Syntax
LING 001 - October 11, 2006 Joshua Tauberer
Syntax
How can the words of a languagebe put together?
Syntax
What makes a valid combination or order of words?
What are the relations between the words in a sentence?
What is the mechanical system by which we put words together?
Sentence or Word Salad?
good students take a linguistics course
students linguistics course good a take
students good take a course linguistics
take students course good linguistics a
good students a linguistics course take
Sentence or Word Salad?
✓good students take a linguistics course
* students linguistics course good a take
* students good take a course linguistics
* take students course good linguistics a
* good students a linguistics course take
Sentence or Word Salad?
✓good students take a linguistics course
* students linguistics course good a take
* students good take a course linguistics~ Romance languages
* take students course good linguistics a
* good students linguistics course a take~ Japanese, Turkish
Sentence or Word Salad?
Sometimes rearranging the words yields word salad.
Sometimes rearranging the words gives a different meaning. John likes Mary. Mary likes John.
Sometimes one arrangement has two meanings I saw the man with a telescope. Is this syntax or semantics?
What’s a valid sentence?
verb noun verb noun verb noun
What’s a valid sentence?
verb Leave! noun verb I ate. noun verb noun Students like linguistics.
What’s a valid sentence?
verb Leave! noun verb I ate. noun verb noun Students like linguistics. noun verb noun preposition determiner noun
Billy sent letters to his mom. noun verb det noun noun verb
Sally found the gold I burried. and on...
What’s not a sentence?
*noun *noun noun verb verb determiner *noun adjective det det noun adjective verb
What’s a valid sentence?
Can we list all valid POS strings? Is there a longest sentence?
Language is unbounded in many ways coordination X and Y and Z and . . . modifiers in the house on the table . . . recursion who chased the dog that ate the .
. . We need a finite set of rules (the grammar) that
gives us an infinite set of strings (the language).
Two Models of Syntax
Words as Building Blocks
Constituent Structure
Words as Building Blocks
A model of syntax: (loosely based on Tree Adjoining Grammar)
The mind’s vocabulary comprises a set (lexicon) of special domino-puzzle pieces.
nounS
verb
verb
adj
prep
verb prep
Words as Building Blocks
Assemble the pieces any way so that there are no bumps or holes at the end.
Colors must match like dominos.
Start with the special S piece.
Bill
ate
S
cake
read words from left to right(actually “infix order”)
the mechanical system
Words as Building Blocks
Bill
ate
S
cakesome
Words as Building Blocks
ate
S
storetheBill cake
from
Words as Building Blocks
S
store
the
ate
Bill cake
from
Words as Building Blocks
S
store
the
ate
Bill cake
from
Words as Building Blocks
S
cake
store
the
ate
Bill
from
Words as Building Blocks
Bill
S
cake
store
the
atefrom
Words as Building Blocks
Bill
S
cake
store
the
ate
from
Words as Building Blocks
The way the pieces connect tell us how the words are related.
The organization of pieces tells us about the meaning.
Bill
ate
S
cake
John
likes
S
Mary
Words as Building Blocks
The organization of pieces tells us about the meaning.
This bump isfor the subject.
This bump isfor the object.
Mary
likes
S
John
I
S
saw
awith
mana
tele-scope
How many ways are there two assemble the pieces to make the sentence?
with
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
Prepositional Phrase Attachment
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw a
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw a man
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw a man
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw a man
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw a man with
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw a man with a
man
I
S
a
tele-scope
saw
aman
I
S
a tele-scope
saw a
with
with
“Infix Order”I saw a man with a telescope
Garden Path Sentences
The horse raced past
the barn fell.
Grammatical?
Garden Path Sentences More from Wikipedia:
The man who hunts ducks out on weekends.
The cotton clothing is usually made of grows in Mississippi.
The old man the boat.
The player kicked the ball kicked the ball.
Garden Path Sentences
horse
S
the past
barn
fell
the
?raced
raced
Garden Path Sentences
horse
thepast
barn
fell
the
raced
raced
S
Garden Path Sentences
horse
S
thepast
barn
fell
the
raced
Garden Path Sentences
horse
S
the
past
barn
fell
the
raced
Garden Path Sentences
horse
S
the
past
barn
fell
the
raced
Garden Path Sentences
horse
S
past
barn
fell
the
raced
The horse (that was) raced past the barn fell.
the
The yellow ‘raced’ pieceis used for relative clauses.
Garden Path Sentences More from Wikipedia:
The man [who hunts] [ducks out on weekends].
The cotton (that) clothing is usually made of grows in Mississippi.
[The old] [man the boat].
The player (that was) kicked the ball kicked the ball.
Constituency and Substitution
A second perspective on syntax. Sentences seem to have replaceable parts.
Billy ate peaches from the store
Billy ate cookies from the store
Billy ate the pie from the store
Billy ate the pie in the box
Billy ate the pie on the box
Billy sold the pie on the table
the store sold the pie on the table
Constituency and Substitution
But parts can’t be replaced with just anything.
Billy ate peaches from the store
Billy ate sold from the store
on the table ate peaches from the store
Billy ate peaches the pie
Just as words are categorized by part of speech, replaceable parts (“constituents”/ phrases) come in different types.
Constituency and Substitution
Billy ate the pie from the store
nouns = { pie , cookies , store , table , Billy } verbs = { ate , sold } prepositions = { from , in , on } noun phrases = { cookies , the pie } prepositional phrases
= { from the store , in the box , on the table , just until the clock struck seven }
Constituency and Substitution
Billy ate the pie from the store
nouns = { pie , cookies , store , table , Billy } verbs = { ate , sold } prepositions = { from , in , on } noun phrases = { nouns , det + nouns } prepositional phrases
= { preposition + noun phrases }
determiner = article (‘the’, ‘a’)
Context Free Grammar
Let’s say a sentence (S) is defined by a rule:
NounPhrase Verb NounPhrase
And a NounPhrase is defined as either: Noun or Determiner Noun
Keep substituting symbols with other constituents of the same category until only words in the language remain.
Context Free Grammar
S
NounPhrase Verb NounPhrase
Noun ate Determiner Noun
Billy ate the cookies
Context Free Grammar
S
NounPhrase Verb NounPhrase
Determiner Noun has Determiner Noun
the store has the pie
Context Free Grammar
Trees show order symbols were replaced. Also shows the constituent structure.
Context Free Grammar
Recursion
Billy eats worms Ruthy made Billy eat worms The teacher let Ruthy make Billy eat worms I saw the teacher let Ruthy make Billy eat
worms The principle knows I saw the teacher let Ruthy
make Billy eat worms The superintendent wonders whether the
principle knows I saw the teacher let Ruthy make Billy eat worms
Recursion
S
NP Verb S
NP let S
Det Noun let S
the teacher let S
the teacher let Noun Verb S
the teacher let Ruthy make S
the teacher let Ruthy make Noun Verb Noun
the teacher let Ruthy make Billy eat worms
Recursion
Recursion
verb
Recursion
Recursion
Recursion
Recursion
Recursion
PP Attachment with Trees How is PP-attachment ambiguity represented with
trees? Let’s define a Prepositional Phrase first:
S → NP Verb NP NP → Det Noun PP → Prep NP
Recursively define S’s and NP’s. S → S PP NP → NP PP
“Any valid S/NP can have a PP tacked on and still be a valid S/NP.”
PP Attachment with Trees
PP Attachment with Trees
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