are like little particles floating inthe cosmic space. The groups of figures, arranged inminiature compositions, accentuate this conception of

vastness. Yet there is a remarkable sense of realism in the

grouping and orientation of the figures around the central

figure of the Mahasiddha, as for example the mother and

child playing in front of Kamaripa, or the devotee ap-

proaching the two sisters with a retinue ofservants carrying

offerings, or the astonished relatives ofManibhadra watch-

ing her fly through the clouds. Nature here is not over-

whelming as in some of the other tankas (Nos. 20, 22) and

the landscape is sparse but gentle, and yet revelatory ofthe

artist's acute power of observation. At the same time the

conceptual and formal character ofthe art is retained in the

rendering of the figures according to their functional

significance, the important figures being shown muchlarger than the others.

On the whole the style is remarkably delicate andharmonious, especially in the application of colors, the soft

yellows, greens, and browns merging with each other in

subtle gradations. According to some Tibetan authorities,

these paintings were executed as early as the fifteenth cen-

tury, but comparing them with the Guimet Jataka paint-

ing (No. 23) or the British Museum dated example (No. 15)we are inclined to attribute them tentatively to the earlyseventeenth century.

Published : Chibetto-no-Hihoten (Exhibition ofSecret Treas-

ures from Tibet), Tokyo, 1967, No. 12.

17. Mahasiddhas

Early seventeenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27% '", w. 18% in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi

This is tanka No. 2 of the set of eleven tankas portraying

the eighty-four Mahasiddhas. The eight Mahasiddhas

represented here are, from top left and across, Savaripa,

Sarahapa, Kankaripa, MInapa, Goraksa, Tsorangipa,

Vinapa, Santipa. At the summit is the unusual representa-

tion of the four-armed Amitabha in yab-yum with his

Prajiia. For a discussion of the style see No. 16.

Not shown at Asia House Gallery

18. Sakya Pandita

Seventeenth century

Tanka: gouache on linen; h. 20% in., w. 16% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden

In the center of the tanka is seated Sakya Pandita on a lotus

throne. His hands make the gesture ofturning the wheel ofthe Law (dharmacakrapravartanamudra) as they hold thestalks of two flowers. The lotus flower on his right up-

holds a flaming sword, and on his left a manuscript rests on

the nagakeasara flower. It may be noted that these at-tributes, as well as the gesture, are those of ManjusYi, and

are also given to other teachers and preceptors such as

Tsongkha-pa. On either side are portrayed successiveteachers of the Sakya-pa sects, Tathagatas and Bodhisatt-

vas. At the top, in the center, is rDo-rje c'an (Vajradhara)from whom the Sakyas claim descent, with Mahasiddhasand monks on either side. In the center at the bottomare Kurukulla accompanied by Vajrasattva, Vighnantaka,Mahakala, Acala-Candamaharosana and Acala-Vajrapani,

all included as guardian deities.

Sakya Pandita (1182-1251) was one of the most giftedteachers of the Sakya school. Not only was he responsiblefor the dominance of the school in his time, but it is due

to his efforts that the Mongols were converted to Lamaism.He was a prolific and versatile writer, equally adept at com-menting on and synthesizing Mahayana philosophy, Indi-an logic, and grammar. (Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 100 ff).

In this beautifully designed tanka, the composition is

dominated by symmetry, which is an essential require-

ment for hieratic subjects. The colors are soft, and point tothe affiliation ofthis school with fifteenth-sixteenth century

Nepali paintings. Details are rendered with incredible care

and refinement, especially in the scroll background, the

pillars supporting the arch, and the throne, which follows

Chinese models.

19. Atisa

ca. 1 700 A.D.

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 26?'8 in., w. 17% in.

Tibet House Collection, New Delhi

Atisa Dipankara, known also as Dipankara Srijnana, aBengali, was probably the greatest historical name inIndian Buddhism after Nagarjuna. He had just been ap-pointed as the chiefabbott ofthe Vikramasila monastery in

Bihar by the emperor Nayapala, about 1040 A.D., when hewas invited to western Tibet by King Changchup-6. Hewas already over sixty, but, displaying the fervor that was

usual with great Buddhist missionaries, he accepted the

invitation and arrived in Tibet in 1042. The other luminary

in western Tibet at the time was Rinchen-sangpo who wasalready active in reviving Buddhism after a long period of

neglect. It was due mainly to these two personalities that,

from then on, Buddhism became the established religion in

the country. Atisa traveled to central Tibet and died in the

year 1054 in the monastery of Netang near Lhasa. The

Tibetan king could not have found a more qualified

apostle of the faith, for Atisa was not only a great dialecti-

cian but was also proficient in tannic liturgy, which had a

special appeal for the Tibetans.

Since Buddhism, as a religious force, was already waning

in India, we do not know whether Atisa would have been

apotheosized as readily in India as he was in Tibet. He is

always portrayed as seated, wearing a cap and the three

garments (tricivara) of the Indian monk, and making the

gesture of turning the wheel of the Law. Beside him are a

bell and a vase. It is curious, however, that his physiognomy

is always that ofa Tibetan although it is known that he was

Indian; while Thang Thong Gyalpo (No. 86), who was a

Tibetan by birth, is represented as an Indian yogin. Atisa

is surrounded here by his tutelary and protective deities, his

Indian preceptor, and his eminent Indian disciples. This

137

tanka is of the style that had developed in central Tibet by

the early eighteenth century. Bright, linear, and somewhat

hieratic, it is nevertheless soft and tranquil in its total

expression.

20. The Life of the Buddha

Early eighteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 3 s in., w. 22 in.

Muse'e Guimet, Paris

The life ofthe historical Buddha, Sakyamuni, was naturally

one of the favorite subjects among the Tibetan artists.

Usually it required a number oftankas to portray his entire

life story, and this painting is one of a set of eleven. As in

the tankas representing Jatakas or other narrative subjects,

the incidents here are distributed around a central figure of

Sikyamuni (see Nos. 15, 23). This manner of composition

seems to have become typical in Tibet as early as the end

of the sixteenth century. The tanka illustrates some of the

principal incidents of his life, between his enlightenment

and his mahapariniruana, as recorded in the Dulva, the

Tibetan version of the Vinaya (the Book of Discipline).In the compositions, which are quite clearly separated

from one another, the Buddha is shown seated in a woodedgrove, or beside a pool, or sometimes against an archi-

tectural background (thus differentiating the locales), and

is depicted as he expounds the Law to an audience consist-ing of Prasenajit, the King of Kosala, and monks andascetics. In the left center he is seen performing a number ofmiracles at Sravasti to convert the heretics, and the

"psychedelic" manner in which the artist shows him as dis-appearing is quite interesting. Above is shown the greatmiracle of Sravasti, when he multiplied himself, while themiracle of fire is shown to the right. The scene at the bot-tom center probably represents his conversion of his half-brother Nanda, through giving him a glimpse of hell.

21. Episodes from the life of Gesar of Ling

Early eighteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 32% in., w. 23% in.Muse'e Guimet, Paris

The saga of Gesar of Ling is perhaps the major epic ofthe Tibetans. Although redacted over the centuries andimpregnated with religious sentiments, this heroic talemay be classified as literature of a secular (or "profane")character. Thus, this painting portraying some episodesfrom the life of Gesar, despite the presence of divinitiesalong the top, may be regarded as essentially an example ofsecular painting, although it is executed in the same style asare religious subjects ofa narrative character. As is custom-ary in tankas depicting the life of the Buddha (No. 20) orofJatakas (No. 23), the episodes unfold around a centralfigurein this case a hybrid divinity (his lower portionbeing serpentine) riding a green dragon. He holds a snakein his left hand and a manuscript in his right. He is Klu-sprul thod-dkar, the celestial brother of Gesar, and ispresent here as his tutelary divinity. Along the top areKun-tu bzan-po (Samantabhadra) in yab-yum, dGa'-rab

rdo-rje, one of the divinities of the Bardo, and rDo-rjc

scms-dpa or Vajrasattva.

The tanka illustrates a well-known episode of the epic:the battle of Hor. The principal incidents arc: the chasing

of the savage horses at Hor; the elaborate encampment of

Ling; the abduction of Brug-mo; the offensive of Ling;

the capture of a Bonpo who is tied to a cross and piercedwith arrows; and scenes of batde (for a detailed identifica-

tion see R. A. Stein, "Peintures Tibctaines de la vie de

Gesar," Ars Asiatique, V, 4 [1958], pp. 243 ff.).

Formal mountain ranges, whose sloping edges appear to

be sewn, serve both as indications of the terrain and

demarcations of the scenes. The architecture revealscontemporary Tibetan forms, but the warriors are all

dressed in the Mongolian fashion. Both in the delineation

of the mountainous landscape and of the riders on their

horses, more than mere familiarity with Persian miniatures

is evident, but all borrowed elements are completely

integrated into the Tibetan style. Essentially linear, the

style is free and spontaneous, even gay and humorous,

and nothing really disturbs our vision except the tumul-

tuous rhythm of the battle scenes.

22. Rab abyor

First halfofeighteenth century

Tanka: wood block print, with color, on cloth;u. 27'A, in.,

w. 16% in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi

According to the inscription along the bottom of this

tanka, Rab abyor was an arhat who was converted by theBuddha. At the command of the "four great kings of thepoints," Rab abyor then converted the nagas of the oceanthrough miracles. The four great kings are here portrayedin the lower section on the left, while above, Rab abyorcarries out their command. The feat reminds us of the

Arhat Kanakavatsa (No. 6), who is also said to have con-verted the nagas. At the top right corner of the tanka wesee Rab abyor, portrayed as a little boy, being introducedto the Buddha by his mother. In the left corner he is shownas a fully grown monk.

This tanka is actually a painted wood block print. Afterthe eighteenth century, because of the growing demandfor tankas, designs were often cut into wood blocks, print-ed in large numbers on cloth, and then handpainted. This

particular example belongs to a set which is firmly datable

to the eighteenth century (Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 410-

413). As Tucci has suggested, works such as these reveal a

renewed stylistic liaison with China, and must be distin-

guished from those of the earlier style (Nos. 3, 6, 7). Al-

though derived from the Chinese tradition, their Tibetan

character is evident in the manner in which the figures, the

land, and the clouds have been integrated into an organic

and harmonious design. The style of landscape in thesewoodcuts is not as subtle and lyrical as that of Chinese

landscape paintings, but is more visionary and luxuriant.

These qualities are apparent here in the treatment of the

ocean, with its fantastic waves and their curling, dancing

crests, emphasized by white highlights. There seems little

138

doubt that some of the best available artists of the periodmust have been commissioned to make these woodcuts.This Tashilunpo style is distinguished by the sumptuoususe of colors employed with a gay abandon, which iscontinued in later Tibetan paintings.

23. Jataka Tales

ca. 1750 A.D.

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 32% in., w. 20% in.Muse"e Guimet, Paris

The two Jataka tales represented here, one in the upperand one in the lower half of the painting, are numbers

eighteen and nineteen of the Tanjur. The Ayo Jataka, oreighteenth tale, depicted below, relates that the Bodhisatt-

va, by birth a pious king, renounced his kingdom and thenretired to a distant country, where his fame spread far andwide as people flocked to hear him preach. A friend of hisfather tried to persuade him to return to his kingdom butthe steadfast Bodhisattva replied, "What good are pos-sessions and attachment? They only confine the self." Inthe upper half is depicted the nineteenth tale. As a hermit,the Bodhisattva preaches the virtues of solitude to the

members of his family and household. Likewise renounc-ing the world, they follow him into the forest, where theBodhisattva gives each a hut and asks them to subsist onlyon lotus-stalks. Desirous of testing the Bodhisattva's

patience, Indra casts a spell over his companions, and each

morning steals the Bodhisattva's food. The Bodhisattva,however, does not complain and continues to preach.

With each day he becomes more emaciated but his com-panions swear, by raising their hands (as we see in the scenein the upper left corner), that they did not steal the food.

Indra is impressed and leaves the Bodhisattva in peace.

This painting is rendered in a style altogether different

from the more usual narrative scrolls (No. 20), where thelandscape is more overpowering and the compositionrelatively dense and filled with figures. Instead, as we seehere, line is used with telling effect, and the landscape tends

to recede into the background. Moreover, there is no over-

crowding with figures and the total composition is muchmore free and light in its visual effect. Each incident is a unit

or a composition in miniature, almost complete in itself.

There seems litde doubt, in fact, that this style of painting

was considerably influenced by the Rajput miniatures of

the Panjab Hills. The composition of the scene within thepavilion, where the king, lying in bed, holds the hand of

his son, the Bodhisattva, could easily have been taken from

a Basohli Rasamanjari painting ofthe late seventeenth cen-

tury. The design of the pavilion with its frilled canopy andspherical roof, the rendering of the trees with the leaves

catching the shimmering light, the rolling, undulating hills

are all typical features of Pahari miniatures.

But other influences are present too. Buildings like those

along the bottom are seen in Nepali paintings depicting

Buddhist and Vaisnava legends from ca. 1700, while the

two crouching figures along the margin (immediatelyabove and to the right) who are engaged in domestic tasksbefore stone slabs, are Nepali types complete with their

characteristic caps. In general, however, the figural typesare Tibetan, as arc the clouds, while the tent within whichthe Bodhisattva sits conversing with his late father's friend(along the left center margin) occurs much earlier in theBritish Museum Jataka painting (No. 15). Thus, onceagain, we find the Tibetan artist open to extraneousinfluences, but quick to absorb them and to create a styleof his own soft, lyrical and remarkably expressive in itsnaturalism.

24. Bhaisajyaguru

ca. 1750 A.D.

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 30V2 "*> w. 25 in.

Bodleian Library, Oxford

The central figure here is Bhaisajyaguru, one of the six-teen Buddhas ofHealing. He is seated in the yogic posture,on a lotus surmounting a throne under the Bodhi tree. Hisright hand displays the gesture of calling the earth to wit-

ness (bhiimisparsamudra), while the left holds the mendi-

cant's bowl. Once again we see how an iconic type may beused for different figures, whether to portray the Tathagata

Aksobhya (No. 9), the historical Buddha (No. 57), or, here,Bhaisajyaguru. His complexion is orange-colored and the

monastic robes are red. He is flanked by two Bodhisattvas.That on his right carrying the jewel on the flower is

probably Ratnapani, while the other, on his left, is

Avalokitesvara. Immediately above them are two arhats,

Lam bstan or Panthaka carrying a manuscript, and Mip'yed or Abheda holding the chorten. Above the arhats aretwo monks in the two corners, probably Sariputra andMahamaudgalyayana, and two representations of aTathagata making the gesture of turning the wheel of the

Law. Both may represent Vairocana. hi the lower sectionof the tanka, immediately below the Bodhisattva Ratna-

pani, is mGon po, or Mahakala, as the protector ofthe tent,and below him is a goddess, perhaps a special form ofLha

mo. On the other side, the eight-armed white goddess isUsnisavijaya, and the figure below is that of a Tibetan

priest performing rituals. A beautifully designed tankaboth in its linear quality and in its well-balanced and sym-

metrical composition, it can be more or less firmly dated

because of its stylistic closeness to the Fogg tanka of 1765

A.D. (No. 25).

Published: Stooke, "Some Tibetan T'ankas," pi. 2, pp.213,214.

25. Acala Candamaharosana

Dated 1765 A.D.

Tanka: embroidered silk; H. 59 1 2 in., w. 28' < in.

(including borders)

Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge,

Mass.; Gift ofMr. and Mrs. Earl Morse.

The terrifying god in the center, standing in a militant

posture (pratyaiidha) and holding the sword and the noose,

is Acala Candamaharosana, a wrathful deity belonging to

the family of the Tathagata Aksobhya. His worship was

139

performed in great secrecy and none but the initiated was

allowed to behold his image. The two divinities above him

are probably Acala Takkiraja, with two hands, and Acala

Niladanda (or Mahakala?), with six hands. The dancing,

lion-headed goddess below is Simhavaktr.i, while the other

is perhaps Acala Mahabala. Apart from being one of the

finest examples of an embroidered tanka, it is of great

historical importance as it is dated. The needlework is so

refined that it is clear that the emperor Ch'ien Lung must

have employed the best available craftsmen. The style is

so closely related to Tibetan tankas that, if the artists were

Chinese, they must have copied a Tibetan model. Especial-

ly noteworthy are the soft and muted colors of the gentle

and tranquil landscape, which contrast strongly with the

representations of the wrathful deities.

26. mGon po (Mahakala)Eighteenth century

Tanka: gouache on linen; h. 3 5 Me in., w. 24% in.Rijksiuusemn voor Volkenkunde, Leiden

In this manifestation the god is known as "the four-handedwise mGon po, according to the style of 'Tshal" (' Tshallugs kyi ye shes mgon po phyags bzhi pa). Of a dark bluecomplexion, his ferocious face has three eyes. He isadorned with a crown of five skulls, jewels, and snakeornaments and wears the skin of a tiger as his loin cloth.

His retinue includes the raven-headed Las kyi mGon po,Legs Idan nag po, Sha za nag po or "the black flesh-eater,"the goddess Remati, a form of Lha mo, and eight otheranimal-headed Dakinls dancing below him in a sea offlames. With his four hands mGon po carries the flamingsword, the trident, the skull-cup, and a cocoanut. In the

clouds above can be seen Vajrasattva in yab-yum (unto

mystico) with his Prajfia, several Mahasiddhas and teachers,

such as Sarahapa, Nagarjuna, et. al., two monks, and theGom-kar form ofMahakala, when he appears as white andsix-armed. At the bottom center is mTa-grin or Hayagriva.Against a blue-black ground, lurking flames of yellow,

orange, blue, and brown create fantastic back-drops for theterrifying divinities who seem to be involved in a dansemacabre. One can hardly imagine the impression suchtankas would have made upon the mind of the credulousbeholder as, on entering a dark room, he saw this strangeworld of figures dancing in the flickering light of lamps.The terrifying god and his companions would appear tocome alive.

Published: Pott, in Burma, Korea, Tibet, p. 219; F. Sierksma,

Tibet's Terrifying Deities, Tokyo and Rutland, Vt., 1966,pi. 5, p. 269.

27. bSe'i khrab can

Eighteenth century

Tanka: color on silk; H. 27%, in., w. 20V2 in.Musee Guitnet, Paris

bSe'i khrab can is a divinity peculiar to the Tibetanpantheon, and like Lha mo or Pehar, is a Tibetan creation.He is classified as a protective god and is the wrathful

emanation of Tshangs pa dkar po or Brahma, the creative

force in the Hindu Trinity. Apart from a conceptual basis,however, Tshangs pa, in his multifarious forms in Tibetan

iconography, has little in common with Brahma. BothTshangs pa and his wrathful emanation, bSe'i khrab can,

are common to the Buddhists and the Bonpos, and pos-sibly represent original Bon deities who were incorporatedinto the Lamaist pantheon, and given an Indian pedigree by

equating them with Brahma.

In a Tibetan text, translated by Nebsky-Wojkowitz,

bSe khrab is described as follows: "The great yaksa, thegreat wild btsan bSe'i khrab can is of a red color; he has one

face, two hands, and three rolling eyes. His forehead andeyebrows are angrily contorted. Baring his fangs, he gnaws

the lower lip with his upper teeth, which are sharp like the

ice of a glacier. With his right hand he brandishes a bigclub, dispersing with it the war-hordes of evil spirits. His

left hand, which rests in front of his breast in the tarjani-

mudra, holds a snare with which he ties the heads and bodies

of the enemies of religion. In the crook of his left arm restsa lance with a fluttering red banner on top. On his head hewears a helmet adorned with flags and his body is covered

with a flowing garment of red silk, on top of which he

wears a cuirass. From his garland are suspended a quivermade of tiger-skin, a bow-case made from the skin of aleopard, and a sword. He rides an excellent horse ofa light-brown color, with a saddle, bridle, and head ornaments ofsilk. On his side he leads a vermilion-coloured cock."(R. Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Oracles and Demons of Tibet, TheHague, 1956, pp. 149, 150).

The above description is illuminating not only becauseit demonstrates in what detail the forms of gods were

described in the text (revealing the imaginative powers of

its author), but also because it shows how closely the artistsfollowed the iconographic injunctions. The text furtherindicates, especially by its emphasis on red and its various

shades, and on the terrifying aspect of the god, why theartist used the essentially linear technique with red and gold

as his principal colors. The entire design is carried out withgreat delicacy and refinement, and the fluid and agitated

line imbues the figures with buoyancy and movement.

Tankas such as this, employing principally red and gold

with telling effect, are known technically as gScr t'an (cf.Tucci, Tibetan Scrolls, pp. 579-581).

The other members of bSe khrab's retinue here includ-ed are: Klu btsan, "the body-emanation" at the bottom

left; LHa rigs, "emanation of mind" at the bottom center;

and bTsan rgod "emanation of speech" at the bottom

right. The figure astride the cock is gTer gyi bsrung ma,"emanation of excellence," and the one riding a horse

above bSe khrab's left shoulder is bTsan gyi dmag dpon,the "karma-emanation." At the summit are represented

the Tathagata Amitabha and three monks. (For further

discussion of the iconography of this painting cf. Nebesky-

Wojkowitz, Oracles, pp. 149 ff".)

28. Life of the Buddha

Late eighteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 21% in., w. 15% in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi

140

This is the second of a set of seven tankas representing the

principal events of the life of the Buddha (see also No. 20).Clearly the set was painted for a monk or monastery oftheGeluk-pa sect, as images ofmany of its prominent mastersare included in it. As is usual with such tankas, the incidents

are depicted around a central figure ofSakyamuni display-

ing the bhumisparsamudra in his right hand and holding a

bowl with the left. At the top is the effigy ofAmitayus, the

Tathagata of endless life. On the right the three successivescenes from top to bottom represent : i) Siddhartha preach-

ing to the gods in heaven before bis birth; ii) Siddhartha

discussing with other divinities the auspicious time and

place of his birth as well as the suitable caste; iii) the

episode in which he crowns Maitreya, and requests him tosubstitute for him while he is away. On the left the threeevents are, again from top to bottom : a) the Nativity, the

ritual bath and the seven steps which signified his spiritual

conquest ofthe universe; b) the drive to the temple for the

naming ceremony ; c) presentation to the sage Asita (shown

in a sea of clouds) who foretold the prince's future great-ness. At the bottom center of the painting a vase has been

depicted which incorporates all the eight auspicious sym-

bols.

Although the colors are bright and gay in their tonality,

as is characteristic in the tankas of this period, the style has

a softness and tranquility well suited to the subject matter.

In contrast to the Guimet painting (No. 20) the artist has

here chosen to represent fewer incidents in each tanka, and

to present them with greater clarity. Although the scenes

are separated, the entire composition is integrated by a

continuous, wavy, rhythmic movement from the top tobottom on either side of the more hieratic central figure.

This flowing movement seems to pervade the work and tounite the landscape, the architecture, and the figures in an

organic design. Stylistically, the tanka seems to be slightly

earlier than the 1829 mandala of Vasudhara (No. 34).

29. Jataka Tale

Late eighteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27% in., W. 17M6 in.Tibet House Collection, New Delhi

Every set ofJataka paintings has a principal tanka bearing

the hieratic representation of the Buddha. This is the

principal tanka of the Tibet House set (see No. 30). In the

center, within an elaborate arch of a type commonly seenin Nepali works, is seated the Buddha, his right hand dis-

playing the gesture of touching the earth and his left hand

holding a vase. He is accompanied by his two chiefdisciplesSariputra and Mahamaudgalyayana. At the bottom right

corner is portrayed the enthroned Songtsen-gampo, the

first king ofTibet, with his two queens and members ofhis

court. The seven symbols of royaltya minister carryingthe wheel, the queen carrying the gem, the warrior, the

elephant, and the horsesymbolize his universal sover-

eignty. Above the Buddha and on either side is representedthe Vyaghri Jataka, when the Bodhisattva sacrificed him-self to feed a hungry tigress who was about to devour hercubs. For a discussion ofthe style ofthe painting see No. 30.

Not shown at Asia House Gallery.

30. Jataka Tales

Late eighteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 27?i e in., w. 17%, in.

Tibet House Collection, New Delhi

The painting depicts four stories of the Jataka Talcs (17, 18,27, and 28). In the middle of this tanka the Buddha is

seated on a lotus supported by a dragon. In the lower right

hand section is represented the tale of King Sarvamitra of

Videha (or Brahma Jataka) who constantly spent his timedrinking in the company ofhis courtiers. The Bodhisattva,

as Brahma, appears in the cloud with a pot ofwine and of-

fers it to the King and his courtiers, warning them how-ever, that the liquor would poison not only this life but the

next. This convinces them of the futility of drinking and

they become teetotallers. Immediately above this is shown

the twenty-eighth tale, or Ksanti Jataka, in which the

Bodhisattva was born as a hermit and lived in the forest.

A king, accompanied by his two queens, came into theforest. One day, while the king rested, the queens wanderedoff" into the forest, and coming upon the Bodhisattva, sat

at his feet to listen to his sermon. On waking and learningwhere the queens were, the king rushed to the hermitage

and in his anger drew his sword and cut off the Bodhisatt-

va's limbs. Then, seeing the Bodhisattva still unperturbed

the king fainted, and was swallowed by flames emerging

from the earth. To the right ofthe Buddha is portrayed theeighteenth tale, or Ayo Jataka (see entry No. 23). The

twenty-seventh tale, illustrated here, is the fascinating

MahakapiJataka, in which the Bodhisattva was born as the

leader ofmonkeys and sacrificed himself to save them.

There can be little doubt that stylistically this tanka is

closely related to the Guimet Jataka painting (N0.23). In

both, theAyoJataka is recounted with astonishing parallels.

In the Guimet painting the tale is represented along the

lower half, while in this tanka it is depicted in the middle

and on either side of the Buddha. The closely analogous

compositions in both scenes, with similar figures engaged

in the same action and making identical gestures, lead us to

believe that either the painter of the present tanka modeled

it on the Guimet painting or that they are both copies ofthe

same original. On the whole, however, the landscape andthe figures in this painting are rendered in a slightly more

stylized and formal manner. Compare, for instance, the

trees with their identical, unvaried shape, in contrast to the

variety seen in the Guimet painting. Here the tree associat-

ed with the monkeys, which, according to the texts, should

either be a fig or a mango tree, is straight and formal and

decorated with giant, blooming lotuses. (Compare the

same theme represented with greater naturalism in the

British Museum Jataka painting [No. 15]). Thus, if the

Guimet painting was painted around 1750perhaps, in the

first half of the eighteenth centurythe tanka under

discussion would have been executed towards the end of

that century.

3 1

.

King Trhisong-detsen

Eighteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; H. 34s 8 in., w. 24* s in.

Musee Guimet, Paris

141

King Trhisong-detsen is one of the most important

political and religious personalities in the history of Tibet.

He ruled Tibet with an iron hand for the greater part ofthe

second half of the eighth century, and not only was he

responsible for commissioning the translation of a large

number of Buddhist canonical works but he also promul-

gated Buddhism as the state religion. He participated in the

organization of the Buddhist clergy and invited noted

teachers such as the famous Padmasambhava and Santarak-

sita to establish the religion firmly in the country. The

foundation of the monastery of Samyc (bSam yas) under

his patronage marks the victory of the new religion over

the older Bon. At his death in 797 Tibet had reached the

apogee of her territorial expansion.

In the center of the painting the king, richly attired and

provided with an aureole to signify his deification, sits with

one leg pendant (latitasna) on a cushion placed over a lotus.

His right hand holds the stem of a lotus on which rests a

manuscript and a flaming sword, the symbols of ajam

dpal's or Manjusri, who is supposed to have been rein-carnated in the person of the king. A group of saints isportrayed at the summit ofthe painting. The distinguished

figure in the center represents Santaraksita. Other saints sit

on either side, while at the bottom ofthe tanka are the two

protectors Ma-Ning and Vajrapani.The tanka is remarkable for the refinement of the draw-

ing as well as for its subdued colors. Rather unusual is the

presentation of the palms of hands and feet, which seem to

emerge out of the background to confront the beholder.

According to some, these represent the hands and feet of

Buddha Sakyamuni and according to others, those of the

Panchen Lama (cf. Pott in Burma, Korea, Tibet, p. 212).

32. rGyan-tshogs (Sets of Ornaments)

Eighteenth century

Tempera on linen; H. 26 in., W. 38^ in.The Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio;

gift ofMr. Jefferson Patterson

This type of painting, peculiar to Tibet, is known asrGyan-tshogs, meaning "sets of ornaments" or Bskang-

rdsas, meaning "material for the banquet." Making of-ferings to appease the gods is a very important activity in

the life of the Tibetans (cf. R. B. Ekvall, Religious Observ-ances in Tibet: Patterns and Function, Chicago, 1964, pp.150 ff.). The center of the painting, in accordance withBuddhist cosmology, is occupied by the mythical MountSumeru, the center of the Universe. Three kinds of specialgifts (lha-rdsas) are offered around the Mount: i) mchod-ndsas or oblations, such as the eight offerings, the five

"gratifications of the senses,,' the seven and eight preciousthings, the eight auspicious objects, the "secret offerings,"

etc.; ii) spyan-rdsas, objects to gratify the eyes of the god,such as various kinds of animals; iii) dam-rdsas or "holy

objects," such as the bell, the thunderbolt, and other ritualobjects.

Not content with offering material objects, the Tibetanshung such paintings over the altar as symbolic, but morepermanent, offerings. (For a fuller discussion of such paint-

ings see F. D. Lcssing, Yung-Ho-Kung, Stockholm, 1942,

pp. 100 ff.). The composition is vast and well-balanced, like

that of a mural, and the drawing of the animals, especially

ofthe horses, is particularly skillful. Although the technique

is essentially linear, shading has been effectively employed

to indicate volumes. Woolly clouds hovering around the

schematically rendered mountain peaks add to the visionary

quality of the painting.

33. rGyan-tshogs (Sets of Ornaments)

ca. 1800

Tanka: gouache on linen; H. 36% in., w. 25i w. 24% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden

In the center of the mandala is Vasudhara, goddess of

wealth and consort of Kuvera, the Lord of Wealth. She is

three-headed and six-armed, and displays the following

attributes: a rosary, a jewel, the gesture of charity, a

manuscript, a sheaf of grain, and a vase. She is surrounded

by eight figures who probably represent the eight personi-fied treasures (nidhi). At the bottom center is Mahakala

flanked by tiny portraits of the donor and members of his

family, who are identified by inscriptions. The portraits arestereotyped representations and no attempt has been made

to delineate the actual appearance of individuals. At the

bottom corners, in two shrines, are shown two other forms

of Vasudhara, accompanied by smaller images of Tara.

142

Along the top ofthe tanka are, in the middle, the Tathagata

Ratnasambhava flanked by Manjusri and Lokcsvara;

Amitabha and Jambhala appear in the corners. The re-maining portion of the tanka, outside the mandala, illus-

trates the Asvaghosa-Nandimukha avadana, a story extolling

the merits ofperforming the rites ofVasudhara (for further

details see P. Pal, Two Buddhist Paintings from Nepal,Amsterdam, 1967, pp. 22, 23).

Historically, the importance of the tanka lies in its in-

scription, which states that the donor commissioned this

painting in Lhasa while making a commercial visit. Anumber of such paintings are known, all of which bearinscriptions recording their execution and donation either

in Lhasa or in Tashilunpo monastery (see Introduction.)

Thus, such tankas are of invaluable help in determining

the dates of others. The style of landscape, conceived asearly as the sixteenth century (No. 15), still continues with

remarkable tenacity after well over two centuries, anddemonstrates the extreme conservatism of the tradition as

well as the difficulty of establishing a firm chronological

sequence in the development of the style.

35. mGon-po (Mahakala)

Early nineteenth century

Tanka: gouache on cotton; h. 21% in., w. 16% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden

mGon-po or Mahakala is here represented in his six-armedmanifestation, when he is called mGon-dkar, a god ofwealth. In this form he is the special protector ofMongolia,

and this painting may in fact have been made for a Mon-golian patron. This is also suggested by the caravan of

merchants arriving with their mules at the gates of a

monastery, pictured in the lower part of the tanka.

Mahakala stands against a sea of flames, carrying in his

three left hands the skull-cup, the elephant-goad, and the

trident, while his three right hands hold the chopper, the

drum, and the jewel against his chest. With his feet hetramples two elephant-headed beings, probably two forms

of Ganesa; below the lotus a yaksa, accompanied by musi-

cians, is pouringjewels from a bag. Formal but picturesque

landscapes with hills and streams have been added simply

as decorative devices, as were two cranes that are represent-

ed with remarkable naturalism. Tibetan painting is

generally linear in style but in tankas such as this the line is

used with incredible purityin a way similar to the illus-trated frontispieces of Japanese sutras (see J. Rosenfield,

Japanese Arts ofthe Heian Period, New York, 1967, No. 35).In such paintings colors seem to play a secondary role.

From a distance or in a reproduction these tankas lookmore like dry-point etchings than paintings.

Published: Pott in Burma, Korea, Tibet, p. 219; Sierksma,

Tibet's Deities, Fig. 5.

36. rGyan-tshogs (Sets of Ornaments)

Nineteenth century

Color on linen; H. i7 5/i 6 in., w. 12% in.Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden

This painting, with No. 37, is part of a set. Here we sec thehell over which gShin-rje or Yama, the god of death,reigns. His attendants are busy dragging in sinners and

punishing them. Everything in this painting of the rGyan-

tshogs class, including the guardians, the terrifying acolytes,

and the outstretched skins along the top, is probably

considered as an offering to gShin-rje.

37. The hell of gShin-rje (Yama)

Nineteenth century

Painting: gouache on linen; h. 17% in., w. 12% in.Rij