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Stratigraphy of India
Physiographic Division of India
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The broadest geomorphic divisions of India,
namely:
Peninsular Indiaor
Peninsular Shield.
Extra PeninuslarIndia.
Indo-gangetic alluvialplain.
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Peninsular India.
It is triangular
plateaus lying to the
south of the Indo-gangetic alluvial plain.
or
South of Vindhyanranges.
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The other units, known as the extra-peninsular
area, lie at the northern extremity of the country.
It is made up of the
mighty Himalayan
ranges and theirextenstion into
Bulchistan on the one
hand, Burma and
Arkan on the otherhand.
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The extensive Indo-
Gangetic alluvial plains
stretching across
northern India from
Assam, Bengal on the
east, through Bihar andU.P to the Punjab and
Sindhu on the West.
or
Its lie in between the
Peninsular and Extra-
Peninsular regions.
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Stratigraphy
Peninsular:is made
up of very ancient
rocks of Precambrian
age. The ancient
rocks have been
metamorphosed tovarying degrees
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Stratigraphy
Extra-Peninsular:Themountain rangesforming the extra-peninsular. It made upprimarily of sedimentaryformation ranging in ageform Cambrian toPleistocene.
The core of theHimalayan mountains ismade up of graniteTertiary age.
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Stratigraphy
Indo-Gangetic
alluvial plane:have
been formed only
during the quaternaryera. They are made
up of Sand, Clay and
peat beds.
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Structure The peninsular may be
regarded as very stable land
masses. It has not beenaffected by tectonic revolutionof post cambrian age.
The extra-peninsular havebeen affected by several
orogenic movement, leading tothe development of thecomplex Himalaan mountainduring the Tertiary era.
Indo-gangetic alluvial plainmade up of undisturbed layersof recent sediments, whichhave been deposited graduallyin a very large depressionlaying in between thepeninsular and extra
penisnular.
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Physical features
Peninsular is a very ancient
stable land, which has beeneroded continuously since itsformation. The mountainranges are remnants of theancient plateau and rivershave for obvious reasons
attained their base levelerosions.
Extra peninsular is made up ofyoung mountains ranges. Theyouthful river of this
physiographic units are now inaction in grading their courses.
Indo-gangetic alluvial plainsare very extensive stretches oflow land with a very small
gradient towards the sea.
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Climate
India, Pakistan and
Burma together havean area of over
3,03, 84,000 sq.km.
India2,03,36,000sq.km.
Kanyakumari to the
north of Kashmir
3200 km
West to east from
Bulchistan to Burma
650km.
India and Pakistan
streach between NLatitude 8o & 37oand
E Longitude 61o&
97o.
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The northern part of the country, that beyond the
latitude of Calcutta and Ahamadabad, lie to the
north of the tropic of Cancer.
The mountain barrier of the Himalayan plays an
important part not only in influencing the distribution
of rain in northern India. but also in preventing this
region from experiencing the very cold winterscharacterising the territories to their north.
The SW monsoon regions from the end of May-
December, the earlier half being the general rainy
season.
The NE monsoon is active during the cold weather
but the winds are dry before they blow over the Bay
of Bengal.
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During the succeeding months of March to May,the temperature rises steadily to a maximum, theinterior of the country registering 42 deg. To 49
deg. In early May. Deccan plateau falls in the rain-shadow of the
Western Ghats and hence receives only a smallamount of rain.
Western Ghats receives over 250 cm of rainduring the monsoon where as the shadow regiongets only 60 cm or less.
The winds sweeping up through the Bay of
Bengal strike the Arkan and Assam hills, the laterforcing the winds up to an altitude of some 5000feet when all their moisture content is precipitatedas rain.
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Rainfall map of India.
The neighborhood ofCherrapunji is know to
receive the highest
rainfall in the World.
Average rain is about
1150 cm per year. The
maximum recorded being
2300 cm in 1861.
SW Punjab, Western
Rajputana, Sind andBulchistan constitute a
region of very low rainfall
(below 25 cm per annum)
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MountainsWestern Ghats:
These forms a well
marked features along thewestern coast of Indiafrom the Tapi Valley downto Cape Comorin. It isnearly 1600 km long. Theiraverage elevation is from10001300 mts. Butmany peaks rise to over2400 mts. Eg.
Doddabetta2636m,
Mukurti2,554m in theNilagiris,
Anaimudi- 2693m in theAnaimalais and
Vembadi shola2505m inthe Palani hills.
Chief mountains of Peninsular India are: Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats
Vindhyas ranges
Satpuras ranges
Aravallis ranges
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MountainsEastern Ghats:
A series of rather
detached hill ranges ofheterogeneouscomposition which stretchinternittently form thenorthern boarders ofOrissa through the coastalregions of the
AndraPradesh to join theNiligiries in the westernportion of the Madras.They are uniform in theircharacter in Orissa and inthe northern part of AndraPradesh down to the
Valley of Krisna River,
being composed ofgranitiferous sillamanite
geneiss (Khondalite) andlarge masses ofCharnockite.
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MountainsEastern Ghats:
Their Average elevation is
about 750 m, but fewpoints rise to over 1500 m.Eg.
Korlapat-1213m
Banksamo 1274 in
Kalahandi Mimaigiri 1515m in
Koraput
Malayagiri- 1186m PalLahara
Meghasani-1164m inMayurbhanj
Mankarnacha-1109 inBonai
Mahendragiri1500m in
Ganjam
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Mountains
Vindhyas Mountain:
Which separate southern from Northern India
are a fairly continuous group of hill ranges,
lying to the north of the Narmada river and
through Indor, Bhopal, Baghalkhand andBundelkhand.
The general elevation is 450, but a few places
rise above 900m.
The majority of the range are composed ofSandstone and Quartzite of Vindhyan System.
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Mountains
Satpura Mountain:
Name was applied orignally to the hills in theNimar district of Mahya Pradesh, which
separated the Narmada and Tapi Rivers.
The Satpuras are composed of several moreor less parallel ridges of Deccan trap lava flows.
Their northern slopes are drained by the
Narmada river and Southern slopes by the
Waingang, Wardha and Tapi rivers.
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Mountains
Aravalli Mountain:
Mountains are now the remnant of once greatmountain ranges of tectonic origin.
They cross Rajasthan from South-West tonorth-east separating the arid semi desert of
the Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmar area onthe west from the more fertile region ofUdiapur and Jaipur on the east.
Composed of rocks of the Aravalli, Delhi and
Vindhyan systems.
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Rivers
Major Rivers:
Damodar, Brahmani,
Subarnarekha, Mahanandi,
Godavari, Krishna, Pennar,
Cauvery and Tambarapani
which flow into the Bay ofBengal, while the Narmada
and Tapi flow in to the
Arabian sea. Banas, Lumi,
Chambal, Sindh, Betwa,Southern Tons, Kan and
Sone are Peninsular river of
Northern India belonging to
the Ganga System
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The Indian Rivers :
The characteristics of therivers of India differ with
the physiographic
characteristics. The rivers of
India may be divided intotwo large divisions on the
basis of their drainage
characteristics
(Figure).
1. The Peninsular Indian
Rivers
2. The Extra-Peninsular Indian
Rivers
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Rivers of Peninsular India :
The rivers of the Peninsular India originate
on the Western Ghats. The Western Ghatsreceive heavy rainfall from the southwestmonsoon. Hence, there is flow of water inthe rivers only during the season of
rainfall.
In the dry seasons, the rivers become dry,too. It is because of this, the rivers of the
Peninsular India are 'nonperennial rivers'.The rivers that originate among theWestern Ghats drain the PeninsularPlateau.
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The plateau has slopes from west to east.
Hence, most rivers of the Peninsular India flow
eastwards and join the Bay of Bengal. Of the
east flowing rivers, the most important ones are
the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.
The Cauvery originates at the Kodagu Hills ofKarnataka, traverses the state of Tamil Nadu
and then joins the Bay of Bengal. In the districts
of Tiruchchirappalli and Thanjavur, the river has
created a vast delta. The Godavari and Krishnarivers make Andhra Pradesh rich.
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Rivers of Extra-Peninsular India :
o Most of the rivers traversing the Extra-
Peninsular India originate on the Himalayas. The
Himalayas are lofty mountains. Hence, there are
glaciers on the Himalayas.
o The Extra- Peninsular rivers receive their watersfrom these glaciers. Also, in the season, there is
water from the rainfall for these rivers.
o It is because of this the Extra-Peninsular Indian
rivers have water flows all through the year. Assuch, these rivers are called the 'perennial
rivers'.
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Of these Extra-Peninsular rivers, the Ganges are
the most significant. The Ganges has created a
vast plains at the foot of the Himalayas.
Originating on the Himalayas, the Ganges
reaches the plains at Haridwar.
This holy river has tributaries such as theYamuna and the Kosi.
Before draining into the Bay of Bengal, the
Ganges gives rise to a number of distributaries
and creates a vast delta.
A large part of this delta is in Bangladesh. This
river connects the Calcutta Port with the sea.
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The two rivers, the Indus and the Brahmaputra,that originate on the Himalayas drain only a very
small area. A vast area of the Indus is inPakistan.
The Sutlej, which is a tributary of the Indus, runsin the northwest border areas.
Bakra-Nangal, which is the largest of the damsin Asia, has been constructed across the Sutlej.The state of Punjab has benefitted greatly fromthis dam.
A major portion of the river Brahmaputra is inTibet. This river runs through the Assam Hillsand turns into the Indian territories. Further, itreaches into Bangladesh.
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Waterfalls
Numerous waterfalls in the
Western Ghats, many ofthem small, only 6-9m high
and generally found in the
course of the wesernly
flowing streams.Jog Fallson the Sharavathi
river, Shivamoga,
comprising four magnificent
falls called Raja, Rocket,Roarer and Dama (Rani)
arranged on a curve and
having a sheer drop of
255m
Jog falls
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Waterfalls
ShivanasamudramFallson the Cauvery
river, a series of
cascades about 90m
high, are well knownsince they were the first
fall in India to be
harnessed for Power.
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Other falls:
Pykara fallsin Niligiris- Utilised for hydroelectric
power.
Gokak falls,on the Gokak river, Belgaum.
Yenna fallsnear Mahabaleswar, have a drop of180m.
Dhuandhara fallsnear Jabalpur only 9m high.
.
Mn
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Tectonic divisions
Subdivided into tectonic
units of smaller order.
Each of these tectonic
units is characterised byits own set of geological
features. Thus, a tectonic
units often overlapped the
neighboring tectonic unitduring a certain interval of
geological time.
Peninsular India.
Extra- Peninsular India.
Indo-gangetic alluvial
plain.
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Indian ShieldPrecambrian basement
is predominantly madeup of the graniticgneisses andmigmatites. (PG)
It has been delineatedinto four sub-unitsaccording to theircharacteristic of
structural trends thatare well reflected in theorographic trends ofthese regions.
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The sub-units are:
Dharwar
Eastern Ghats Aravalli and
Satpura.
The structural trend of these sub-units are theresults of often more than one orogenic events.
The Dharwar trend resulted in at least two or
possibly three distinct orogenic cycle.
The Eastern ghats, the Aravalli and the Satpuratrends were also formed during two or more
orogenic cycles.
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Proterozoic cover
Rocks are exposed in the
southern Peninsula in theCuddapah depression.The depression seems tohave covered a majorparts of SouthernPeninsula. In thenorthwestern Peninsula,the lower proterozoicbasin of geosynclinal typeare Area of Delhifolding.
The middle and upperproterozoic successionwere deposited in a greatbasin is called asVindhyan syncline.
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Proterozoic cover
Bundelkhand Massif:
rocks were laid directlycover the Precambrianbasement.
It comprises graniticgneisses and migmatites
similar to the Peninsulargneiss.
The Vindhyan syneclise isalso considered to haveextended northwards intothe Lesser Himalayanregion where the rocks ofthe basin have undergonea tertiary orogenicdeformation.
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Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Succession
The lower palaeozoic rocks
is conspicuously absentfrom the Indian Peninsula.Thick succession of UpperPalaeozoic and Mesozoicrocks deposited in threegreat graben type basinare:
Narmada-son-Damodargraben
Mahanadi graben
Godavari graben.Sedimentary rocks of thesegrabens are grouped intoGondwana sequence knowfor its rich coal deposits.
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Cenozoic cover
The greater part of
northern-western andsouthern eastern peninsulawas under marinetransgressive basin duringMesozoic and Cenozoiceras. A great thickness ofmarine rocks weredeposited in thesecontinental shelves,
Rajasthan self
Saurastrakutchch self.
oil pro. Paleog-Neoge
Precambrian
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Cenozoic cover
The south eastern coastal regionis demarcated into three shelvesie.,
Thanjavur shelf
Godavari shelf
Cuttack shelf
Precambrian basement
The Indian shield exposed as theshillong massif and the Mikir hillmassif in the northeastern Indiais overlain by palaeogene andNeogene successions in the
North Shillogn shelf.
Upper Assam Shelf.The shelves comprise aPrecambrian basement and anoil- Producing Palaeogene-Neogene cover.
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Extra-Peninsular India Is composed of the
Himalayan mountainranges in the north and the
Arakan-Yoma in the east.
The ranges are made up ofthe Tertiary mountain beltsand the frontal foredeep
folded belts. The Himalaya belt extend
for a total length of about2400 km from NangaParbat in the west to
Namcha Barwa in the East. Himalaya is further
subdivided into the threelongitudinal tectonicgeomorphic zones
The Lesser Himalayanzone
The Central Crystallinezone of the HigherHimalayan zone and
The Tethyan Himalayanzone.
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Tethyan (Tibetan) Himalaya
It consist of thick, 10-17km,marine sediments that weredeposited on the continentalshelf and slope of the Indiancontinent. This occured asIndia was drifting but still inthe southern hemisphere(Verma 1997). Sediments arelargely unmetamorphosed,which has made for excellentpreservation of fossils and
occur in synclinorium-typebasins. However, haveexperienced greenschistfacies deformation (Windley1995).
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Tethyan (Tibetan) Himalaya
Fossils occur in this east-
west zone within strata thatare very clearly known. The
large variety of size and
distribution of fauna suggest
that life was flourishing in this
area before the orogen. Suchsuccess in biological diversity
is accounted for by the
relatively stationary position
of the Tehthyan Zonebetween mid-Proterozoic and
Eocene time.
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Higher (Greater) Himalayas
The Higher Himalayasare also known as theCentral Crystalline zone,comprised of ductilydeformed metamorphicrocks and mark the axis
of orogenic uplift. Micaschist, quartzite,paragneiss, migmatite,and leucogranite bodiescharacterize this
uppermost Himalayanzone.
Higher (Greater) Himalayas
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Higher (Greater) Himalayas
Corresponding mineralsassemblages are dominated
by biotite to sillmanite,representing greenschist toamphibolite facies deformation.Deformation seems to haveoccurred in a north to south
direction and is associated withthe Main Central Thrust Fault(MCT), which brings the higherHimalayas on top of the lowerHimalayas (Sorkhabi 1999).
Initially, it was thought thatapproximately 350km ofshortening had occurred in theGreater Himalayan sequenceof rocks.
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Higher (Greater) Himalayas
As a result, it is now estimatedthat between 600 and 650km of
shortening occurred here. Therewas also a question ofprovenance for GreatHimalayan rocks. Previous worksuggested that lower Indiancrust comprised this area. New
interpretations of rocks thereindicate that the higherHimalayas are actually made ofsupercrustal rock. This ideastates that upper crustalmaterial of India accreted
northward onto the Asiancontinent and that crustalmaterial was origanlly anappendage of India that was,itself, accreted to India duringPaleozoic time.
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Lesser (Lower) Himalayas
The Lesser Himalayan zone isbounded the Main Central
Thrust(MCT) in the north andMain Boundary Thrust(MBT) tothe south.
Unlike the higher Himalayas,the lessers only experienced upto greenschist facies
metamorphism.The rock types present here arealso different. They are primarilysedimentary rocks from theIndian platform. Rock units herealso show a series of anticlinesand synclines that are in manycases quite sheared.
Fossils have been documentedin this zone, but they do notoccur at the same frequency as
Tehtyan zone fossils.
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view of Himalyan zones: cross section modeled after
DeCelles (1998). It not only shows geological
divisions within the mountain belt, but also structuresand geologic relationships between rock types and
structures. It is effective in showing relative motion
along faults.
I d G ti All i l Pl i
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Indo Gangetic Alluvial Plain
It is a deep crustal troughfilled with Quaternary
sediments. It origin andstructure are closely relatedwith the rise of the Himalaya.Maximum thickness of thesediments is encountered
along its northern fringesnear the foredeep folded beltof Siwalik hills.
It is divided into four shelfareas separated from one
another by three transverssehighs (burried hills). Thehighs are known, from westto east, as Delhi-HaridwarRidge, Faizabad RidgeandMonghyr-Saharsa Ridge.
I d G ti All i l Pl i
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Indo Gangetic Alluvial Plain
Delhi-Haridwar ridges is
composed of a Precambrianbasement overlain by a
succession of Plaaeogene
and Neogene sediments.
Faizabad ridges are made up
of Precambrian basement
overlain by Vindhyan rock
and Neogene sediments.
Monghyr-Saharsa ridges
contains in its succession therocks of Gondwana age and
elements of Rajmahal Traps.
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