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Page 1: Teaching Listening n Speaking

DR ROSNIAH MUSTAFFA

PPBL, FSSK

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The role of listening

Listening – the ‘neglected’ ‘overlooked’ or ‘taken for granted’ skill.

Assumed that listening ability will develop automatically through exposure to the language.

Of the time an individual is engaged in communication, 9%-writing, 16% reading, 30% speaking and 45% listening. So, listening is important

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listening process. Bottom-up process in listening- we use our

knowledge of language and our ability to process acoustic signals to make sense of the sounds that speech presents to us.

We use whatever clues available to infer meaning- the placement of stress, pauses, non verbal behaviour etc

Assign meanings to words and use logical reasoning to infer relationship bet them - Rain in Johor damaged property. Thousands homeless

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During the processes of identifying sounds, inferring meaning and anticipating what comes next, memory clearly plays a crucial role.

We can only hold word sequences for only a few seconds and only initial analysis of the language is possible, concentrating on key words or pauses or other significant features.

The load on the short term memory is heavy as listeners try to hold various parts of the message in mind while inferring meaning and deciding what is necessary to retain.

Overload can occur if there is too much unfamiliar info and the greater part of a message can be lost. It is the gist of the spoken message rather than its detailed structure that is retained and stored in the long term memory

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Top – down process in listening – involve knowledge that a listener brings to a text sometimes called ‘inside the head’ info as opposed to the info that is available within the text itself.

Top down listening infers meaning from contextual clues and from making links between the spoken message and various types of prior knowledge which listeners hold inside their heads.

Contextual clues to meaning come from knowledge of the particular situation

Prior knowledge has been termed schematic knowledge which consists of the mental frameworks we hold in our memories for various topics.

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One category schemata used by listeners is formal schemata. A second category of schemata is that of content schemata which include general world knowledge, sociocultural knowledge and topic knowledge.

Local knowledge might be necessary to infer meaning

Both function simultaneously and are mutually dependent.

the current model of listening is therefore an interactive one in which linguistic information, contextual clues and prior knowledge interact to enable comprehension. Comprehension is always only selective and partial

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Brown and Yule [1983a] suggest dividing language functions into-

1. language for transactional purpose. 2. language for interactional purposes.

Transactional language function-message oriented focus on content and conveying factual info.

Clarity and precision

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Interactional language function- social type talk; person oriented more than message oriented.

Objective-to establish and maintain social relationship

Important features- identifying with other person’s concerns, being nice etc

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Uncertainties for foreign language listeners Environmental uncertainties - background conversation,

traffic noise etc muttering

Uncertainties of confidence-learners often have unrealistic expectations and try to understand each word of a listening text

Uncertainties from presentation of speech-unplanned and unrehearsed spoken language is very different from the language of written texts

-repetitions, pauses, fillers, false starts, incomplete sentences, restructurings, and corrections which are typical of speech. If we are training students ultimately to be able to manage real listening situations, we need to build their confidence in dealing with authentic speech.

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Uncertainties because of gaps in the message-environmental noise, poorly articulated speech or poor attention can be responsible for creating gaps in the message that a listener hears.

Uncertain strategies-in face to face communication, if a gap occurs in the message, a listener can ask for clarification

Uncertainties of language-if the purpose of listening is for input and the text presents grammar, vocab and certain phonological features.[use recordings made for English language learners]

–if the purpose is to develop the ability to deal with listening outside the classroom, then texts will be needed which present natural language

[ spontaneous informal talk]

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Uncertainties of content. required to make sense of a text –stds may experience

difficulty in inferring and interpreting meaning. The language is not likely to cause problems but a lack of schematic knowledge may well do so.

Major implication here for teaching listening is the need for a pre-listening stage in which existing prior knowledge can be activated and missing prior knowledge can be introduced

visual uncertainties- speakers usually provides non verbal clues to meaning eg lip movements, facial expressions and gestures. The role of vision in first language listening especially lip movements is particularly imp when the auditory input is of poor quality

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3 communicative listening modes-

1. Bidirectional-two-way communicative listening. Take turns exchanging speaker role and listener role.

2. Unidirectional – we hear speakers but unable to interact. [overheard conversation, anouncements, radio etc]

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3. Autodirectional – a self-dialogue communication in which we may not be aware of our internal roles as both speaker and listener/reactor in our own thought process

We attend to our own internal language which we produce as we think such as planning strategies or making decision by talking and listening to ourselves

Listening is not a passive experience

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the pre-listening stage- to contextualize the text, providing any info needed to help learners appreciate the setting and the role relationships between participants.

predicting content from the title of a talk; talking about a picture which relates to the text; discussing the topic; answering a set of questions about the topic; and agreeing or disagreeing with opinions about the topic

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while listening- the work at the while listening stage needs to link in relevant ways to the pre-listening work. The aim is to conform learners’ expectations and to help them to get the gist of the content as it relates to the written text

post listening- intensive phase of study where aspects of bottom up listening are practiced eg intensive listening for note taking, summarize content of text

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Speaking Following the rules When people with similar cultural and linguistic

backgrounds get together they speak to each other easily because they know the rules of conversation in their language and their shared culture.

When they write to each other they obey certain conventions. Such rules and conventions are not written anywhere, nor are they easy to define. But at some cultural level our shared schemata help us to communicate with each other successfully.

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areas of rules which we should consider; sociocultural rules speakers from similar cultural backgrounds know how to

speak to each other , how formal to be, what kind of language they can use, how loud to speak, or how close to stand to each other. Such rules or shared cultural habits - determine how we speak to each other, when participants are of different social or professional status.

guide our behaviour in a number of speech events eg invitation conversations, socialising and negotiations.

turn-taking in any conversation decisions have to be taken about

when each person should speak by knowing how to signal verbally or visually that they want a turn, by recognising when other speakers are signalling they want to finish and therefore giving them space to take a speaking turn.

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Different styles, different genres

Our language use is determined by several factors. First is the purpose of our communication, what we want to achieve.

to achieve that purpose is determined by the setting, the channel we are using to communicate by, and the type of communication [genre] which we are involved with.

If we want to give people facts[our purpose] in a lecture theatre[setting] through a microphone [channel] we will use a lecture genre with its typical patterns of organisation, and this genre will determine the style of the language we use.

This is different from how we transmit the same information to a friend in an informal conversation. This in turn would be different from the kind of language we use when writing the same information in a magazine genre; when exchanging e mails on the subject with a colleague our use of language will be different.

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Skills and strategies in speaking English

Reasons for practising speaking in the classroom- to keep up rapport in relationships, influence people, and win negotiations. It is a skill by which they are judged , first impressions are being formed. Learning to speak competently is a complex task.

Learners need to develop at the same time a knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, functional language and communicative skills. Attention to the systems of language, development of fluency and contextual appropriacy

Contextual appropriacy means that the language chosen for a particular message depends on the setting, the status of the participants, and their role relationship. I’m opening the window, ok?’ / ‘do you mind if I open the window?’

fluency - responding coherently during a conversation, linking words and phrases, using intelligible pronunciation and appropriate intonation, without hesitation. - shows speakers can interpret and assess the meaning of what they hear and response appropriately.

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communicative approaches - stds should be able to produce features of pronunciation, vocabulary and structure accurately, and practice using these features more freely in purposeful communication - usual to include both accuracy –and fluency based activities. However, there are more aspects to conversation than these.

What is involved in terms of managing interaction - there are skills relating to opening and closing conversations, the sharing of time, turn taking , shorter and longer turns attending to and responding to one’s interlocutor, and to interrupting.

If any of these are lacking or poorly performed- communication break down.

reasons for breakdown - lack of language to undertake these skills effectively or differences in the cultural conventions associated with them.

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Use communication strategies to achieve clear communication when lack words, phrases, or structures in English - gestures and paraphrase.

Interaction is negotiation of meaning. Speakers need to check that they have been understood and may need to repeat or clarify what they said, need to adjust what they say to be comprehensible. Listeners play a part in the process - asking for explanations, correcting

Second language acquisition researchers see communicative interaction as using the language they have learned until it is automatized.

The challenge for the communicative classroom is to find activities and procedures for speaking which will prepare students for spontaneous interaction and which will aid acquisition process

This means finding answers to questions about what various activities can encourage.

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Which activities encourage participation from all students and ensure that they all get practice opportunities?

Which activities require the practice of turn-taking skills?

Which activities encourage longer turns? Which activities oblige negotiation of

meaning? Which activities give students practice in

initiating conversations?

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What is involved in speaking English competently

1. Distinguishing types of speaking situation

Conversation - unstructured and informal, more formal , more rehearsed situations eg meetings, interviews and seminars.

The purpose of conversation vary - making and keeping social contacts, exchanging news, information and opinions and making decisions with other people.

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Conversation - interactional and transactional speaking situation

Interactional -establishing and maintaining social relations

Transactional- exchanging information in order to get a job done, and service encounters

Some content and pattern of exchanges are predictable, set phrases are used.

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Labov [1972] suggests a six-part structure to an oral narrative of personal experience [sequence might vary] The framework - storytelling activities and creating stories.

Abstract –what was this about? Orientation-Who? When? What? Where? Complication –then what happened? Evaluation – so what?/highlight main point Result-what finally happened/resolution to

crisis

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Anecdotes and accounts of personal experience - an initial way of getting students to speak at greater length, to develop and structure their speech

Farewell speeches, business presentations of new products, appraisal interviews and presentations of a problem and its potential solutions at a scientific conference, also have noticeable shapes and a study of these might facilitate ways of practising them

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2. making oneself understood

Trying to express what they wanted to say but lacking the vocab and structures they needed, -use one or more communication strategies

Faerch & Kasper[1983] - avoidance behavior-learner try to eliminate a problem by changing the topic or not participating in a conversation

Achievement behaviour- ways are found to cope with the problem, eg switching to the first language, word coinage, often influenced by the first language, restructuring, a direct appeal for help from the listener and gesture

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Implication-

For the teacher- appreciate and understand what is happening when students use communication strategies.

Communication strategies can be strong indicators of gaps and uncertainties about what to focus on in feedback

The other way in which learners work to make themselves understood is through negotiation of meaning eg. The speaker may produce an inaccurate message –

A:You musn’t come except you bring the children B: I’m sorry, shall I bring my children ?

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Or a listener may have difficulty interpreting a message because the speaker has mistakenly assumed shared knowledge.

Speakers therefore need the ability to negotiate until the meaning is clear - using achievement strategies such as a paraphrase or gesture.

It also involves knowing the language needed for checking whether or not a listener has understood and as a listener, knowing the language needed to request for clarification or repetition or indicating comprehension.

It is good for teachers to teach the language that will help with negotiation of meaning.

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3. managing interaction For conversation to open, progress, and close smoothly

and productively, speakers need to follow the rules that govern normal interactions.

Need to know the cultural conventions, the appropriate formality in style of speech and the level of politeness that is appropriate to the relationship between the participants.

Openings and closings- Conventional ways of opening a conversation in English

[it’s a nice day, isn’t it?] -attention getting and can lead to further conversation.

Closings need to be carefully negotiated as there is usually a pre-closing signal [well, I must think about going…or I don’t want to keep you…] before the actually closing

Some researchers have suggested that textbooks lack adequate material for teaching closing.

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Responding appropriately in fixed routines The term ‘adjacency pair’ - a turn by one speaker requires an

immediate response, as in greetings, invitations, compliments, enquiries about health and complaints.

They also need relevant cultural competence to know what is an appropriate response. [how are you-and you]

Taking turns one of the greatest difficulties is entering a conversation. –it

requires a rapid sequence : watching for signs the speaker is coming to a close [falling intonation], giving signals to come in [eg raised eyebrows, leaning forward, looking at the speaker intently, coughing], formulating a turn which fits the flow of the conversation and to pick up on what has already been said; and finding the language to express it.

Devices to invite other speakers to contribute - tag endings like ‘isn’t it?’, questions ‘what do you think?’, and ‘would you agree?’.

Interrupting is difficult as cultural conventions may differ from their first language. Students need to acquire the politeness phrases which make interruption acceptable .

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Topic management

Aspects of managing interaction-the kind of topics chosen, how topics are introduced, and how speakers move from one topic to another

Demand on learners of English – to know which topics are appropriate with which kinds of people.

- how to change the topic, as in ‘by the way…’ or ‘that reminds me…’it is quite normal for informal conversation to move quickly through a number of topics and learners need a repertoire of topics in order to participate effectively

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In summary, successful oral communication involves developing-

1. The ability to articulate phonological features of the language comprehensibly

2. Mastery of stress, rhythm, intonation patterns;3. An acceptable degree of fluency4. Transactional and interpersonal skills5. Skills in taking short and long speaking turns6. Skills in the management of interaction7. Skills in negotiating meaning8. Conversational listening skills[successful

conversations require good listeners as well as good speakers]

9. Skills in knowing about and negotiating purposes for conversations

10. Using appropriate conversational formulae and fillers11. [Nunan 1989a:32]

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Designing a program begins with the preparation of goals, samples of which are-

1. How to use conversation for both transactional and interactional purposes

2. How to produce both short and long turns in conversation

3. Strategies for managing turn-taking in conversation, including taking a turn, holding a turn, and relinquishing a turn

4. Strategies for opening and closing conversations5. How to initiate and respond to talk on a broad range of

topics, and how to develop and maintain talk on these topics

6. How to use both a casual style of speaking and a neutral or more formal style

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7. How to use conversation in different social settings and for different kinds of social encounters, such as on the telephone, at informal and formal social gatherings

8. Strategies for repairing trouble spots in conversation, including communication breakdown and comprehension problems

9. How to maintain fluency in conversation, through avoiding excessive pausing, breakdowns, and errors of grammar or pronunciation

10. How to produce talk in a conversational mode, using a conversational register and syntax

11. How to use conversational fillers and small talk

12. How to use conversational routines [ Richards 1990:79,81]

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