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Graduate School of Development Studies
A Research Paper presented by:
Suvianita Khanis
(Indonesia)
in partial fulllment of the requirements for obtaining
the degree of
MAS!RS "# ARS I$ %!&!'"PM!$ S%I!S
Specialiation:
Women Gender and Development
(WGD)
Members of the e*amining committee:
%r+ Ratna Saptari ,Super-isor.
%r+ hanh/%am ruong ,Second Reader.
he 0ague1 he $etherlands
$o-ember1 2343
Citizenship and Identity Construction
Among Three Generations of Chinese Women
In Indonesia
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Disclaimer:
his document represents part of the author5s study programme
6hile at the Institute of Social Studies+ he -ie6s stated thereinare those of the author and not necessarily those of the Institute+
Inquiries:
Postal address: Institute of Social StudiesP.O. Box 297762502 LT The a!ueThe "etherlands
Location: #ortenaer$ade %225%& '( The a!ueThe "etherlands
Tele)hone: *+% 70 ,26 0,60-ax: *+% 70 ,26 0799
ii
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Acknowledgement
This research has een a /e/orale learnin! ex)erience
for /e oth acade/icall and )ersonall. 1an hands
inole To /a$e this )a)er achieale3 for that I 4ould li$e
to ex)ress / dee) !ratitude to4ards:
%. r. atna Sa)tari3 / su)erisor for the su))ort3 and
/otiation
2. r. Thanha/ Truon!3 / second reader for the
aluale in)ut and su))ort+. 'lice "eli/a and i$a3 / discussants for the
constructie feedac$,. 'll infor/ants 4ho 4ant to share their stories and
their hos)italit5. 1 -a/il here3 'lan and 8ster for their hos)italit6. 1 friends3 aelan! o3 nthia Ba;eno and "ora
Stradition?3 es)eciall / /o/ 4ho al4as su))orts
and elief 4ith / choices
iii
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Contents
Acknowledgement iii
List of Acronyms vi
Abstract vii
Chapter 1he Research Setting:
4+4 Introduction
4+2 A brief o-er-ie6 of 7hinese Indonesian 8omen
4+9 he Statement of Research Problem
4+ Research "b;ecti-e and Research
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7hapter 9 0istorical Images: he ?acground of he 7hinese
Indonesians 49
9+4 7itienship and $ational Identity: he 7onception of the
7hinese in Indonesia $ation/State
49
9+2 he 7hinese Indonesian and the $ation of Indonesia
4=
9+9 7hinese #amily and Cender Identity
4@
9+ hree Cenerations of 7hinese Indonesian 8omen
4B
4D93/4D=3: 7olonial period/he rst generation
4B4D=4/4DB3: "ld "rder to $e6 "rder E he second
generation 4D
4DB4/today: $e6 "rder E Post Soeharto E the third
generation 4D
9+ 7oncluding Remars
23
7hapter + !*periences and Memories of hree Cenerations of7hinese Indonesian 8omen
24
+4 7hinese 6omen 6ithin the family 24
+2 8omen5s e*periences
2
+9 Sense of identity
2D
+ Religion E a ne6 identity94
+= 7oncluding Remars
99
7hapter =+ 7onclusion: %iFerent Meaning of hree Ceneration
9
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Appendices 40
Appendi* 4: ReGectionA mirror to myself: Self/reGecti-ity in the oral history
process 3
Appendi* 2 :'ist of Informants
9
References 37
i
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List of Acronyms
B'#O1 P#B :Peres/ian Badan #o/uni$asi Pen!haatan#esatuan Ban!sa
@The oordinatin! Bod for "ational AnitB'P8#I : Badan Per/us;a4aratan #e4ar!ane!araanIndonesia @The Bod of the Indonesianiti
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AbstractThis stud exa/ines ho4 three !eneration of the hinese
Indonesian 4o/en )erceie and de=ne their situation ased
on their !ender and ethnicit. Deneration sho4s theco/)lexit of constructin! their citiIndonesian?
has /ainl deter/ined the state and the social relations
et4een and a/on! hinese the/seles and other
ethnicities.
Keywords
Giti
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Chapter 1The Research Setting: Introducing the concern and the background
The )role/ of citi
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=e )roides initial conclusions and so/e thou!hts on the hinese
Indonesian 4o/enCs status.
1.1 IntroductionThe curiosit underlin! / choice of research to)ic co/es fro/ / o4n
ex)eriences as a hinese 4o/an. Hhen I 4as a child3 I could notunderstand 4h / /other could not ex)lain clearl 4hat the /eanin! of
>hineseness? 4as. I re/e/er at that ti/e3 4hen I as$ed / /other 4hat
hinese /eant3 she onl said3 >ou are Indonesian and 4e are Indonesian3?
ut I 4as not satis=ed 4ith her ex)lanation. I as$ed re)eatedl and then /
/other said3 >ou /ust not as$ /e a!ain ecause if ou as$ it a!ain the
/ilitar 4ould co/e to our ho/e. ou are scared3 arenCt ouM? Then in
%99&3 as / /other and I 4atched the ne4s of the 1a riots %on teleision3
she said >see3 ho4eer stron!l ou tr to e Indonesian3 one da )eo)le
4ill al4as reco!nithe a)artheid? of the utch
olonial )olicies the hinese )o)ulation 4as then seen as a >hinese
%The 1a riots ha))ened in %99& 4hen Soeharto fell. 't that ti/e /an hinese4o/en 4ere ra)ed and %3%9& )eo)le died accordin! to the "ational o//ission ofu/an i!hts on une3 23 %99&. The riots ha))ened in a$arta3 Suraaa ut thereis no data on ho4 /an hinese )eo)le died. 1uch hinese )ro)ert 4as thetar!et of )illa!e and so/e 4as urned /os. To this da no !oern/ent hasadocated these cases and een the eidence that 4as collected TDP- hasdisa))eared.
2
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/inorit? @in oon3 200&3 ).+. The hinese3 throu!hout Indonesian histor3
hae een ie4ed as outsiders3 as forei!ners or aliens (Vreemde
Oosterlingen.
In the context of the Indonesian nation uildin! )rocess3 the Old Order
!oern/ent of Soe$arno tried to include hinese as )art of the nation
ecause of the a4areness that Indonesia 4as ased on /ulticultural
identities. Throu!h the ideolo! ofPancasilaand the national /otto
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika @unit in diersit3 he atte/)ted to unite the
diJerent ethnic !rou)s @'!uilar3 200% Thus in this )eriod3 the hinese 4ere
ale to ex)ress their collectie identities3 culturall and )oliticall.
onersel3 in the "e4 Order !oern/ent3 Soeharto i/)osed assi/ilation
)olicies and at the sa/e ti/e rou!ht in a sti!/atimasalah cina? @the hinese )role/ and this ulti/atel
classi=ed the/ as a ho/o!enous !rou) @1ac$ie3 %976 #4artanada3 2006On!ho$ha/3 200&. This sti!/atiIndonesiani
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not choose their )osition @#ahin3 %9,6. '/on! these !rou)s3 there 4ere
tensions re!ardin! their )olitical orientations and 4hat should the do or
should not do.
1.2 A brief overview of Chinese Indonesian women
hinese Indonesian 4o/en hae lied for ears in Indonesia3 althou!haccordin! to 1ac$ie @%976 the started to /i!rate to Indonesia in the late
%9thcentur. o4eer3 efore the hinese 4o/en /i!rated3 /an 4ere
orn fro/ /ixed /arria!es et4een hinese /en and local 4o/en. The
descendants of this !rou)3 called hinese peranakan3 lied in a hrid
culture3 /ixed et4een hinese3 utch and 1ala3 4here /ost of the/
used the local lan!ua!e or a /ixture of hinese dialect and utch lan!ua!e
in eerda life @Suradinata3 %997. Then3 in the 20thcentur3 /an
hinese decendents 4ere orn fro/ the hinese cou)les that later eca/e
the !rou) called totok4ho s)ea$ hinese dialect and identif 4ith hineseculture. In !eneral3 4ithin the hinese fa/il3 hinese 4o/en3 oth
peranakanand totok3 lie 4ithin the structures of onfucian ideolo!+in a
)atriarchal sste/ that eliees that 4o/enCs )osition should e under
/enCs control3 4hile the /en are seen as >!old? for the fa/il.
Sociolo!icall3 hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs )osition are inEuenced
!ender3 culture3 reli!ion and ethnicit in eerda life. The for/ation of
their identit is also inEuenced those factors in the do/estic and )ulic
s)heres. o/esticall3 4o/en hae a critical role to )rotect and care for
their fa/ilies. 1oreoer3 all )olicies to4ard hinese )eo)le 4ill inEuencethe do/estic arena3 for instance ho4 the /ana!e their fa/ilies. Therefore3
their histor has een situated et4een these t4o di/ensions: =rst3 the
external )rocesses 4here state3 societ and co//unit sha)e their identit
constructions3 and in ho4 others de=ne the/ and ho4 the )erceie others.
Second3 the Ninternal )rocessesC 4here the construct their identities
throu!h an understandin! of the/seles. These contexts )lace the/ in an
a/i!uous situation 4here the actiel ne!otiate 4ith others. Tan hee
Ben! @200% sas3 >8thnic identities of hinese in South 8ast 'sia hae
een sha)ed their local ex)eriences and )rocesses of localihinese IndonesiansC identities hae een /ulti)lied in
accordance 4ith their de!rees of ada)tation and acculturation to their local
circu/stances? @in oon3 200&3 ). 2&.
+See 1el D. Tan3 %997 on The 8thnic hinese in Indonesia : Issues of Identit
,
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1. Statement of the Research !rob"em
The status of hinese citiuniKue? !rou) ecause the hae a lon! histor of iolence and
discri/ination @1ac$ie3 %976. The >masalah cina? @the Chinese pro!lem#is
a )role/ that casts the/ as >forei!ners? or >other?. This sti!/ati
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others hae studied the hinese IndonesiansC identit. Studies on hinese
Indonesia 4o/en are ho4eer li/ited. This stud 4ill atte/)t to =ll the
!a)s of hinese Indonesians studies es)eciall on the inter!enerational
as)ects of hinese Indonesian 4o/en. Hhen !ender is e/odied in histor
and the hinese Indonesians situated in diJerent re!i/es3 it 4ill aJect
!enerations diJerentl and ho4 the ex)erience eerda life. Denerations
sho4 ho4 diJerent ti/es and )laces contriute to the notion of identit
each !eneration has their o4n /eanin! of their life althou!h the co/e
fro/ the sa/e ethnic !rou). Therefore3 an !enerational stud of hinese
4o/en 4ill contriute to the understandin! of the co/)lexit of the
hinese Indonesian 4o/anCs identit. Anderstandin! the hinese
Indonesian 4o/anCs ex)eriences in eerda life is necessar ecause as
oan Scott @%9&& )oints out3 understandin! 4o/enCs narraties /eans
reco!ni
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4o/an ecause )olicies hae ruled us in the sa/e 4as. o4eer the 4as
IF4e res)ond and ne!otiate to structure not onl de)end on / ethnicit
and !ender ut also ti/e3 a!e3 and context. In these senses3 I could e an
outsider of the research. ealin! 4ith these issues3 I tr to e honest aout
/self durin! the )rocess of interie4s. I told so/e of / io!ra)h that
could assist co//onalit and fa/iliarit 4ith / infor/ants3 such as ho4 I
!re4 u) as a hinese 4o/an3 4hich clan I elon! to3 / education
ac$!round and / localit.
Tellin! oneCs life stor is not al4as eas3 es)ecial if the stor is )ersonal
in character3 i.e. aout fa/il3 herFhis self and also 4hen it is told to
stran!ers. 'lthou!h to so/e extent I a/ an insider3 infor/ants can not
al4as tell /e their lifestories easil. Perha)s as an insider I create unease
ecause 4e are the sa/e et diJerent3 and 4ithin oneCs o4n ethnic !rou)
so/e ad/issions can e sha/eful.
/ui"ding re"ations and Interviewing
In =ndin! infor/ants3 I used the sno4all techniKue that started fro/ /
contact )erson =rst. The techniKue hel)ed /e to =nd other infor/ants
Kuic$l3 ho4eer it is no !uarantee of re)resentatieness of infor/ants
@OLear3 200,3 as the /ethod is infor/antsdrien and connected to their
net4or$s3 researcher ias and s/)athies 4ill also hae an inEuence. I also
/ade contact directl 4ith so/e infor/ants 4ho/ I had $no4n )reiousl
and for these infor/ants it see/ed it 4as easier to tell their stories
co/)ared to those I had not /et efore. o4eer3 the de!ree of o)enness
4as diJerent et4een !enerations3 the second and the third !eneration 4as
easier to !et close to3 )erha)s ecause / a!e is closer to theirs.
I e!an introducin! /self and ex)lained the research ai/3 allo4in! the
infor/ants to as$ Kuestions. Then I added that the hae the o)tion to
ans4er / Kuestions or not if the feel unco/fortale 4ith the/. I
ex)lained that their stories @the records 4ould e $e)t in a safe )lace and
their identit 4ould e not )ulished. The trau/atic /e/or is real3 one of/ infor/ants told / contact )erson that she 4as afraid her stor 4ould
e )ulished in the /edia and she 4ould !et into troule as a result. I found
that infor/ants 4ho $no4 /e efore /ore easil o)ened u) and shared
their stories3 also infor/ants 4ho are third!eneration 4ere /ore o)en
co/)ared to the =rst and second !enerations.
7
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I diided !enerations accordin! to the )eriod of ti/e and )olitical
situation at the ti/e of their irth to cate!ori
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1.0 imitations of the Research
This stud is li/ited to onl fe4 of lifestories of hinese Indonesian 4o/en
4ith diJerent ac$!rounds of their life. I a/ a4are that this stud not to!enerali
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Chapter 2
Citienship and Identit+: A theoretica" framework of ana"+sis
This cha)ter 4ill discuss the conce)ts that I use to anal/inorit?. Then ca/e the conce)t of >dual nationalit?3 a le!ac ofcontinuin! olonial inEuence in the ne4 state in 4hich their loalt to the
state 4as Kuestioned. Indonesia3 a )ostolonial nationstate3 uild its
countr the s)irit of nationalis/ 4here ado)tin! the national identit
is the >ter/inal? of loalt to the nationstate as T$. Oo//en calls it@20063
).,%. 's 'nderson su!!ests3 the he!e/onic )o4er of nationalis/ is unale
allo4 for local >diJerences? and it for/ulates national societ throu!h
%0
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s)eci=c sites and social relations @aren #a)lan3 %999: ).7. The ar!u/ent
that 'nderson )osits ie4s natiaonalis/ as a )o4er that forces citiho/o!enous 4as of ein!? thus the hinese /ust understand
4hat the can and cannot do. To hinese 4o/en3 assi/ilation eco/es a
)role/ ecause the hinese are not haituated to >feel? as )art of the
Indonesian societ and ein! )art of the Indonesian nation. The re/e/er
historical antihinese senti/ent3 in )articular at the ti/es of re!i/e
chan!e. -or exa/)le3 under a)anese colonisation /an hinese 4ere
$illed3 and in the reolution )eriod the hinese 4ere laeled as >not )ro
nationalist?. 1an 4ere $illed and in %965 4hen co//unis/ 4as
associated 4ith hinese and other /ar!inali
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and the 4elfare state3 that ri!ht is the focus of a!enc. It /eans the su;ect
citiactie
citialien? and pri!umi
@indi!enous or natie as >authentic?. This assi/ilation )olic 4as a for/al
exclusion in that the 4ere unale to en;o their citi
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fro/ an interest3 it is a !a/e et4een assi/ilator that con=r/s his
cultural su)eriorit and racial ho/o!eneit3 and the toe assi/ilated 4ho
tries to otain cultural acce)tance and structural inte!ration. This
ar!u/ent su!!ests the ethnic senti/ents and the stru!!le of ethnicit can
e soled the feelin! of e/otional onds of ho/o!eneit. o4eer3 in the
hinese Indonesian context3 this assu/)tion did not 4or$. 'cce)tance fro/
do/inant !rou)s could not control ethnic senti/ents 4here elites 4ere
usin! so/e hineseCs econo/ic )osition to /aintain )o4er. This
encoura!ed een stron!er antihinese feelin!.
To hinese Indonesian 4o/en3 ad/ission is also ounded the
exclusion of SB#I @Indonesian citi
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si/)l re)eated ut it is a )rocess of selectiel reinented identit This is
as criticis/ to Stuart all @%997 4ho notes that identit is al4as
fra!/ented and continuousl in )rocess. It is created histor throu!h
chan!e and transfor/ation. Thus3 for hi/ identit as a )roduct is
)role/atic and inco/)lete. Identit also ex)lains s)eci=c )ositions3
diJerences3 ti/es3 and )laces so it 4ill e /ulti)le. In this sense3 the
hinese 4o/enCs identit can share their co//unalities in one ti/e ut not
in another ti/e not onl that3 it also reEects the )ast such as the olonial
)eriod3 and stories that the hinese 4o/en ex)erienced.
To !o dee)l into analsis I also use the conce)t of haitus and
structures and a!enc. I hae a))iled these conce)ts to analse the hinese
4o/enCs citifor/al? and >sutantie? citinature?. In this stud3
re!ardin! a!enc3 the lifestories sho4 it still 4or$in! 4ithin structures. -or
exa/)le3 the =rstsecond !eneration lie in the s/olic i/a!e of hu/le
%,
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4o/en. 's Ban hao @in 1ei;3 2009 ).6%3 a onfucian3 noted3 in the
%essons &or women' these can e seen throu!h hinese traditions 4hen
the 4elco/e their ne4orn dau!hters. B @% )uttin! their dau!hter under
a ed as a s/ol of 4o/enCs )osition under /en3 and ein! 4ea$3 @2
!iin! the/ a )ot to as s/olic of 4o/enCs ;o in the do/estic arena3 @+
)rain! to the ancestorsC souls and infor/in! the/ of the irth of the
dau!hter as a s/ol of 4o/enCs duties in $ee)in! tradition and ta$in!
care of the ancestral tale cult.
-orced identit QNnational identitC is a tool of the assi/ilation )olic.
o4eer3 this )olic 4as reacted to diJerentl hinese Indonesians.
So/e reall oeed the )olic and chan!ed their identit directl others
>;ust follo4ed? the rule in order to surie. It is also $no4n that so/e
hinese radicall conerted their reli!ion to Isla/ to $ee) their )ro)ertand for their )hsical securit Isla/ ein! s/olic of pri!umi
Indonesians @Suradinata3 %997. In contrast to the hinese in The
Phili)ines3 as aroline au ar!ues3 the could inte!rate their identit 4ith
the national naratie throu!h >naturaliecono/ic in;ustice?. Soeharto ear/ar$ed certain
areas of the econo/ as )laces for the hinese to earn their /one. This
created the i/a!e that all hinese are rich. -orced identit 4as a lan!ua!e
that sti!/atiother?. So these structures )ut hinese
4o/en in a ulnerale )osition. Bourdieu clearl ar!ues ho4 this could
ha))en to citithe state is one of the /ost i/)ortant a!ents of
identi=cation and cate!orisituates su;ectiit? it is a
)ractical sense of the/seles and their social 4orld Q selfunderstandin! of
4here the elon! in oneCs social location? @in oo)er3 20003 ).%7.
1oreoer3 Diddens3 throu!h his conce)t of structure and a!enc ar!ues
that >s)ace and ti/e are asic conditions for social sste/s and social acts?
@-al$hei/er3 20073 ) 2&&. Throu!h this conce)t he also )oints out that
a!ents o)erate 4ithin structural constraints 4ith >a reEection u)on 1arxCsoseration that N1en /a$e their o4n histor3 ut the do not /a$e it ;ust
as the )lease C @Baer3 %99%3 ) 22%. Ti/e and s)ace reEect on chan!in!
social structures that are transfor/ed and re)laced throu!h ti/e and
s)ace. In the context of the hinese 4o/en the re!i/es and !enerations as
structures chan!ed and 4ere re)laced and these structures li/ited their
choices. So3 structures li/it the ailit of a!ents to reach their !oals. 's
%5
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oo)er )oints out3 identit is >a cate!or of eerda social )ractice 4hich
is deelo)ed diJerent actors? @oo)er3 20003 ).%0.
2. Conc"uding Remarks
Therefore3 the aoe conce)ts are / analtical tools to exa/ine3
reEect and delierate on the construction of citi
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Chapter
7istorica" /ackground of the Chinese Indonesians
hinese identities are a )roduct of diJerence and exclusion that aree/edded in histor3 4hich is a construction of )olicies. The )o4er is
i/)osed on the/ as a !rou) of hinese3 althou!h internall the
diJerentiate the/seles as diJerent $inds of hinese cate!ories. In the
/oral collectie /e/or of the nations of Indonesia it see/s that hinese
Indonesians are asent as a cate!or of orang Indonesia asli@natie
Indonesian. The olonial and )ostolonial )eriod contriuted to
conce)tuali @aliens or forei!ners and )uttin! the/ in a sin!le cate!or
of >orang cina? @hinese )eo)le. The )olicies i!nored their histories that
hae een inte!rated into societ and sha)in! a/i!uous identities for
!enerations. It is ar!ued that histor and social chan!e deter/ined the
)o4er relation of ethnicit and !ender that aJect the hinese IndonesianCs
identit.
This sho4s the social )o4er relations that inEuence the construction of
the hinese IndonesianCs identities3 )articularl of 4o/en. hinese
Indonesian 4o/en hae to follo4 alues and eliefs that traditionall
started fro/ onfucian )ractices 4ithin hinese fa/ilies3 e theperanakan ortotok.
.1 The Conception of the Chinese in the Indonesian 8ation5State
T# O//en @%9973 ).2 ar!ues that the notion of nationstate is a conEation
that /edia and scholars hae used. o4eer3 onnor @%99, in O//en3
%9973 ).2+ ex)lains the conEation of state and nation ecause of the idea
that the inhaitants of a state should e a sin!le cate!or and its cate!orcould e called nationals. Therefore3 the stateCs culture has to the one that
)eo)le ado)t or assi/ilate the/seles. Thus3 the >)urit? or the >natie
ness? of the state are issues that )erha)s aJect )eo)leCs lies. hinese3 in
the context of Indonesia3 are warga negara asing@H"' alien citi
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Since the olonial )eriod3 in the utch Indies3 hinese hae een a
controersial su;ect re!ardin! their citi
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Chiao Tsung )ui3 and )rohiited hinese actiities and /oe/ents. The
)olic re;ected the histor that so/e hinese had local roots3 and did not
distin!uish et4een peranakanand totok. The ho/o!eni
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Indonesians orn after %962 4ould eco/e Indonesian iti
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deiants that could e !uided to >ethnic cleansin!? and excludes the/ fro/
)o4er resources.
The hinese in the olonial )eriod actiel deated the status of
hinese 4ithin the "etherlandsIndies. o4 should the hinese react
)oliticall and sociall to the olonial !oern/ent that related to the
hineseCs life and the pri!umislifeM The deates aout hinese /atters are
)ulished in the /edia 3 /ostl at that ti/e in aa3 includin! Suraaa.
Therefore3 at that ti/e the hinese )olitical and cultural orientation can e
easil reco!niIndonesianiforei!nness? and situated the/ as a
ulnerale race 4hich /eans )scholo!icall hinese are constructed as
a/i!uous identities and a tar!et of antihinese actions such as the chaos
in %9&& @Suradinata3 %999 oon3 200&. Ander Soeharto3 hinese
Indonesians held Indonesian citiIndonesian na/e? or een did not hae a hinese na/e
ad/inistratiel theirKartu Tanda Penduduk@#TP or identit card hae a
s)ecial code and their irth certi=cate is diJerent fro/ other races%5.
'Kuilar r @200% ar!ues that the codin! sste/ as a tool 4as used the
%,Ba)er$i 4as a /ass hinese or!ani
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ureaucrac3 )olice and /ilitar to discri/inate a!ainst and /ani)ulate
the/. The state created oundraries et4een pri!umi@natie )eo)le and
non0pri!umi @as hinese are usuall assu/ed to e as a diJerentiatin!
cate!or3 in the sa/e 4a it also ho/o!enipri!uminisi?. In this sense3 the state can e descried as:
>a od of institutions 4hich are centrall or!anionce a hinese3 al4as
a hinese?. It is assu/ed that hinese 4ill neer e Indonesians ho4eer
stron!l the tr. So3 >hineseness?? is also constructed societ%6.
1oreoer the /th of >pendatang1 @ne4 co/er and >penumpang1
@)assen!er is ex)ressed )ulicl3 such as on %2 Octoer 20063 usuf #alla
the ice President of Indonesia3 in a /eetin! 4ith hinese Indonesian
8ntre)reneurs stated that hinese 8ntre)reneurs should not treat
Indonesia as a >hotel? and run a4a 4hen the countr in crisis @-oru/
Budaa Tion!hoa3 2006.. 'lthou!h at that ti/e the Indonesian
!oern/entCs )osition 4as that hinese are not treated as non0pri!umi this
state/ent i/)lies that hinese are al4as >pendatang?
. The Chinese 9ami"+ and ender Identit+
onfucian )atriarch is a foundation of hinese fa/il dail life3 althou!hthe /a not hold onfucianis/ as their reli!ion. hinese fathers hae
)o4er oer their 4ies and children therefore 4o/en hae to e loal to
and res)ect their husands. >)auw? @loalt is one of onfuciusC
%61isdeeds hinese Indonesians are )resented the /edia as hinesere)orts on )raise4orth deeds do not /ention the hinese an!le. 1an hineseIndonesians hide their hinese identit to safe!uard their usiness careers.
22
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teachin!s children hae to !ie their loalt to )arents and fa/il
ancestors. hinese fa/ilies eliee that >uhauw? @ein! loal is )art of
hinese culture the >uhauw? conce)t /a$es 4o/en oedient to the fa/il
order. u Shih @200% in 1ei;3 20093 ). 5& )oints out that onfuciusC >rule
/an not rule la4?%73 can /ean that 4hateer father3 elder and rother
sas in ter/s of social relations /a not e o))osed. Traditionall 4o/en
4ho are /arried hae to /oe to the husandCs house ut 1el D. Tan
@%997 /entions that hinese )erana$an 4o/en ado)t aanese culture3 for
exa/)le hinese )erana$an fro/ Su$au/i use the ilateral fa/il as their
fa/il sste/3 that /eans the dau!hters after /arria!e could lie 4ith their
o4n )arents 4ith their husands.
urin! the utch olonial )eriod so/e hinese 4o/en3 ex)eciall
fro/ the /idle class3 could attened school /ost 4ent to hinese or utch
schools. -e4 hinese Indonesian 4o/en )artici)ated in )olitical actiitieseen in the Soe$arno )eriod%& ho4eer )ost the Soeharto )eriod /an
hinese Indonesian 4o/en eca/e dentists3 la4ers3 and a fe4 "DO
actiists hae e/er!ed )ulicl @Tan3 %997.
In %9003 the hinesePeranakanestalished Tiong )oa )wee Koan
@T#%9in a$arta 4ith one of its /issions to $ee) hinese tradition and
cultures alie estalishin! hinese schools. The 4ord >tion!hoa? 4as
introduced T# in %92& as a )olitical decision. 'nother institution
4ith a si/ilar /ission 4asKhong Kauw )wee @onfucius eli!ion Societ#3
4hich 4as estalished in %9%& in Solo and is no4 $no4n as 1'T'#I"
@1a;elis Tin!!i '!a/a #hon! ucu Indonesia. Its /ission 4as to )ro/ote
onfucian reli!ion in the dail life of hinese fa/ilies. Lie/ Sin! 1ei;Cs
research on >hinese Ho/en Professionals in the )rocess of the chan!in!
identit? ar!ues education and ein! a )rofessional are 4as for 4o/en to
chan!e their )osition 4ithin the fa/il and societ to construct a >ne4
identit? that is a!ainst the construction of hinese as ? other?. She
%7In hina it is also $no4n as the Kuan xi custo/ of social relation in doin!usiness the four /ain rules are @% relationshi) et4een )arents and children
@hCen!FaJection @2 elationshi) et4een !oern/ent and )eo)le@IFri!hteousness @+ relationshi) et4een husands and 4ies @)iehFdistinction@, relationshi) a/on! iolo!ical silin!s%&Of )ro/inent Indonesian hinese3 onl 22 are fe/ale /ostl in s)ort and thearts @Tan3 %997%9The estalishin! of T# also has critics fro/ the hineseperanakanthe/seles4ho thou!ht it onl follo4ed hinese custo/ and alues3 4hereas hinese
Peranakan arenot the sa/e as hinese fro/ the /ainland. "ot all hinese senttheir children to T# schools. See #4ee in! T;iat @Suradinata3 20%0
2+
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ex)lains that )rofessional hinese Indonesian 4o/en can create a ne4
identit ado)tin! local cultures. ere3 the hinese 4o/en not onl
acce)t the identit i/)osed on the/3 the also actiel create their identit
as a 4a to co/at exclusion.
Ti/es and !enerations contriute diJerentl to for/attin! the identit of
hinese 4o/en ecause the contexts of histor chan!e /atters of
econo/ics3 societ3 )olitics and location. ere3 the identit of the hinese
4o/en can e seen as a )rocess 3 oth collectiel and indiiduall.
.# Three enerations of Chinese Indonesian omen
1;
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peranakanshould identif the/seles asIndonesier2%3 ho4eer so/e other
pri!umileaders started to Kuestion the loalt of the hinese to the ne4
countr. In the a)anese olonial )eriod /an hinese 4ere $illed and
the 4ere structured as one cate!or of hinese. It 4as a er diJicult ti/e
for /ost )eo)le.
ulturall3 4o/en at this ti/e 4ere stron!l situated hinese
tradition to ful=ll the roles of hinaCs ancient tradition3 to e oedient
dau!hters and 4ies. DirlsC education 4as restricted and onl fe4 4o/en
had o))ortunities to stud. Those 4ho did 4ere /ainl of peranakan
descent that 4ere oriented to4ards the utch 8ast Indies so/e een
studied in olland. Oerall3 fe4 peranakanand totok 4ent to school and
fe4er !raduated3 so/e ecause of unstale )olitical situations and 4ars.
1ost 4ere forced their )arents and /atch /a$ers to /arr at an earl
a!e.
1;'151;=co//unist? and forced identit 4as started. The "e4 Order deelo)ed its
)o4er )rohiitin! all left 4in! ideolo! or actiities that had sus)ected
relations to co//unis/. Thus3 the hinese 4ere forced to eco/e a)olitical
)ersons and 4ere constructed as /orall not )art of the nation3 des)ite
liin! in Indonesia. 1ilitar )o4er 4as used to control hinese actiit and
assi/ilation 4as forced. Hithin the fa/il reli!ion @onfucianis/ started to
eco/e an i/)ortant issue. Hhen the hinese schools 4ere closed /an of
the/ continued their stud in atholic /issionar schools and 4hen the
had to chan!e their reli!ion /an hinese eca/e atholic or Protestant.
't that ti/e3 reli!ions 4ere extre/el se!re!ated and institutionali
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1;=15toda+: 8ew $rder > !ost Soeharto > the third generation
't the end of Suhartos rei!n3 in %990 the di)lo/atic relationshi) et4een
the P and Indonesia 4as reuilt a!ain after ein! fro
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Chapter #
?4periences and *emories of Three enerations of the
Chinese Indonesians
This cha)ter 4ill )resent arious as)ects of citi
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in la4 4ere in oth cases er )o4erful. -or Lie3 her relationshi) to her
/other in la4 4as diJicult and full of conEict. er husand 4as alued as a
loal son to his )arents 4ho considered hi/ uhauw. Hhen Lie !ae irth to
her seenth dau!hter her /other in la4 as$ed her husand to !ie a4a her
dau!hter to anod 4ho 4anted her. She 4as reall disa))ointed 4hen her
husand a!reed 4ith the idea. To )rotect her dau!hter she fou!ht alone
a!ainst her husandCs fa/il. She !ies as the reason:
>4h should I !ie / dau!hter if 4e can feed herM I =!ht 4ith / husand
and to su))ort the idea he een said that the dau!hter 4as not his and it
4as as a result of / aJair to other /en. It 4as er hurt /e. o4 can he
sa that 4hile I a/ onl 4or$in! to feed / childrenM It 4as ecause her
/o/3 I hate it?. @Lie3 6F&F%0
This occurred3 she assu/ed3 ecause her )arents er )oor. She thou!ht if
the 4ere rich she 4ould not e so treated. o4eer she also /entionsthat so/e of her friends 4ho 4ere rich also suJered iolence fro/ )arents
in la4 es)eciall fro/ /other in La4. These ex)eriences a))l to BanCs life
stories too. She suJered iolence fro/ her /other in la4 as lon! as she
lied 4ith her althou!h she ca/e fro/ a rich fa/il and her father
so/eti/es hel)ed her fa/il econo/icall. This continued for around 20
ears and ecause of it she al4as felt unhealth and eer 4ee$ sa4 a
doctor. Both of the/ thou!ht it 4as ecause the 4ere a totokfa/il3 and
their )arents in the context of /arria!e 4ere >3er$ totok1. 1c"aCs
criticis/ @200, to Bourdieu is that class also inEuences !ender haitus3
ho4eer in the cases of Lie and Bun3 class did not al4as 4or$ in the sa/e
4a. all /entions that identit is fra!/ented in the context of the =rst
!eneration and this is true here their identit is fra!/ented ut hierarch
also )las a )art. This hierarch is deter/ined the context and ti/e3 as
T$. Oo/een @2006 /entions3 identit is not si/)l /ulti)le ut it also
hierarchical.
'lthou!h LieCs ex)eriences are /iserale3 she still tau!ht her dau!hters
that after the /arried the /ust oe their husandCs rules. 'lthou!h this
)laced her in a er )ainful situation3 as she sas:
>It is our custo/3 ou hae to e uhauw and e a !ood 4o/an.
Ho/en in fa/il /ust understand their )osition 4e do not hae an
ri!hts. It is diJerent fro/ aa or 1ela traditions3 4o/en are /ore
e res)ected. I $no4 it is een stu)id ut ho4 do 4e chan!e. He are
hinese. He /ust res)ect to our traditions? @Lie3 6F&F%0
2&
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-an! 4as also forced to !ie a4a her child to her rother in la4 4ho 4as
childless. She tells that 4hen she ex)erienced the situation3 as her /other3
of !iin! a4a her child3 she understood 4h her /other had er hurt
feelin!s to4ard her father for such a lon! ti/e. -or her3 ein! a dau!hter in
a hinese fa/il /eans ein! read to sacri=ce her life ut she also
/ention that toda is not the ti/e an/ore for 4o/en to e iolated. She
said3 >4e are not totokan/ore3 4h should 4e follo4 the rules of hauw
and !ood 4o/enM?. She fou!ht 4hen the second ti/e her husand did the
sa/e thin!3 as$in! her a!ain to !ie >our?C @her child a4a een efore she
deliered a a. She said3 >I =!ht to / husand and / father in la43 the
do not $no4 ho4 diJicult it is for /e3 een 4hen I a/ )re!nant?. Self
understandin! is i/)ortant in ho4 the or!ani
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Lie acce)ted the totokscultural elief 4hereas her dau!hter did not.
This contradiction is clearer 4hen >national identit? is forced on the/
throu!h the assi/ilation of Soeharto )olic. The second!eneration see/ed
to ado)t the >national culture? ecause 4e >/ust? and at the sa/e ti/e
also >need? to )rotect ourseles and out of traditions. I 4ill elaorate on
this in the reli!ion )art.
Ho/en >should e? sacri=ced =rst in the fa/il this is the lifestor of "io3
a =rst!eneration. She 4as orn into a peranakanfa/il 4here hinese
dialect had neer een used. Hhen she 4as %0 ears old her )arents 4ere
an$ru)ted ecause the PP %0F%95922)olic aJected her fa/il in 4hich
hinese 4ere )rohiited to run their usiness in illa!es. The lied in a
illa!e in Blora. She 4as sent to her auntieCs house. It 4as her uncleCs
decision fro/ her /otherCs side. She told her stor sain! : >If I could e
a /an I 4ould li$e to e one?. Since she 4as a child she had to hel) her
/other 4or$in! at ho/e and on the far/. If her /other needed her hel) on
a school da3 she 4as )rohiited fro/ !oin! to school 4hereas oth of her
rothers 4ent freel. The situation eca/e 4orse 4hen she lied in her
auntieCs house ecause she 4as treated li$e a /aid. Then after %5 ears she
!ae u) and decided to /arr a /an she arel $ne43 a fa/il of her
nei!hor3 ut her uncle did not a!ree 4ith her decision ecause she 4as too
oun!3 %7 ears. She ;ust 4anted to leae the house3 as she said >I 4as er
tired?. Then she left the house for her /otherCs house in Blora 4here a
4ee$ after the /an follo4ed her and 4ithin a /onth3 the 4ere /arried and
ac$ to Suraaa a!ain to her husandCs house. o4eer3 her life did notchan!e /uch. The "ioCs ex)eriences reeal that !ender identit is not
al4as deter/ined social cate!or of totok and peranakanut ti/e and
identi=cation of elon!in! inEuence the 4as of their life. It also
distin!uishes et4een 4hat the should do and should not do as hinese
4o/en either as peranakanor totok.
The )olic of PP %0F%959 aJected three other infor/ants fro/ =rst
!eneration and their stories are Kuite si/ilar to "ioCs3 the also a!reed to
/arr a )erson the arel $ne4 or 4ho 4as introduced to the/. 1arria!e
is in the )arentsC hand3 or of elders 4ithin the fa/il. o4eer all this/arria!e did not hel) the/ a!ainst iolence and ta$e the/ out of )oert.
elationshi)s 4ith )arents in la4 4ere decisie. Those stories could refer to
22Peraturan Pe/erintah @Doern/ent )olic "o. %0F%959 is a )olic desi!n 1ilitar institution that anned the hinese to run their usiness exce)t in cit.Hhile at that ti/e /an hinese lie in illa!e and also it 4as >in the na/e? ofnational securit3 to )rotect pri!umisecono/ic )osition.
+0
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BourdieuCs conce)t that a!enc 4or$s 4ithin the structures. 1arria!e 4as
a 4a to otain their freedo/ ut the structures located the/ in si/ilar
situations ut in diJerent contexts.
Those ex)eriences 4ere not ex)erienced the third!eneration
ecause the class )ositions of so/e infor/ants are chan!in! ut for thosein the sa/e class the for/s are si/ilar ut the issues altered3 the still hae
li/ited choices. -or exa/)le in the cases of I$a3 I$aCs /other is /arried to
aanees /an. The /arria!e is unha))3 her husand is unale to feed the
fa/il. This )role/ e/)hases the stereot)e of ethnic diJerences and
raises Kuestions to the assi/ilation )olic. "io3 I$aCs !rand/other3
encoura!ed her to /arr a hinese /an. Bein! third!eneration the can
i!nore >the rules?. "io understood that she 4as a peranakandescendant
ut she feel that societ treated her as >al4as? hinese3 /eanin! as orang
totok. She identi=es herself as hinese Qtotok. 'fter our second /eetin!
she told /e the stor of her dau!hter3 I$aCs /other3 4ho /arried a aaness
Qpri!umi /an. She 4as e/arrassed to tell her dau!hterCs stor as she
ex)lained later to /e that it 4as sha/eful for her fa/il ecause as hinese
the should not /arr to other races. Later she ex)lained that at =rst3 she
did not $no4 her dau!hter /arried the /an3 it 4as 4ithout her a))roal.
o/)are this to Luc3 a second !eneration3 pearanakan3 4ho is also afraid
that her dau!hter /a /arr a /an fro/ another race3 she could ne!otiate
the race issue as lon! as the are in the sa/e class. o4eer3 she also
4onders if a /an fro/ another ethnic !rou) fro/ a si/ilar class 4ould
4ant to /arr a hinese 4o/an.
#.2 omen3s e4periences
The hinese3 in the context of Indonesia3 are /ar!inali
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this elon!in! 4or$s 4ithin the line of the oundaries of exclusion and
inclusion fro/ the state and the societ een et4een the/seles and
other ethnic !rou)s. The /oe/ent of elon!in! is not onl et4een
!enerations ut also 4ithin !eneration itself. The 4as these !enerations
construct their su;ectiit is not eas as )uttin! the/ into cate!or3 it is
)scholo!ical3 cultural and social /atters that create certain conEicts
et4een !enerations in de=nin! the/seles3 een 4ithin the/seles.
The assi/ilation that assu/es as a )rocess of acce)tance /a;orit
!rou) as #4o$un @2005 /entions )reiousl in cha)ter t4o3 in the
context of I$a3 a third!eneration 4o/an of /ix/arried descendants3 the
notion of assi/ilation does not see/ to 4or$ since it is a )lain! !a/e
et4een do/inant and suordinate in order to !ain acce)tance3 . 's an
>assi/ilation? )roduct she feels a/i!uit in her identit3 et4een aanese
and hinese. The do/inant !rou)3 aanesepri!umi does not al4as
acce)t her as )art of the co//unit ecause her a))earance does not reall
loo$ as aanese ut /ore as a /ixed race. She sas3
>It is confusin!3 if I a/ to!ether 4ith / pri!umifriends the see /e ashinese3 also it ha))ens the sa/e 4hen I !ather 4ith / hinese friends3the see / ees as aanese or pri!umi. Both3 so/eti/es do not reallacce)t /e3 ut I feel /ore co/fortale 4ith / pri!umi friends ecause4ith the/ I feel /ore free and the hinese friends usuall )la too /anroles that I donCt li$e. The associate the/seles /ost ti/es exclusiel4ith hinese !rou)s onl. @I$a3 %5F&F%0
The ar!u/ent !oes that assi/ilation can reduce ethnic senti/ents and
the feelin! of e/otional onds of ho/o!eneit can sole the stru!!le of
ethnicit. o4eer3 in the hinese Indonesian 4o/enCs context3 this
assu/)tion did not 4or$. 'cce)tance fro/ the do/inant !rou) could not
control ethnic senti/ents 4here elites 4ere usin! >so/e hineseCs
econo/ic )osition? to /aintain )o4er. This >usin! so/e? een encoura!es
stron!er antihinese feelin!. Both the hinese /iddlehi!h class and the
do/inants richl internalirich?3 es)eciall /iddle class and the failed to reali
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unco/fortale ecause neither !rou) reall acce)ts her as a >nature?. In
the context of I$a3 hence3 assi/ilation does not al4as 4or$ fro/ ethnic
senti/ent.
-orced identit is a /atter for hinese 4o/en 4ho hae /ulti)le
identities3 a!enc is not a /atter of )olitical )artici)ation ut /ore ho4the can surie culturall and sociall in a situation 4hen throu!hout the
histor of the hinese3 the )olitical re!i/es do not !uarantee their
citiun=nished usiness?. es)ite the fact
that historicall the peranakanhae clai/ed that the hae co//onalities
4ith other !rou)s 4ithin the Indonesian nation state3 the ne4 !eneration is
still stru!!lin! for the reco!nition of their citi4e are Indonesians 4ho hae the
sa/e ri!hts as other ethnic !rou)s ut 4h should the diJerentiate /e as
hineseM?.
-irstsecond !enerations exercise their a!enc 4ithin the fa/il nor/s3
4ith re!ard to /arital custo/. 1arria!e in the hinese tradition see/s the
/ain drea/ of )arents for their children es)eciall their dau!hters 4here it
can lin$ to the i/a!e of 4o/en. 1arria!e is i/)ortant to hinese 4o/en
ecause it ful=lls their !ender roles and hel)s their )arents to acco/)lish
their oli!ation /arrin! their children oJ. The lifestories of ein! a
>!ood 4o/an? reEect on their a!enc and resistance. But this =rst
!eneration case sho4s that ListerCs conce)t of citiusiness? or econo/ is not the onl ;o areas for
hinese. o4eer3 for the /iddle class3 such as Re3 1ar and Ste)3 4ho are
all actie in ca/)us actiities3 and used to 4or$in! 4ith pri!umi3 their)erce)tion is chan!in! as a result of their actiities 4hich !ie the/
$no4led!e of ethnic identit and critical ex)eriences aout their )osition
4ithin the societ3 and a critiKue to their )arents on hineseness as 4ell as
on Indonesianness. So/eti/es for the/ ein! hinese and ein! Indonesia
are si/ilar. The feel the dichoto/ identit 4ill e/er!e 4hen so/eone
as$s their ethnicit or 4hen their )arents constrain the/ to =nd hinese
++
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/en co/)lete 4ith a si/ilar reli!ion. -or so/e fa/ilies oth criteria /ust
e ful=lled ut /ost second!eneration infor/ants sa ethnicit could e
ne!otiated ut not reli!ion. Sur)risin!l3 fro/ / oseration peranakan
descendants ho)e /ore that their children 4ill /arr to the sa/e ethnic
!rou) rather than totokdescendants 4ho tau!ht that reli!ion is /ore
i/)ortant. Interestin!l3 if Leo Suradinata sas peranakanare /ore ound
to their localit3 in this stud3 the lifestories of infor/ants sho4 that
peranakandescendants are /ore ound to their ethnicit co/)are to totok
descendants 4ho are /ore o)en to their localit. ence3 these peranakan
descendants tr to reinent their ethnic identit rather than totok.This is
can e seen in sense of identit )art3 ReCs case and I elaorate in the
reli!ion session in this cha)ter too.
Lac$ of reco!nition of hinese historical roots in Indonesia3 in
)articular in the Soeharto )eriod3 contriutes to the hinese citi
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=!ht 4ith the oJicers ecause the ta$e /uch ti/e to 4or$ on /
docu/ents and as$ aout / >hinese )ass)ort?. Of course I do not
hae ecause I a/ Indonesian3 een I cannot s)ea$ an hinese
dialect and neer een to hina and do not $no4 / hinese
ancestors. I said all that facts to the oJicers and 4h do the still
thou!ht that I a/ hinese 4hile in fact I a/ trul Indonesian. The
are also as$ed /e /one3 I had ex)lained that I a/ not rich ut the
do not eliee /e? @un %9F&F%0
unCs lifestories clearl de=ne the citi
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SB#I3 it is easier for the/ access certain ;os and education3 althou!h
ta$in! education /ostl in )riate schools3 a citi
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The sti!/a as >co//unist? 4as stron!l ex)erienced the =rstsecond
!eneration in the %960s. Bun3 =rst!eneration3 ex)erienced it 4hen the
/ilitar ins)ected her house and she /ade sure that fa/il did not hae
an connection 4ith co//unists re/oin! all hinese s/ols. Ho/en
in the house had to ensure that the house 4as alread clean of all si!n of
hineseness3 for exa/)le een the hinese character of ha))iness Q4ing&u
/ust e hidden. Bun and Lie sa4 their friendsC house 4here the /ilitar
thre4 a4a their ancestral cult taleFaltar3 4hichs for hinese it is er
aluale and er i/)ortant ecause the altar is a s/ol of their res)ect
for ancestors and a /ediu/ of co//unication et4een the/ and the
ancestors. Those ex)eriences re/ind the/ that the countr Q>their ho/e?
>does not al4as acce)t? the/ as the are. Therefore3 I 4ould ar!ue that
the construction of >other? in this context of the hineseCs citi
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Buddhist actiities ecause her /other 4anted her to e actie in reli!ion
actiities. er )arents hae diJerent reli!ions her /other has conerted to
Buddhis/ for %7 ears3 4hile her father is onfucian and is actie doin! its
rituals althou!h in )rinci)le he cannot ex)lain the /eanin! of his reli!ion to
his children. In the Post Soeharto )eriod3 her father forced her to stud
hinese lan!ua!e ecause she is of hinese descent so a))ro)riatel she
$no4s 1andarin and in future /arried a hinese Indonesian /an. In fact3
her )arents cannot s)ea$ hinese3 and are descendants of /ixed lood
fa/il. Re feels 1andarin is not her lan!ua!e and it is unnecessar to lean it
4hile she uses !ahasa @Indonesian lan!ua!e in datoda life. She
ex)eriences aanese /en /ore sensitie to 4o/enCs fellin! co/)ared to
hinese /en 4ho are onl us 4ith their usiness. The sa/e can e said
for third!eneration the consciousness of ethnic identit is sli!ht. 'lthou!h
she reall 4ant to /arr to a aaness /an she understand that it is diJicult
and her )arents er an!r3 she sas >a$u saan! /ere$a? @I loe the/3 Soshe 4ill follo4 4hat her )arents 4ant ecause it )erha)s !ood for her that
not !ie e/otional urden to the/. It is as a result of ein! loal and
res)ect to fa/il 0,uhauw0 still inEuence this !eneration ut the use the
4ord >sa$ang? @loe not >!er!akti? @uhauwQloal. The $no4led!e of the
hinese traditions is extre/el /odest the identi=ed the/seles as
Indonesians rather than hinese. This !rou) datoda lie 4ith other
diJerent races and do diJerent actiities to!ether at schools. This
ac$!round functions to rea$ the ethnic oundaries3 creates sa/eness of
feelin! as >Indonesian?3 and continuousl re!ulates their 4a of ein! to
ensure that the are connected and tied to each other @1artsin3 20%0. The
Sa/eness forces the/ to reEect that the are united3 ut it also creates
diJiculties to understand 4h their )arents @second!eneration forced
the/ to /arr hinese /en 4ho do not 4ith their ideals of /en. The $no4
so/ethin! aout the histor of exclusion of hinese in Indonesia. Hhen I
as$ed aout the 1ei riotC9&2,/an of this !rou) did not $no43 the thou!ht
it 4as onl in a$arta and Suraaa 4as )eaceful. The re/e/ered it as
the ti/e 4hen the 4ent ac$ earl fro/ school and it closed for t4o das
ut the en;oed their ti/e and )laed at ho/e. 'ccordin! to the/3 the
hinese hardl inte!rate the/seles to societ and hae diJiculties to ada)t4ith pri!umiecause the hae diJerent orientations. Hhile the ex)lain
their identit is diJerent fro/ their )arents and !rand)arents3 the used a
4ord >kuno? @oldfashion to distin!uish >the/? fro/ ?us?. The ex)lain3
2,The 1ei riot in %99& is the ti/e 4hen Soeharto fell also it is $no4n as racial riot4here /an hinese 4o/en 4ere ra)ed. 't the ti/e of 1ei riots /ost of the third!enerations 4ere around %0%+ ears old
+&
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toda is a )eriod 4here hinese should e o)en and inte!rate the/seles to
societ ecause the are Indonesians. Toda3 the o)enness of the hinese
ex)ression throu!h ne4 re!i/e3 for the/ is not such a i! issue ecause
the identif the/seles as hristianFatholic not onfucian. It see/s for
the/3 hinese traditions associate 4ith onfucianis/.
o4eer3 the second !eneration does not feel )articularl inte!rated or
4elco/e in the countr 4here the are citimeme cina? @hinese !irl on the streets. The actors are identi=ed as
pri!umi. -an! sas3 >it is ecause 4e are hinese that those /en @pri!umi
4ill do it3 and if it ha))ens to their o4n 4o/en3 eerone 4ill hit at that
/an3 ut 4hen it ha))en to hinese 4o/en the onl s/ile and let it
ha))en?. 8thnicit and !ender haitus situated the/ in a diJerent 4a of
ein!3 Q3 the SuhartoCs re!i/e le!iti/ates this identi=cation throu!h notonl )hsical force ut also s/olic 4as ia s)eci=c )olicies. -or exa/)le3
sha)in! se!re!ation of ;os3 schools3 laelin! the hinese in a )recise class3
and ad/inistratiel codin! the identit card 4hich is re!ulated for/all
and infor/all. Theses !enerations of 4o/en sho4 ho4 this ethnic identit
and !ender /oe in stale as 4ell as unstale 4as that interact 4ith
reaJir/ and con=r/ continuousl. -or exa/)le3 to )rotect her fa/il3 Luc3
second!eneration told that on certain occasions the i!nored their ethnic
identit and 4ere afraid to e $no4n as hinese. Hhen her )hsical
a))earance is confronted she ac$no4led!ed herself as 1enadonese @fro/
Sula4esi or aa$nese @fro/ #ali/antan 4hich hae si/ilar a))earance
to hinese. -or the third!eneration3 Re feels unco/fortale 4hen )eo)le
identif her as hinese ecause she feels as Indonesian. She lies in a
situation 4here her )arents and her !rand/a treat her as hinese.
8x)ressie identit can een seen throu!h the ex)eriences at ho/e
4here the could do their hinese traditions in the )ast and )ersonall feel
+9
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a connection 4ith their ori!in Q their ho/eland. -or the second !eneration3
reli!ion is a >fronational identit?. o4eer this !rou) also see/s to hae reinented their
ethnic identit /ore stron!l than the =rst!eneration of hinese 4o/en3
)erha)s the exclusion due to their ethnic identit 4as /ore 4iderl
ex)erienced3 4hile =rst!eneration 4o/en had onl li/ited access to stud
and ;os. This NreinentedC identit is stron!l felt the third!eneration
4hen their /other @second!eneration forces the/ to =nd hinese /en.
The /e/ories and ex)eriences as a cate!or of hinese also 4ere
ex)erienced the =rst !eneration throu!h the son!25>cina loleng?3 4hich
fro/ the colonial to )ost colonial Soeharto re!i/e 4as a >)o)ular son!?.
The reaction to this son! is arieds so/e of the =rst !eneration told their
dau!hters to e cal/ and not a!ainst >the pri!umi? 4ho san! it
ex)lainin!3 >4e are diJerent and the @pri!umi do not understand >us? and
4e hae to re/e/er that 4e are ne4 co/ers in this land?. o4eer3 so/e
other infor/ants3 =rstsecond3 feel that the are Indonesian. -or the/
ethnicit onl distin!uishes so/e cultural diJerences ut does not exclude
the/ fro/ the nation. 1oreoer3 =rstsecond !enerations lie in a social
structure 4here at that ti/e the dichoto/ et4een the hinese the/seles
4ere er stron! Q cate!or totokand peranakanQas one criterion to choose
a husand. Then et4een totokalso the /ust a4are aout their clan and
4hich clan can =t 4ith the/ so3 distinction aout >the/? and >us? not onl
externall et4een Chineseand pri!umiut also internall the created
diJerent cate!ories of hinese in order to ful=ll their !ender roles. Lie @the=rst !eneration sas aout her situation 4hen she /arried:
>I 4as /arried in %9523 4hen Soe$arno era3 Indonesia has it inde)endent
alread. o4eer3 I had /iserale here @in Sa/)it3 her )lace efore /oe to
Suraaa3 / husand and his fa/il tortured /e 4here eer da I had to
coo$ for all )eo)le and do other do/estic thin!s. It 4as 4as of totokfa/il
treats their dau!hters in la4. 1 husand did not care of /e he onl
listened to his /other. 1 /other said3 it 4as / fate I could not leae it.
1 /other 4anted /e to acce)t hi/ ecause he is totokand)okcia
@hinese clan. 1 /other in la4 is / /otherCs cousin. 'ctuall it 4as
)eriod of 1ao Uedon! 4hen )eo)le hae their o4n dates ut I !ot /
husand throu!h a /atch/a$er >@Lie 6F&F%0
25ina Lolen!? is a >son!? that 4as sun! pri!umichildren and adults ashu/iliation to distin!uish other !rou)s . The son! is : cina lon!len!3 /a$an ai3$alau /ati /atana $eencelen!. This son! /ostl understood hinese indiJerent re!ions.
,0
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-an!3 LieCs dau!hter3 said that3 >totokfa/ilies usuall 4ant to =nd totok
)artners for their children?. This 4as her ex)erience. ' /atch/a$er is
co//on for toto$ fa/il to =nd si/ilar ethnic. So in -an!Cs case3 a
/atch/a$er also introduced her to her husand as her )arentsC 4ishes. In
this sense3 selfunderstandin! of the/ as an a4areness of ein! diJerent
fro/ other hinese !rou)3 and =ndin! the sa/e !rou) to their dau!hters
althou!h it 4as /iserale for hinese 4o/en lie in toto$ tradition. Lie
continue to =nd totok/en for her dau!hters. It see/s as Bourdieu sas3
ha!itusis turn into nature @1cLeod3 2005 4here the ;ust continue the
structures auto/aticall. Later -an! turned a!ainst this structure sain!
>/ children do not hae to =nd totok or peranakanan/ore3 the i/)ortant
is the hae to =nd )ersons 4ho hae si/ilar reli!ion to the/3 atholic3
een the are not hinese )ersons?.
#.# Re"igion > a new identit+
In this stud3 accordin! to / oseration and listenin! to lifestories of the
infor/ants3 3 it see/s that toda reli!ion or Qreli!ious identit in the
context of the hinese 4o/en is an i/)ortant issue co/)ared to the
colonial and earl )ostcolonial )eriod. Since the colonial )eriod the
reli!ious identities of hinese Indies are dierse ut onfucianis/ is
do/inant. The hinese 4ho hold hristianitFatholicis/ as their reli!ion
at that ti/e 4ere identi=ed as peranakan3 althou!h not all peranakanare
hristian and een so/e totokare hristian. Isla/ is associated 4ith
pri!umi ' so hinese 4ho conerted their reli!ion to Isla/ 4ere seen to
chan!e their ethnic identit to e pri!umi. The assi/ilation )olic forced
the hinese3 to conert their reli!ion to the reli!ion ac$no4led!ed the
state such as hristian3 atholic3 Isla/3 Buddha3 and indu. This reli!ion is
)art of the >national identit? that eer Indonesian has to hold one of the
reli!ions. Indi!enous reli!ion 4as )rohiited.
In this stud3 the second !eneration is stron!l situated this )olic.
So/e infor/ants hae chosen reli!ion in school ecause reli!ion 4as one of
the /andator su;ects that all students /ust stud. -ar3 second!eneration3
orn in %9723 tells her ex)eriences aout reli!ion and ho4 did she
conerted:
>'t that ti/e is a chan!in! ti/e3 I 4as at , th!rade3 4e handed a for/ of
reli!ion that /ust e ta$en ho/e for )arents to =ll in 4hat reli!ion hae e
conerted. I sho4 the for/ to / /other ut she onl said that u) to /e.
,%
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Therefore3 I select atholic3 / i! rother selects Buddha3 and / little
rother selects atholic. 1 /other does not care of reli!ion. 't that ti/e3
all students 4ho hold onfucius /ust choose one. @-ar %9F&F%0
In %96&3 4hen all hinese schools 4ere closed3 /ost of the/ /oed to
hristianFatholic /issionar schools ut /an of the/3 in )articular4o/en3 sto))ed studin!. Hhile datoda3 the 4ere structured in
ahristian eniron/ent and studied hristianit in schools3 so/e
oluntaril conerted their reli!ion fro/ onfucianis/ to hristianFatholic.
o4eer3 for the =rst!eneration the reasons the conerted reli!ion are
inEuenced their thin$in! )attern of onfucianis/ that eliees anone
4ho died /ust e )raed to and res)ected their descendants. Hhen their
children conerted their reli!ion3 the follo4 the childrenCs reli!ion. Lie
sas that as lon! as ou are hinese3 4hateer our reli!ion ou /ust not
for!et our tradition.
W.... So re/e/er it is hineseCs custo/s3 4e are hinese. These custo/scould not e lost. 'lthou!h3 4e eca/e a hristian the tradition as hineseshould not e lost?. @Lie3 5F&F%0
Sociall and econo/icall3 the >hinese reli!ion? as On!o$a/ /entions
is a urden for the fa/il. Ho/en hae to ta$e care of the altar and )roide
diJerent stuJ on the altar. So/e conerted for econo/ic reasons as in SunCs
lifestories. She conerted her reli!ion to hristian three /onths after her
husand died ecause she thou!ht it 4as too ex)ensie to )roide for the
altar. Thus3 hristianit in this sense3 !ies her a 4a to sole her econo/ic
)role/s. Later she also is actie in the church. The church su))ort her
4ith a /onthl allo4ance Q the call it rice /one3 to u rice onl3 if she is
actie in the churchCs actiities. Sociall3 it is also !iesfreedo/ to 4o/en
fro/ their !ender roles ecause the do not hae to follo4 Nhinese
traditionC carin! for the altar.
Therefore3 for =rstsecond !enerations3 this forced identit see/s to
/eet 4ith the 4o/enCs needs for the >ne4 identit?. This >ne4 identit? Q
/odern reli!ion can e said to e their a!enc to structures that situate
the/ in a )atriarchal sste/. o4eer3 this ne4 reli!ion Q
hristianFatholic is also ased on a )atriarchal ideolo! 4here /en are
do/inant. -an!3 Bin!3 and hin! tell si/ilar ex)eriences aout the
diJerence et4een the/. In onfucius elief3 /en can do anthin! to
4o/en and sho4 no res)ect to 4o/en3 4hile in hristianit )eo)le are
tau!ht to loe each other3 so for the/ 4ith this loe /en can res)ect and
,2
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)ut 4o/en in etter )osition. Throu!h reli!ious identit3 the hinese 4ho
usuall distin!uish et4een the/seles could e united as >hinese and in
the sa/e ti/e as Indonesian?3 althou!h this identit still )uts the/ as a
>/inorit? cate!or 4hen Isla/ is do/inant. The hineseFethnic >/inorit>
is an unsafe cate!or co/)ared to reli!ious >/inorit? This >ne4 /inorit?
constructs their )scholo!ical condition to feel free to /oe as >Indonesian?
and so/eti/es as hinese Indonesian3 4ith easier accesses to the )ulic
s)here. Inclusie citi!ien? Qso/e cannot conert ecause their
)arents hold a reli!ion and the oJiciall hae een a)tiho/e?
and >4elco/e? and as the/seles3 4here hristianit !ies the/ >s)ace? to
articulate their ethnic identit.
#.' Conc"uding Remarks
The aoe analsis on the issues of su;ectiit of the hinese 4o/en dail
life sho4s that !eneration contriutes to the conce)tuali
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Theoretical fra/e4or$s that hae een used are not linier that can
ex)lain all !eneration in the sa/e 4as ecause the context3 ti/e3
!eo)olitical inEuence ho4 each !eneration identif the/seles in the
context of Indonesia 4here in their /e/ories in )articular to secondthird
!eneration the chan!in! re!i/es contriutes to their )osition )oliticall and
sociall.
,,
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Chapter '
Conc"usion: ,i@erent *eaning of Three eneration
This conclusion starts fro/ the Kuestions that I )osed in cha)ter % and lin$4ith theories and the =ndin! as 4ell as / reEection on the /ethodolo!
that I hae chosen. In !eneral3 ho4 do three !enerations of 4o/en
)erceie and de=ne their situation ased on !ender and ethnicit in
res)onse to the )rocess exclusion and inclusionM o4 does this inEuence
their o4n self)erce)tion in creatin! their citi
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continuit of hinese traditions as their 4orld. On the other hand3 the
irtuall /ust leae fro/ their dail life as hinese co//unit3 and /oe to
the i! co//unit3 Indonesian nation. Thus3 the feelin! and ex)eriences as
local /oe to >national? leel forced the/ to i!nored their hineseness
)uttin! safet of their fa/il on the to) of their list.
Second!eneration !ies /eanin! diJerentl to the >nationalidentit?
that forced to the/. -or the/3 The reKuire/ent to e >Indonesian? 4ere
alued as a 4a to /oed out fro/ the urden of traditions as hinese
4o/en3 thou!h conert their reli!ion Qne4 identit the reli!ion identit as
a 4a ho4 the reinented their hineseness in relation to the state ut
silentl the forced their children to e hinese as their i/a!ination of
hinese. o4eer3 if hinese in =rst!eneration /ore fra!/ented in dierse
cate!ories accordin! to peranakanQ totok3 clan3 localit and )olitical
orientation3 in second!eneration this ne4 identit Q reli!ion identit see/sunited the/ as >hinese? een >hinese Indonesian?. 's I /ention in
cha)ter ,3 this reli!ion as s)aces for dialo!ue to identif the/seles in the
context of )resent.
iJerent fro/ second!eneration that translates reli!ion as choice and
freedo/3 third!eneration 4o/en loo$s at it as a !ien that cannot chan!e3
in the sa/e 4a that =rst!eneration 4o/en eliee that ethnicit is =xed.
The feelin! that the hae een assi/ilated to the nation is stron!er a/on!
third !eneration 4o/en co/)are to the second!eneration 4here it also
raises conEicts et4een the/ in ter/s of ethnic identit. 'lthou!h second
!eneration 4o/en thin$ reli!ious identit /eans freedo/ fro/
hineseness3 I thin$ it is onl at the leel of >hinese tradition? that is
eKuated 4ith onfucianis/3 that the feel free fro/. Therefore3 /e/ories
as hinese unconsciousl ind the/ stron!l ecause the ex)erience of
ein! forced to i!nore their o4n hineseness 4as an e/otional and
/e/orale one 4hich )laces the/ in a dile//atic situation re!ardin! their
ethnic identit3 i.e. et4een feelin! Indonesian and hinese at the sa/e
ti/e. Silentl to )rotect their ethnic identit Q their hineseness second
!eneration 4o/en tr to reinent their hineseness accordin! to their o4nersion forcin! their dau!hters @children to /arr 4ith hinese /en
4hicheer their clanHhile3 for third!eneration it is not i/)ortant an/ore3
for the/ ein! Indonesian /eans o)en to eer )ossiilities to =nd /en
fro/ diJerent ethnic !rou)s as their s)ouse. o4eer3 if the follo4 the
)arentsC 4ishes it is ecause the loe the/ 4hich it eKuialent to uhauw.
,6
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Thus3 in so/e de!ree3 unconsciousl the third!eneration 4o/en are still
inEuenced onfucianis/ 3 i.e. of ein! loal to the fa/il.
Therefore3 three !eneration )oints out diJerent 4as of ein! althou!h
in so/e de!ree the are situated in si/ilar situations3 as I /ention in
)reious cha)ter3 the react diJerentl ecause indiiduall theirac$!rounds are diJerent and the o))ortunities to 4or$ and /eet 4ith
)eo)le fro/ other ethnic and class ac$!rounds are also diJerent.
Therefore to ans4er to the )rocess of exclusion and inclusion3 and
citi
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http:LLiccsg+6ordpress+comL233>L43L4Ltionghoa/dalam/dinamia/se;arah/
indonesia/modern/reGesi/seorang/se;ara6an/peranaanL
N6o/bun1 7+ (233=)+ %'inese "dentities. $t'nicity and %osmopolitanism#'ondon:
Rouladge+
'ister1 R+ (2339)+ %iti1ens'ip - eminist +erspective#$e6 Hor: $e6 Hor ni-ersity
Press+
'ister1 R+ (4DD@)+ 7itienship: o6ards a #eminist Synthesis+ eminist Review1 -ol+=@
(Autum): 2B/B+
Macie1 + (4D@>)+ /'e %'inese in "ndonesia#Melbourne: he Australian Institute ofInternational aFairs+
Martsin1 M+ (2343)+ Identitty in %ialogue: Identity as 0yper/Ceneralied Personal
Sense+ /'eory and
+syc'ology1 -ol+ 23 (9): 9>/=3+
Mc!6an1 7+ (233=)+ Cendered 7itienship in South Africa: Rights and ?eyond+ In A+
C+ (ed)1 89n:t'ingking
%iti1ens'ip(pp+ 4@@/4DB)+ Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing 'imited+
Mc'eod1 + (233=)+ #eminists re/reading ?ourdieu: "ld debates and ne6 questions
about gender habitusand gender change+ /'eory and Researc' in $ducation 1 -ol+ 9 (4): 44/93+
Mc$ay1 '+ (233)+ Agency and e*perience : gender as a li-ed relation+ Sociological
Review+
Mei;1 '+ S+ (233D)+ Ruang Sosial aru +erempuan /iong'oa- Sebua' !a;ian
+ascakolonial#aarta:
,9
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Hayasan "bor Indonesia+
"?rien1 M+1 O Penna1 S+ (233>)+ Social !*clusion in !urope:Some 7onceptual issues+
"nternational )ournal
of Social (elfare1 -ol+3 (3): B/D2+
"'eary1 K+ (233)+ /'e $ssential uide to *oing Researc'#'ondon: Sage Publication
'td+
"ng1 A+ (2339)+ udd'a is idding- Refugee. %iti1ens'ip. /'e ,ew America #
?ereley: ni-ersity of
7alifornia Press+
"ng1 A+ (233>)+ Mutations in 7itienship+ /'eory. %ulture 5 Society1 -ol+29 (2/9):
DD/=3=+
"nghoham+ (233B)+Anti %ina. !apitalisme %ina dan erakan %ina-Se;ara' $tnis
%ina di "ndonesia#aarta: Nomunitas ?ambu+
"ommen1 + (4DD@)+ Introduction: 7onceptauliing he 'inage ?et6een 7itienship
and $ational
Identity+ In + "+ (ed)1 %iti1ens'ip and ,ational "dentity from %olonialism to
lobalism(pp+ 4/=4)+ 'ondon: Sage Publication+
"ommen1 + (233>)+ Identity: !nabling and !ndangering 7itienship+ In R+ M+ andon1
+articipatory
%iti1ens'ip - "dentity. $
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Suryadinata1 '+ (4DDD)+ he !thnic 7hinese Issue and $ational Integration in
Indonesia+A +ublic Lecture
(pp+ 4/24)+ Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies+
Suryadinata1 '+ (2343)+ /oko' /iong'oa 5 "dentitas "ndonesia- *ari /;oe ou San
Sampai =ap /'iam ien#aarta: Nomunitas ?ambu+
an1 M+ C+ (4DD@)+ he !thnic 7hinese in Indonesia : Issues of Identity + In '+ S+ (ed)1
$t'nic %'inese as
Sout'est Asians(pp+ 99/>=)+ Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian +
homson1 R+ p+ (233D)+ 7ritical %e-elopment: Introduction + In R+ p+ (eds)1 /'e >ral
istory Reader(pp+ 4/
49)+ 'ondon: Routledge+
;han1 S+ C+ (2343)+ Ne6arganegaraan and ?aperi+ In S+ + (edr)1 Renungan Seorang
+atriot "ndonesia
(pp+ 92=/9D2)+ aarta: 'embaga Na;ian Sinergi Indonesia +
8illmott1 %+ !+ (233D)+ /'e ,ational Status of t'e %'inese in "ndonesia ?@002?@B#
Singapore: !quino*
Publishing+
Hu-al/%a-is1 $+ (233>)+ ?elonging and the politics of belonging+ +atterns of +re;udice
1 -ol+31 no+ 9: 4D@/
24+
Hu-al/%a-is1 $+ (4DD@)+ ender and ,ation#'ondon: SAC! Publications+
Appenices
5%
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Appendi4 1
Reection
A mirror to m+se"f: Se"f5reectivit+ in the ora" histor+ process
This reEection starts fro/ the /ethodolo! this research and / o4n
)osition as a hineseIndonesian 4o/an. The interaction 4ith the
infor/ants hel)ed /e to understand the histor that 4as hidden fro/ /
!eneration. Listenin! their lifestories3 there are no clear oundaries of
4o/enCs /ulti)l identities ecause on the /ix and interact 4ith ti/e and
s)ace that are ex)erienced in eerda life. It can continuousl /oe and
chan!e ut certain ex)eriences caused the/ to >thic$en? or e >froour? histor as a /inorit and4o/en ut also stories of )o4er.
I 4as orn in the )eriod 4hen Suharto ca/e to )o4er3 4hen he 4as
ictorious and stron!. It 4as also the ti/e 4hen !raduall hinese
Indonesians started to !et a4a fro/ their cultural roots. -or exa/)le3 Leo
Suradinata said3 >I can e cate!oriorangtotok? @totok
)eo)le. 8er da I hae al4as to re/e/er that I a/ a)okcia'4ho are
$ind and ciili
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Cina' kalau memang cina' terus mau diapain5@hinese3 if it is3 so 4hatM3 In
Indonesia3 ein! >orang cina?2&and ein! ,orang Indonesia13 I hae to
sho4 not onl to fa/ilies ut also to the state3 thus3 to Indonesian state the
nationalist s)irit i/)ortantl has to e )roen follo4in! the co/)licated
rules that situate hineseIndonesians. The rules contriute to the suJerin!
of hineseIndonesians3 the 4o/en in )articular. This research sho4s /e
that the state )olicies hae diJerent i/)acts de)endin! on !ender and
class.
Then3 the /atter of reli!ion. In the )ast3 !enerall3 hinese fa/ilies cared
little aout reli!ious /atters. Before the %9&0s usuall in a hinese fa/il3
the held diJerent reli!ions and there 4as no conEict et4een children and
)arents or relaties. '/on! those 4ho ac$no4led!e onfucianis/3 /an
not )ractice its rituals3 ut the are enthusiastic to celerate imlek@hinese
"e4 ear. 'lthou!h in SoehartoCs )eriod it 4as done secretl in so/e
)laces ecause it 4as )rohiited. Sur)risin!l3 toda reli!ion eco/es /ore
i/)ortant and /ore )o4erful. It een eco/es one criterion to choose a
s)ouse.
This research allo4ed /e to trael and =nd the )ieces of >/self? throu!h
the narraties of infor/ants. 1an of the stories /ade /e shoc$ed3 sad3
and an!r ecause I neer assu/ed that these exclusie )olicies 4ould
re/oe the hineseIndonesians fro/ their >local rootsIndonesia?3
aJectin! the infor/antsC lies ne!atiel and )erha)s other hinese 4o/en
4hose oices are not heard. -or exa/)le3 the issue of the >)urit of thehinese?3 for /e3 is a result of >successful? assi/ilation )olicies. These
)olicies hae situated the/ in >the i/a!ined hinese as one co//unit?
althou!h in realit3 the are not a ho/o!eneous co//unit 4here silentl
the are creatin! cate!ories a/on! the/seles.
Hhen I listen to the narraties3 / /ind /oed ac$ and forth as I also
recalled / /e/ories Q relatin! / o4n ex)eriences that hae een $e)t
for lon!. 8x)eriences of ein! a hineseIndonesian 4o/an3 and at the
sa/e ti/e ein! >orang "ampit? @/ localIndonesia create a co/)licated
and dna/ic identit. Then a Kuestion a))ears in / /ind >4hich $ind ofhinese a/ IM? as if I follo4 the cate!ories of hinese throu!h their
narraties. 1ae unconsciousl3 the desire to listen the infor/antsC stories
is an atte/)t to =nd )ieces of hidden histor of hineseIndonesians that I
2&Tion!hoa is a ter/ that so/e hinese Indonesians use in )reference to >cina?ecause ina is the ter/ used in the Soeharto )eriod to insult hinese )eo)le andto create the su)eriorit of pri!umi. See@@PI3 20%0
5+
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had neer heard at schools and read fro/ Indonesian histor oo$s3 4hich
tend to stereot)e hinese as co//unist3 rich3 stin!3 unsociale3 and
neer thin$in! of the societ. The structures Qertical and horione i/a!e3 cina?
The stories of the )ast @collectie and indiidual of these 4o/en sho4 ho4
dierse the hineseIndonesians are3 )articularl the 4o/en. Throu!h the
infor/ants as 4ell3 4e could see the conce)t of identit and citihinese )urit?M Suddenl3 I re/e/er
/ stor 4hen I 4as in ;unior hi!h school. 't that ti/e3 the da of the
Scout3 the ice of )arlia/ent of / district3 a aanese /an3 an ar/3 isited/ school to celerate the da. Hhen I san! >Indonesia aa? @The national
anthe/ 4ith a stron! "ampitdialect3 he )unished /e and said loudl that I
san! li$e >orangcina?. I 4as the onl hinese in the choir of the school.
'lthou!h3 / collea!ues also san! the sa/e 4a as /e. I cried and 4as
an!r3 afraid to =!ht ac$ and instead ;ust hun! / head li$e a )erson 4ho
did 4ron!l in front of an authorit.
Listenin! to 4o/enCs stories also re/inded /e aout hinese /en. The
ri!id construction of !ender in a diJerent ti/e3 I thin$3 4ould aJect
diJerentl the /e/ories of /en and 4o/en on ho4 to e >orangtionghoa? and >orang Indonesia? or >orang "ampit?. Is /e/or of the
)riate s)here re/e/ered as )o4erfull as these infor/ants Q the
ChineseIndonesian 4o/enM Is the stor of /en fro/ the )ulic s)here
onlM o4 do the locate !ender in their /e/orM
29See Oo//en3 2006
5,
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Bein! an insider in this research )rocess /eant I /ust e )re)ared for
/e/ories of the )ast and the inner conEict that could ha))en oth in the
)rocess of collectin! data and at the ti/e of 4ritin! it. It /ade /e also
a4are aout the challen!in! dichoto/ of insiderFoutsider3 selfFother
throu!h / o4n res)onse. "eertheless3 ti/e has its o4n for/ and 4isdo/
and ti/e al4as /oes as 4e /a$e lon! ;ournes to =nd out 4ho are 4e
fro/ the co/)lexities of this dna/ic 4orld.
55
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Appendi4 2
ist of Informants8o
The (rstgeneration
The secondgeneration
The thirdgeneration
Time ofinterview
Co"onia" > ear"+post co"onia"period
@% utch thattreats ethnicitinto strati=ed
hierarch and)uttin! hineseon the secondleel of the ran$then the i/)actis creatin!hinese as>/inorit!rou)?.
@2 ual identit ofhinese 3 ashinese 8ast
Indies andhinese citioneethnic? cate!oriesthat refuseshinese histor inthe countr.@+ eolution)eriod is thestartin! of antihinese action
!ost co"onia": $"d$rder BSoekarno 58ew $rderBSoeharto period
@% Old Order!oern/ent
@Soe$arno : !iesfreedo/ for hinese toex)ress their cultureand )olitic@2 ual identitTreats hinese as )artof The "ations ofIndonesia@+ "aturali
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descent she 4as atholicecause of the)arent Ba)tist her
2 8ioHas orn in %9,& in
Blora. She is 4hosent the uncle toother auntie ho/eto NsafeC fa/ilecause of the)olic PP %0F591arried ecausecannot stand fro/the suJerin! in theauntie house. Sheis onfuciusShe is -u$ien 4ho/arried 4ith#4antun! Q)erana$an
/ingHas orn in %970 in
Suraaa. She is4or$in! in Phar/acindustr . shese)arated fro/ herhusand ecause !ot)hsical iolence. Sheis hristian
IkaHas orn in %992
In Blora. She 4as astudent in catholichi!h school inSuraaa. er)arents are /ixed/arried et4eenSundaness andNchineseC. The/other is hristianand the father isIsla/ and she isatholic
%2F&2%F&
+ !hienHas orn in %9+6in Suraaa. Shehae dutcheducation 4hen she4as in )ri/arschool . in 2002 sheconerted herreli!ion to Buddhaut their childrenare hristianshe is #4antun! Q)erana$an 4ho/arried to ho$$ien)erana$an
anHas orn in %962In SuraaaShe is hristian. She ishouse4ife. erhusand is onfuciusand all the husandfa/il er do/inate
StepHas orn in %9&7In SuraaaShe is loo$in! for ane4 ;o after!raduate fro/)scholo! facult inSuraaa.She 4as hristian
%,F7%9F&
, watHas orn in %9+, inDresi$ and /oed
to 1alan! 4hile thea)aneseoccu)ation. She iscatholic ecause oftheir children studin catholic schooland she closed tocatholic nuns 4ho4ere her
ucHas orn in %955in 1alan!. She is
4or$in! as aninsurance a!ent in1alan!.She is catholic
*arHas orn in %9&7In 1alan!
She is 4or$in! inconsultant oJicePscholo! is her/a;or 4hen she 4ascolla!e.She 4as atholicsince she 4as a a.Since child she 4asstud in catholic
%7F7%9F&
57
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nei!horhood. She4as actie inchurch actiities.She sto))ed hereducation 4hile
a)anese
occu)ationShe is )erana$an
school in /iddle tou))er class
5 T%ienHas orn in hinain %9+2. She ca/eto Indonesia3 in#rian in %956 four
ears after she !ot/arried 4ith thehusand 4ho liedfor a lon! ti/e inIndonesia.Throu!h /atch/arried the /et inhina and four/onth after/arried theusand 4ent ac$to Indonesia.She has neernaturali
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father has >nai?efore /arried toher /other 4hoco/e fro/ hina.The >nai? had nota child and she
closed to nai eenher /other. "aistill lie 4ith herfa/il althou!h her/other there. She/oed 4hen she4as old.She is #4antun!
diorce and hasex)eriences asstateless for a lon!ti/e until in %999. Shehas t4o son that the=rst 4as /arried 4ith
'raic descent 4o/anand conerted thereli!ion to Isla/
& /anHas orn in %925In Suraaa. she4as stud in hina4hen she 4as %2
ear old and fourears later shereturned toIndonesia ecauseit 4as the =rst4orld 4ar3 andchina has 4ar as4ell. 'fter ac$ toIndonesia shesto))ed hereducation. Shea!ree /arried toher husandecause 4anted torun fro/ the ste)/other.She is ho$$ien
%9F72%F7
9 Sun4as orn in %9+0
in Suraaa. in%959 her fa/il/oed to hinaecause of PP%0F59. Onl she andher little sisterstaed in Indonesiaecause the had/arried. The restof her fa/il /oed
%2F&%7F&
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