StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?
Learningfromparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentexperience
inpost-earthquakeHaiti
JayneEngle
SchoolofUrbanPlanningMcGillUniversity
Montreal
AdoctoralthesissubmittedinAugust2016toMcGillUniversityinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsofthedegreeof
PhDinUrbanPlanning,Policy,andDesign
©JayneEngle2016
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Dedication
Thisthesisisdedicatedtoourchildren,MaxandEstherEngle-Warnick.
Thankyoufortheimmensejoy,love,curiosity,creativityandpassionthatyoubringtomeandthisworld.
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Abstract
Haiti’scatastrophicearthquakeof2010leftsome200,000peopledead,1.5millionhomelessandmostgovernmentbuildingsdestroyed.Evenpre-disaster,Haiti’soutcomesontheUNHumanDevelopmentIndexwereamongthelowestintheworld,andsincethequakethecountryhasfallenintofurtherdecline.Today,mostHaitianscontinuetolackbasicservices,strugglewithdailysurvival,andconfrontdauntingobstaclestochange.Paradoxically,thedisastermaypresentawindowofopportunitytobuildcommunitiesandsocietalinstitutionsdifferently.TheaimofthisPhDstudyistoinvestigatecasesofparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentinthepost-earthquakeperiod,andtoexposeinwhatwaysthedevelopmentprocessesunderwayandearlyoutcomesarehavinganimpactoncommunitylifeandchange,andwhethertheyareopeningpathwaystotransformation.Themainresearchsiteisanearthquake-affected,peri-urbanandgrowingareaofBellevue-La-Montagne,locatedinthemountainssouthofcapitalcity,Port-au-Prince.Aneducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmenteffortisunderwayinpartnershipwithresidents,HaitiPartnersandotherorganizations,andlocalgovernment.Beyondstudyingthedevelopmentprojectsfocusedoneducationandsocialenterprise,Iundertookparticipatoryresearchwithagroupofresidentsinordertoinvestigatetheirlivedexperience,perspectives,andmeaningsassociatedwiththedevelopmentprocesses.Methodsincludedcontext-specificparticipatoryphotographytoenablesociallearningandstudyofsocialchangedynamics.AsecondarycaseisHabitatSantoVillageinLéogâne,locatedattheearthquakeepicenter.HabitatforHumanitybuiltahousingcommunityonatentcampsiteandtheninvitedresidentstocollaborativelydesignaself-governancesystem.Thatprocessandearlyresultsarethefocusofthestudy.Casefindingsrevealanumberoftensionpoints,suchaslamentablestate-societyrelations,asenseofpowerlessnessregardingprospectsforchange,andlocaldevelopmentoutcomesthatexceedthoseofindividualhouseholds.Asynthesisresultisthatcommunitytransformationisoccurringandsignsofsocialchangeareapparent,butthelatterrequireslongertermstudy.EvidencepointstothecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationtothedevelopmentparadigmoperatinginHaiti.Activating‘leversoftransformation’--includingimprovededucation,socialentrepreneurship,placeidentity,andstateaccountability–wouldsupportnewnarrativesforHaiti,consistentwithpolicyprioritiesto:(re)buildthesocialcontract,creategreatereconomicopportunitiesandbetterjobs,andreducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience.Thisthesisisscholarlywork,anditisalso,quitepractically,acalltoaction.Itisaninvitationtopolicymakers,funders,andotherstorecognizethecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationinHaitiandothermarginalizedsettingsaroundtheworld.Thismeansrecognizingandscalingpromisinginitiativessuchasthesecasesonthreelevels:1)‘scalingout’tobringsocialinnova-tionstomorecommunities;2)‘scalingup’toinfluencesystemicandpolicychange;and3)‘scalingdeep’toaffectculturalnormsandpatterns.Throughhighlighting,amplifying,andconnectingcommunitydevelopmentinnovationsthatarecontributingtopositivetransform-ation,Haitiandplaceswithsimilarchallengescanforgenewdevelopmentpathwaystowardmoreinclusivesocietieswhereallpeoplehaveopportunitiestoparticipateandflourish.
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Résumé
Leséismecatastrophiquede2010enHaïtiafait200000mortset1,5milliondesans-abri,enplusdedétruirelamajoritédesédificesgouvernementaux.Mêmeavantledésastre,leclassementd’Haïtiselonl’indicededéveloppementhumaindesNationsUniessetrouvaitparmilesplusbasaumonde.Depuisleséisme,lepaysaglisséencoreplusbas.Aujourd’hui,laplupartdesHaïtiensn’onttoujourspasaccèsauxservicesdebase,ilsluttentpourleursurvieetsebutentàdesobstaclesimportantsdansleurparcoursverslechangement.Paradoxalement,leséismepourraitreprésenterunebonneoccasiondereconstruirelescommunautésetlesinstitutionssocialessurdenouvellesbases.L’objectifdelaprésentethèsededoctoratestd’examinerdescasdedéveloppementcommunautaireparticipatifdanslapériodeayantsuivileséisme,d’exposerl’impactdesprocessusdedéveloppementencoursetdespremiersrésultatssurlaviecommunautaireetlechangement,etdevoirs’ilspaventlavoieversunevéritabletransformation.
MonprincipalsitederechercheestlazonepériurbaineendéveloppementdeBellevue-La-Montagne,trèstouchéeparleséisme.Ellesesituedanslesmontagnesausuddelacapitale(Port-au-Prince).Uneinitiativededéveloppementcommunautaireaxéesurl’éducationestencours,enpartenariataveclesrésidents,HaitiPartnersetd’autresorganismes,ainsiquelegouvernementlocal.Enplusd’étudierlesprojetsdedéveloppementaxéssurl’éducationetlesentreprisesàvocationsociale,j’aimenéunerechercheparticipativeavecungroupederésidentsafindebiencernerleurexpériencepersonnelle,leurperspectiveetleurperceptionduprocessusdedéveloppement.J’aichoisi,entreautresméthodesdetravail,laphotographieparticipativecontextuelle,carelledonnelieuàdesapprentissagessociauxetpermetd’examinerladynamiqueduchangementsocial.Lesecondcasàl’étudeestl’HabitatSantoVillageàLéogâne,situéprèsdel’épicentreduséisme.L’organismeHabitatpourl’humanitéaconstruitdeslogementscommunautairesdansuncampement,puisilaencouragélesrésidentsàconcevoirdemanièrecollaborativeunsystèmed’autogouvernance.Ceprocessusetlespremiersrésultatsquiendécoulentconstituentlepointcentraldelaprésentethèse.
Lesconclusionsdelarechercherévèlentuncertainnombredepointsdetension,commelesmauvaisesrelationsentrel’étatetlasociété,unsentimentd’impuissancefaceauchangement,etdesobjectifsdedéveloppementlocaldépassantceuxdesménages.Lasynthèseindiquequ’unetransformationcommunautaireestencoursetquedessignesdechangementssociauxsontapparents,maisilfaudramenerdesrecherchesàlongtermepourvérifierlasecondepartiedecetteaffirmation.LespreuvesdémontrentqueleniveaucommunautaireestunlieudetransformationduparadigmededéveloppementenHaïti.L’activationdes«leviersdetransformation»–notammentunemeilleureéducation,unentrepreneuriatsocial,uneidentitéparrapportaulieuetuneresponsabilisationdel’état–permettraitd’ouvrirdenouveauxhorizonspourHaïti,conformémentauxprioritésdespolitiquesvisantà(re)construirelecontratsocialetcréerdenouvellespossibilitéséconomiquesetdenouveauxemplois,enplusderéduirelavulnérabilitéetd’améliorerlarésilience.
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Plusqu’unsimpletravailderechercheuniversitaire,laprésentethèseseveutunappelàl’action.Ils’agitd’uneinvitationlancéeauxdécideurs,auxbailleursdefondsetauxautresacteursàreconnaîtreleniveaucommunautairecommeétantunlieudetransformationenHaïtietdansd’autreszonesmarginaliséesdumonde.Ilfautdoncmultiplierlesinitiativesprometteusescommecellesmentionnéesplushautàtroisdegrés:1)fairerayonnerlesinnovationssocialesdansd’autrescommunautés;2)généraliserlesinitiativespourentraînerdeschangementsauseindessystèmesetpolitiques;et3)ancrerleschangementsprofondémentdanslesmœursafindemodifierlesnormesetlestendancessociales.Grâceaurayonnementdesinnovationscommunautairesfavorisantunetransformationpositive,Haïtietlesautresendroitsdumondeconnaissantdesdéfissemblablespourrontexplorerdenouvellestrajectoiresdedéveloppementettendreversunesociétéplusinclusiveoùchaqueindividuauralachancedecontribueretdes’épanouir.
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Foreword
‘Ithink(therighttohumanflouring)isaniceideabutIdon’tknowaboutthosegovernments;ifit’suptogovernments,wewillneverflourish.AskthegovernmenthowmanypeoplearelivinginHaiti,theywillnotbeabletotellyou.Thestateissupposedtoknowhowmuchelectricity,howmuchmoneyisspentonfood,water,they’reverystrictaboutthatelsewhere,butthegovernmentsheredon’tknowanythingaboutyou.’Researchparticipant,2013
Icouldn’tnotdothisprojectonHaiti.ThespiritsknowItried.ButeachtimeIlookedintotheeyesofmythennewly-arriveddaughter,Esther,adoptedfromHaiti,Isawreflectionsofalifethathadalreadytakenintoomuchtraumainamerethreeandahalfyearsonthisearth.Shehadexperiencedlossofbirthparents,existenceinanorphanage,andthen,theearthquake.Meanwhile,mybirthson,Max,wasfiveyearsoldin2010whenIbroughtEstherfromHaititohernewhomewithusinMontreal,justtwoweeksaftertheearthquake.Hehadbeenanticipatinghissister’sarrivalalreadyforhalfhislife.Inhiseyeswasfear–hefearedthatwhenhismotherwenttoHaiti,sheperished,asmorethan200,000othershad.Beyondthetraumaandfearthough,whatIsawmostinmychildren’seyesastimewentbywaspossibility;possibilityforalifethatwouldenablethemtoflourishashumanbeings.Theywouldhavetheirbasicneedsmet,theirhumanrightsrespected,andopportunities–tolearnandgrowashumanbeings;toaccesssocialsupportsystems,decenthousingandqualityeducation;toliveinahealthyenvironment;andtomakechoicesabouttheirfutures–whattocreateandcontributetosociety,howtoexpressthemselvesthroughartsortheirprofessions,andsoon.ButImustbackuptosome20yearsagotowhenImademyfirsttriptoHaiti.Whatstruckmemost–oncegettingbeyondthestartlingimagesassociatedwitheverydaysurvivalstrugglesforsomany–suchasopensewers,massivepoverty,andpeoplewalkingthroughthemountainsandaboutthestreetsdeliberatelyandgracefullyoftenwithwhatseemedlikefarmoreweightontheirheadsthantheirbodiesshouldbear--wasthelaughterandjoyinHaiti.Ihaveexperiencednothinglikeitelsewhere.TheincrediblecapacityofpeopleinHaititofindhumor,oratleastalighterside,ineventhemostdifficultlifecircumstancewastransformativeforme.OvertheyearsasIvisitedHaiti,Icontinuedtobeawestruckandinspiredathowpeoplewithalmostnomaterialresources,publicservices,orformalinstitutionstorelyon,wouldmanagetofindremarkablycreativewaystomakelivesforthemselves,tocultivatebeauty,toflourishinsomeways,andaboveall,tolaugh...atthemselves,attheircircumstances,atanythingandeverything.Evenmisery. Buthowcantheprofoundtraumasoftheearthquakeanditsaftermath,ofahistoryofslaveryandoppression,ofmassivepovertyandofacorruptandoftenpredatorystatereconcilewithlaughterandwithhumanflourishing?Theansweristhattheycannot.TheseareamongtheparadoxesinHaitithatareimpossibletoreconcile.Amidstthestrugglesthatarepartof
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everydaysurvivalformostHaitians,thereremainslaughter–andthepossibilitythatitrepresents.PossibilitythatHaitiwillonceagainbecapableofsurmountingthegreatestobstacles–asithaddoneindefeatingNapoleoninthefirst,andstillonly,successfulslaverevolutioninhistory--toestablishitselfasabeaconofhumanityfortheworld.Itisthatpossibility–thatlaughter--thatIseeinmychildren’s–andinallchildren’s–eyes.AnditiswhatcompelledmetobringmyyearsofurbanplanningexperienceandmyPhDstudytobearonthistopicofsocialtransformationinHaiti,whichaimstovaluelocalpeople’svoicesandaspirationsandcommunitywell-beinginchangemakingefforts,inwaysthatwouldcontributetotherighttohumanflourishingforall.Itshouldbemorethananiceidea.
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PositionalityandAcknowledgementsMotivationandskillsarenotsufficientresourcesforconductingresearchinHaiti,particularlyqualitativeandparticipatoryinquiry.Oneneedstohaverelationshipsoftrustand,ideally,accesstonetworksofpeoplewhohaverelationshipsoftrustamongthem.Iwasaffordedtheprivilegeofsuchaccessthatenabledthisresearchthroughmybrother,JohnEngle,whohasspentmostofhisadultlifeinHaiti.JohnhasalonghistoryinHaiti,manyaccomplishmentsincludingthefoundingofseveralorganizations–notablyBeyondBordersandHaitiPartners,andanexcellentreputationwithliterallythousandsofHaitiancommunityandschoolleaderswhoknowandtrusthim.Ashissister,andalsoasthesister-in-lawofhisHaitianwife,Merline,IhadtheprivilegeoftrustfrommanyHaitiansbeforetheyevenmetme.Inaplacewheremostformalinstitutionsaredysfunctional,relationshipsoftrustareparamount.Iwouldnothavecarriedoutthisresearchinthiswayifitwerenotforthisfamilyconnection,giventhedifficultyofgainingaccessandtrustoflocalpeopleasanoutsider,butIamawarethatitaffectshowpeopleperceiveandinteractwithme.Ihavebeensensitivetothispositionality,andcontinuallyreflexiveabouthowmypresenceinthefieldaffecteddevelopmentandrelationships.Iwassensitiveaswelltomypositionalityasawhitemiddle-classwomanfromtheglobalnorthworkinginapredominantlyblacksocietywherepositionsofpowerareoverwhelminglyheldbymen.IamconsciousofthehistoryofslaveryandoppressionbywhitepeopleinHaiti’spast,andoftheongoingimperialismofthe‘internationalcommunity’thathasbeenexacerbatedinthispost-earthquakeperiodthroughpolicyandstructuralinterventions.Afurtheraspectofmypositionalityrelatestomyexperienceandage.Beinga40-somethingwomanwithchildren,Iwasaffordedacertainlevelofrespectbycommunitymembers.Mymanyyearsasapractitionerofparticipatoryurbanplanningequippedmewiththeskillsandknowledgetobeabletoquicklyadaptparticipatorymethodsaccordingtolearninginthefieldandtomodifydesignasappropriate.Whilemybackgroundandfamilyconnectionsprovidedabasis,thisresearchwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportandassistanceofmanyotherpeopletowhomIamexceedinglyandhumblygrateful.IhavelearnedagreatdealfrommyPhDSupervisor,ProfessorLisaBornstein,whonevertiredofpushingmetodotheverybestworkIwascapableof.Thankstoher,IhavestretchedmyselfbeyondmyexpectationsforlearningandgrowthduringthisPhDprocess.IamgratefulaswelltomyothercommitteemembersProfessorDavidBrown,ProfessorNikLuka,andDr.JeanGoulet,whoofferedvaluableadviceandinsightsparticularlythroughtheprocessesofmycomprehensiveexaminationandthesisproposaldefenses.Ireceivedvaluablecommentsorsimplyinspirationalongthispathfrommanyothers,including:FritzDeshommes,HansTippenhauer,LeslieVoltaire,PatrickAttié,JeffKenworthy,GenieBirch,JanicePerlman,JanGehl,GonzaloLizarralde,RobertFatton,BillRees,RayTomalty,AbelardXavier,LouinoRobillard,GuyMorelus,MiraclePierre,DavidDiggs,StevenWerlin,LucRabouin,SarahTurner,DavidWachsmuth,PeterGenco,SusanBronson,NadiaDuguay,JaniceAstbury,RichardRegister,UliLocher,PhilipOxhorn,EmelGanapati,RichardShearmur,SarahMoser,JohnEngle,GorkaEspiau,MaryRowe,IndyJohar,DavidMaddox,RebeccaAbers,MichaelOden,
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SalimaPunjani,OrianeSmith,Félix-AntoineJoli-Coeur,LibbyPorter,LeonieSandercock,andJohnFriedmann.Thebodyofworkoftheselasttwo,LeonieandJohn,havebeenamongthemostinfluentialinmyplanningcareer.LeonieandherfilmmakinganddialogueworkwithCanadianIndigenouscommunities(withGiovanniAttili),inparticular,inspiredmetointegrateartanddialogueinmyresearchandtoproducethevideoswhicharepartofthisthesis.SheandherIndigenousfilmparticipantsremindedmetobecontinuallyself-reflectiveaboutthepowerrelationshipsofwhichIamapartinconductingmyfieldwork.InHaiti,Iwasfortunatetohaveaccesstowonderfulandskilledpeoplethroughmyprimaryresearchcollaboratingorganization,HaitiPartners.ErikBadger,BenajaAntoineandAlexMyril,inparticular,providednotonlyresearchassistance,butalsomadedirectcontributionstomethoddesignandimplementationaswellasanalysisandinterpretationoffindingsinthefield.MyriamNarcisseprovidedoutstandingtranslationandtranscriptionsofdocuments,interviewsanddialoguecirclesinHaitianCreole,FrenchandEnglish.Mymainculturaladvisorand‘rock’inthefieldwasMerlineMyrilEngle,andIamgratefulforthenourishmentandlovefromNeslieMyril,DanielEngle,LeilaEngleandothersattheBellevueGuestHouse.ItwasajoyandprivilegetoworkwithresidentsofBellevue-La-Montagnewhotookpartintheparticipatoryresearch,andIamgratefulfortheirtime,trust,opennessandgenerosity:CindyJosef,FrancesseAntoine,GuerlineErnest,JacquelineSt-Vaudré,JacquesLucet,Marie-AngeMeristyl,MesilusBien-Aimé,PatricksonBien-Aimé,ProphèteAntoine,SherlyneBien-Aimé,TalamasJean,andYolandeBien-Aimé.1AdditionalkeyinformantsinHaiti,includingatHabitatSantoVillagewere:MarieVeronilaAntoine,MireilleCivil,AbelardXavier,FrémyCesar,MimzDiño,ClaudeJeudy,MayorSantos,WalnordSimilien,JeanSamuelAndré,JosephatJeanBaptiste,JasonMcGaughey,MmeBoby,andMmeSonson.ArtisticadviceandassistanceinMontrealwasprovidedbyLaurenTrimble.Iwarmlythankyouall.Mèsianpil!Forvideoproductionandeditingassistance,IthankZiliProductionsinHaiti,PhilLichtiofPhilmoreProductionsinMontreal,andtheCentreforOralHistoryandDigitalStorytellingatConcordiaUniversity.ThankstoSaraKoforearlyfieldworkvideoediting,andtoNadiaTodresfortheexcellentphotographytrainingwithresearchparticipants.ThisresearchwasmadepossiblewiththefinancialsupportoftheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre(IDRC);leGouvernementduQuébec,FondsderechercheduQuébec-Sociétéetculture(FQRSC);McGillUniversitySchoolofUrbanPlanning;andl’Observatoireuniversitairedelavulnérabilité,larésilienceetlareconstructiondurable(Oeuvredurable)del’UniversitédeMontréal.Myemployer,theJ.W.McConnellFamilyFoundation,generouslyaffordedmetimeoffworktowritethisthesis.IthankmyFoundationcolleaguesfortheirsupportandunderstanding,particularlyStephenHuddart,JohnCawley,LyndsayDaudierandNicolinaFarella.Andformuchneededencouragement,Ithankmysiblingsanddearfriends,Jodie,John,Jesse,Justin,andBC.MyparentsIthankforlife,loveandrichchildhoodexperiencesthathelpedshapedthepersonIhavebecome.AndtoJim,Iamgratefulforyourwiseadvice,yourlove,andyoursupportonmanylevelsandovermanyyears.Thankyou.
1Allquotationsthroughoutthethesiswhichareunattributedarethoseoflocalresearchparticipants.Quotationshavenotbeenassociatedwithindividualsinordertoprotecttheirprivacy.
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TableofContents
Abstract................................................................................................................................. iiiRésumé................................................................................................................................. ivForeword............................................................................................................................... viPositionalityandAcknowledgements................................................................................... viiiListofFigures........................................................................................................................ xiiiListofTables......................................................................................................................... xviContributiontoKnowledgeSummary................................................................................... xviiPublicationandSubmissionDetails...................................................................................... xix
Chapter1:ThesisIntroduction,Objectives,andDesign.................................. 201.1.ResearchProblématique................................................................................................ 21
TheHaiticontext.......................................................................................................... 22Theoreticaldebatesandconcepts................................................................................ 24Methodologicalchoices................................................................................................ 29
1.2ResearchObjectiveandQuestions................................................................................. 311.3ResearchDesignandOverallMethodology................................................................... 34
Worldview.................................................................................................................... 35Theoreticallens............................................................................................................ 35Methodologicalapproaches......................................................................................... 37Methods....................................................................................................................... 44
1.4EthicalConsiderations..................................................................................................... 481.5OverviewofFollowingChapters..................................................................................... 48
Chapter2:CommunityCaseStudyPaperPreface............................................ 51
Chapter2:StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?Acasestudyof
education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti........................... 52
2.1Introduction..................................................................................................................... 52Haiticontextandconceptualframework..................................................................... 54Methodology................................................................................................................ 65
2.2Casestudy:Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinBellevue-La-Montagne. 71
HaitiPartners:vision,missionandtheoryofchange.................................................. 72Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproach:sixelements....................... 76
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2.3Storiesfrombehindthescenes:Whatdoesthedevelopmentmeantolocalpeople? 94Hearingvoicesandnarrativesoflocalresidentparticipants........................................ 97Tensionpointsrevealedthroughtheresearch.............................................................105
2.4Leveragepointsfortransformation................................................................................1112.5Conclusion.......................................................................................................................116
Chapter3:ParticipatoryPracticeandResearchVideos...................................119
Chapter3:Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatory
practiceandresearchforcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange
(13minuteand6minutevideos)............................................................................................119
Chapter4:ParticipatoryMethodsPaper..........................................................120Chapter4:CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?Investigatingcommunity
developmentthroughparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitativelongitudinalresearch1214.1Introduction.....................................................................................................................121
Fieldsettingandresearcherpositionality....................................................................123Participatorymethodologyandmethodstoexplorecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange................................................................................................................125
4.2Learningfromthemethods:communitycorestoryandthemesrevealed...................133
Communitycorestorythemes.....................................................................................134Socialchangedynamics................................................................................................138Issuesahead.................................................................................................................142
4.3Learningaboutthemethods:strengthsandshortcomingsencountered.....................1424.4Conclusion.......................................................................................................................147Addendum:PhotographsofandbyResearchParticipants.................................................149
Chapter5:CommunityGovernancePaper.......................................................163
Chapter5:ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:Creatingcollaborative
dialogueina‘communityofdesperation’............................................................................164
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5.1Introduction.....................................................................................................................164
5.2AnalyticalFramework.....................................................................................................165
5.3Methodology...................................................................................................................168
5.4TheHousingProject........................................................................................................171
5.5CommunityGovernanceinHabitatSantoVillage..........................................................174TheGoodNeighborprojectthroughacollaborativerationalitylens...........................176Collaborativerationalityinpractice.............................................................................181Investmentincommunityvs.statecapacity:afalsedichotomy..................................182Reflectionsonmethod.................................................................................................184
5.6Conclusion.......................................................................................................................187Chapter6:OverallConclusions........................................................................1906.1TheoryofChangeandKeyResults:FromCommunityStoriestoTransformational
Narratives...............................................................................................................................1916.2ContributiontoKnowledge:Methods,Theory,Practice,andPolicy..............................2006.3RecommendationsforPolicy...........................................................................................2076.4FutureDirectionsforResearchandPractice...................................................................208
References.............................................................................................................................213
Appendix.InterviewsinHaiti,2011-2013
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ListofFiguresFigure1.1:ResearchDesignFrame....................................................................................... 35Figure1.2:TheoreticalLens.................................................................................................. 36Figure1.3:PartsoftheMethodologicalProcess.................................................................. 38Figure1.4:GraphicRepresentationoftheResearchDesign................................................ 40Figure1.5:FieldworkPhases................................................................................................. 46Figure2.1:GraphicRepresentationoftheBellevue-La-MontagneCaseStudyDesign........ 70Figure2.2:Map:Bellevue-La-Montagne’sLocationinHaiti.................................................. 73Figure2.3:Photo:GeographicSetting:ViewfromthesoutheastofHaitiPartners’schoolwithcapitalcityPort-au-PrinceandtheCaribbeanSeainbackground................................. 77Figure2.4:ElementsofEducation-centeredCommunityDevelopment:ApproachofHaitiPartners.................................................................................................................................. 79Figure2.5:Photo:HaitiPartners’SchoolBuilding:Withitsearthquakeresistant,open-airdesign,housesfourlargeclassrooms,ahealthclinicandapharmacy.................................. 80Figure2.6:Photo:InsideaClassroom:1stgradeteacher,FrancesseAntoine,guidesastorytimeexercisewithkindergartenersonaplayparachutedonatedbyavolunteervisitingfromtheUS............................................................................................................................ 81Figure2.7:Photo:Bakeryoperations:Setupin2014asasocialenterprisecooperativeDesignedtomeetalocalneedandprovideasustainablefundingsourceforschooloperations.............................................................................................................................. 82Figure2.8:Photo:MuhammadYunus,FounderofGrameenBankandYunusSocialBusinessHaiti,visitsBellevue-La-Montagne,wherehisHaititeamhelpedwithbusinessadviceandfinance................................................................................................................. 82Figure2.9:RenderingofSocialEnterpriseBuilding:Firstfloorhousesbakeryoperations,upperfloorstohousevocationalandteachertrainingfacilities........................................... 83Figure2.10:SitePlanbyBARArchitects:Plansincludefiveclassroombuildingsandanopenairamphitheatre........................................................................................................... 84
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Figure2.11:Photo:ConstructionwithExtollo:Localpeopleweretrainedinmasonryandcarpentryandemployedtoconstructthebuildings.Schoolparentvolunteerscontributetositeplanningandmaintenancework............................................................... 85Figure2.12:ADECATimeline................................................................................................. 87Figure2.13:Photo:HumanWasteCompostingLatrines:DesignedbyGiveLoveandmaintainedbylocalpeople,theselatrinesaddressasanitationneed,andtheharvestedcompostisusedincommunitygardensorsold..................................................................... 89Figure2.14:Photo:GardeningLesson:Schoolchildrenaretrainedinenvironmentalstewardship,includingecologicalandorganicgrowingpractices......................................... 90Figure2.15:Photo:HaitiClinic:Equippedwithoutpatientroomsandapharmacy,theclinic’sdoctorandnurse–alongwithregularlyvisitingvolunteerdoctorsfromtheUS–servethousandsoflocalresidentseachyear................................................................ 91Figure2.16:Photo:PublicOpenSpaceMeeting:Discussionontheroleofeducationincommunitydevelopment:300peoplegatheredtodiscussthetopictogether;manyledsmalldiscussiongroupsonrelatedmattersoftheirchoosing.............................................. 93Figure3.1:Video:Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchforcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange:13-minuteversion......................119Figure3.2:Video:Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchforcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange:6-minuteversion........................119Figure4.1:AddendumtoParticipatoryMethodsPaper:Photosofandbyresearchparticipants:CindyJosef,FrancesseAntoine,GuerlineErnest,JacquelineSt-Vaudré,JacquesLucet,Marie-AngeMeristyl,MesilusBien-aimé,PatricksonBien-aimé,ProphèteAntoine,SherlyneBien-aimé,TalamasJean,andYolandeBien-aimé...................149Figure5.1:DIADTheory(Diversity,Interdependence,andAuthenticDialogue)NetworkDynamics................................................................................................................................167Figure5.2:MapofLéogâne,Haitiand2010EarthquakeEpicenter......................................171Figure5.3:OriginalSitePlanofHabitatSantoVillage(2011)...............................................173Figure5.4:Photo:TypicalHousesandStreetscapeasBuilt(2012)......................................173Figure5.5:CommunityGovernanceStructureEstablishedThroughtheGoodNeighborProject....................................................................................................................................178
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Figure6.1:TheoryofChange:FromCommunityStoriestoTransformationalNarratives.....192Figure6.2:TheoryofChangeandSummaryDescription......................................................193Figure6.3:TheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities.................................................194Figure6.4:SummaryExplanationofTheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities.........195
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ListofTables
Table2.1:Education-centeredCommunityDevelopmentElementsinHaitiPartners’Approach................................................................................................................................ 86Table2.2:NarrativesandTensionPointsintheBellevue-La-MontagneCase...................... 96Table2.3:LeversofTransformationfromCommunitytoStructuralLevelsinHaiti..............112Table4.1:OverviewofResearchMethodsandDataCollection............................................128Table4.2:FieldworkSchedule:ParticipatoryResearchActivities,July2013.........................132Table4.3:KeyLearningsfromtheParticipatoryMethods:ThemesandNarratives.............140Table4.4:KeyLearningsabouttheParticipatoryMethods:StrengthsandShortcomings....144 Table5.1:GoodNeighborProjectObjectives.......................................................................175Table5.2:GoodNeighborProjectKeyMilestones...............................................................175
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ContributiontoKnowledge
Mythesisprovidesnarrativeanalysisofpost-earthquakecommunitydevelopmentexperiences
inHaiti,alongwithportraitsofcommunityparticipants’aspirationsforchange,themain
obstaclestheyface,andstrategiesthatpointthewayforwardtowardbroadertransformation.I
carriedoutallfieldworkandamthesoleauthoronallpartsofthedissertationexceptChapter5
onCommunityGovernanceatHabitatSantoVillage.Iamtheprimaryauthoronthatpaper,and
itisco-authoredwithProfessorLisaBornsteinandProfessorGonzaloLizarralde,whoprovided
advice,writingandeditingcontributions.Mythesissupervisor,LisaBornstein,providedadvice
andeditingcontributionsthroughoutthethesis.Inaddition,myfieldresearchassistantsand
collaborators–primarilyAlexMyril,ErikBadger,BenajaAntoineandJohnEngle--provided
adviceduringfieldworkthatcontributedtoresearchdesignandinterpretation.Inputfrom
researchparticipantsinthefieldduringparticipatoryphotographyandparticipatorymapping
exercisesalsocontributedtomodificationsindesignandfieldmethods.
Theresearchcontributestoknowledgeonseverallevels.Itprovidesnewknowledgeabout
collaborativeplanning,institutionalframeworks,education-centeredcommunitydevelopment,
andotherstrategiesandconditionsthatfosterorhindereffortstowardlocalparticipatory
governanceandcommunityandsocialtransformation.Igivespecialattentiontotherolesof
non-governmentalorganizationsandlisteningtovoicesoflocalpeople.Thisresearch
recognizesthecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationincontributingtosystemicchange,
anditcontributesinfourareasofknowledge:1)methods;2)theory;3)practice;and4)policy.
1.Methodscontribution.Ihavedesignedcontext-specificmethods,includingparticipatory
photographyandparticipatorymapping,inordertostudyandunderstanddynamicsof
communitydevelopmentandsocialchangeovertime,whichisrelevantforandsensitiveto
conditionsinparticularplaces.Iassessedboththeoutcomesofthemethodsandthemethods
themselvesastoolsforstudyingcommunitydevelopmentandchange.
xviii
2.Theorycontribution.Thisthesisdevelopsatheoryofchange–called‘FromCommunity
StoriestoTransformationalNarrativesforHaiti’thatmakesvisiblerelationshipsbetween
communitydevelopmentandpathwaystotransformation.Theoryisdevelopedinductively
throughstudyofparticipatorydevelopmentprocessesunderway,includingeducation-centered
communitydevelopment,aswellaslisteningtovoicesandlivedexperienceoflocalpeople.The
workalsocontributestobroadertheoreticaldebatesofinternationaldevelopmentplanning,
thecrucialroleofnon-governmentalorganizations,thevalueofparticipatorydevelopmentand
theimportanceofcontext-sensitivequalitativeresearchinquiry.
3.Practicecontribution.Thedocumentationandsharingofcasesofparticipatorycommunity
development,localgovernance,andlivedexperiencesoflocalpeopleintwoHaitian
communitiesprovidelearningandscalingopportunitiesforothercommunitiesseeking
developmentpathwaystowardsocialchange,aswellasNGOsandfundingagenciesthatmay
wanttosupportthem.
4.Policycontribution.Myresearchresultsareconsistentwithandsupportaimsofmedium-
termpolicyprioritiesinHaiti,whichwererecentlyarticulatedinSinghandBarton-Dock(2015),
whichareto:1)Re(build)thesocialcontract;2)Creategreatereconomicopportunitiesand
betterjobs;and3)Reducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience.
EachoftheabovecontributionsisexplainedinfurtherdetailinChapter6,OverallConclusions.
Insum,thisthesiscontributestomoreprogressiveinternationaldevelopmentplanning,which
placespeopleandcommunitywell-beingatthecenteroftransformationefforts.
xix
PublicationandSubmissionDetails
Chapter2“StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?Acasestudyofeducation-centered
communitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti“iscurrentlyunderreviewwiththejournal,
ProgressinPlanning.
Chapter3“Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchfor
communitydevelopmentandsocialchange”isavideoproductionwithtwoversions(13
minutesand6minutes),whichispublishedonlineandavailableatvimeo.com/jayneewandvia
theVimeochannelonparticipationinHaiti:vimeo.com/channels/haitiparticipation.
Chapter4“CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?Investigatingcommunity
developmentthroughparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitativelongitudinalresearch“is
underreviewwiththeJournalofUrbanAffairs.
Chapter5“ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:Creatingcollaborativedialoguein
a‘communityofdesperation’”iscurrentlyunderreviewwiththejournal,PlanningTheory.An
earlierversionofthepaperhasbeenpublishedas:Engle-Warnick,J.,Bornstein,L.,&
andLizarralde,G.(2013).ConstructingCommunityattheEpicenter:Collaborativegovernancein
post-earthquakeHaiti.Proceedingsofthe6thInternationali-RecConference.Ascona,
Switzerland,May26-30.
20
Chapter1:ThesisIntroduction,Objectives,andDesign
Thesocialcohesionthathasresultedfrom[Haiti’s]longhistoricalprocesswasmadedramaticallyvisiblebythe2010earthquake….Despiteitsmassivepovertyanditsalmosttotallackofafunctioninggovernment,[Haiti]isnotaplaceofchaos.LifeinHaitiisnotorganizedbythestate,oralongthelinesmanypeoplemightexpectorwantittobe.Butitdoesdrawonasetofcomplexandresilientsocialinstitutionsthathaveemergedfromahistoriccommitmenttoself-sufficiencyandself-reliance.Anditisonlythroughcollaborationwiththoseinstitutionsthatreconstructioncantrulysucceed.LaurentDubois(2012:12)
…itisclearthatthepost-earthquakestrategiesofreconstructionshouldbereversedbecausetheydifferlittlefrompastdevelopmenteffortsandwillleadtothesameimpasse.Infact,theycarryontheexport-orientedpoliciesofthelate1970sandtheycontinuetobypassthestate.Thesestrategieswillmerelycreatemoredependence,foodinsecurity,andinequalities.Inaddition,theyarelikelytoaccentuateruralmigrationstourbanareas,whichwillnotprovidetheemploymentandwagesrequiredtoavoidthefurtherexpansionofslums.Haiti,asitwere,isonitsway‘backtothefuture’.RobertFatton,Jr.(2014:7)
ThesequotationsfromtwogreatscholarsonHaiticaptureprofoundrevelationsfollowingthe
January2010earthquake.Ontheonehand,thedisasterexposedremarkablyresilientsocial
institutions.SocialresiliencehasbeenacharacteristicstrengthofHaitisinceitsslavesand
secretsocietiesmanagedtooverthrowNapoleonandbrutaloppressorsinleadingthefirst,and
stillonly,successfulslaverebellionintheworldmorethan200yearsago.Ontheotherhand,
despitethehopethataroseparadoxicallyfromtheearthquake,asmanysawitasopeninga
windowofopportunityforsocialtransformation,adarkersidehasemerged.Ratherthan
adaptivelyimprovingfromtheopportunitythatcancomefromcrisis,Haitiappearstohavesunk
tonewlows.ThecountryranksamongthelowestintheworldontheUNHumanDevelopment
Index–evenlowerwhenadjustedforinternalstructuralinequality,aswellasforincidencesof
present-dayslavery,andforitspaltryinvestmentineducation.AccordingtoFatton(2014:9),
21
“undertheweightofanexternallyimposedneoliberalregime,aquasi-permanentcrisisof
governability,andthedevastatingearthquake…Haitihastumbledintothe‘outerperiphery’.”
Haiti’s2010earthquakewasoneofthemostcatastrophichumandisastersofourtime,andit
leftinitswakemorethan200,000peopledeadandatleast1.5millionhomeless.Mostcentral
governmentbuildingsweredestroyedalongwiththousandsofschools,hospitals,churches,and
businessesleavingalready-fragileinstitutionsindireconditions.Giventhedeteriorated
institutionalandphysicalinfrastructureandthelackofessentialresourcesandservices,many
Haitiancommunitiessixyearslaterstillconfrontdauntingchallengesintheirreconstruction
efforts.Today,mostHaitianscontinuetolackbasicservicesandstrugglewithdailysurvival.
Manyhavecalledforreconstructionofsociety,arguingthatcivilsocietyorganizationsshould
leadthewayintheseeffortsbyvaluinglocalknowledge,andbuildingonsmall-scalecommunity
successes.Thisresearchstudieshowtwocommunitieshaverespondedtothatcallandwhat
thoseexperiencesrevealaboutpossibilitiesformoreeffectiveandsustainableparticipatory
communitydevelopmentthatwouldcontributetolongertermtransformationinHaiti.
1.1.ResearchProblématique
Haitideservesattention,includingscholarlyattention.Thissectionprovidesaframingof
theoreticaldebatesandconceptsthatinformthisresearch,andmethodologicalchoices
regardingqualitativeandparticipatorymethodologies.
Simplystated,theproblemaddressedthroughthisresearchisthatpost-earthquake
reconstructioneffortsinHaitihavebeenslowanddifficult,andsignsofsubstantialprogressin
communitydevelopmentremainelusiveseveralyearslater.2Inordertoarguethatthis
problemwarrantsscholarlyattention,Iframeitasaproblématiquewiththreeaspectsrelating
tothefollowingquestions.First,whatistheHaitiancontextforthisproblem?Second,what
2Myunderstandingof‘communitydevelopment’issetoutintheTheoreticaldebatesandconceptssection.Whenusedonitsownandunlessspecifiedotherwise,theword‘community’referstoagroupofpeoplelivinginsharedspaceofclosegeographicalproximity.
22
arekeytheoriesanddebatesthatcanhelpusunderstandandmakesenseofwhatis
happening?Andthird,giventhecontextandtheories(aswellasmyownpositionality),how
canthisproblembeinvestigated?Eachoftheseaspectsisaddressedbelow.
TheHaiticontext
ThecontextofthecurrentsituationinHaitiisthatlongbeforetheearthquakeof2010,people’s
rightsandaccesstodecentlivingconditionswereseverelyrestrained,andsoitisundesirableto
‘reconstruct’whatwas.Rather,thereisanopportunitytoconstructinfrastructure–physical,
politicalandsocietal–anew,whichiswhatFritzDeshommesreferstoasa‘re-foundation’of
Haiti(Deshommes,2012).FormerPrimeMinisterMichèlePierre-Louis(2012)calledfor
deconstructionofthecurrentparadigm(referringtothebasisofproduction,education,access
toemployment,humanrights,socialsystems,technology,infrastructure),construction,then
reconstructionofsociety.Shearguesthatlocalcivilsocietyorganizationsmustbetterorganize
tostruggleandbringaboutchange.3Shefurtherarguesto‘batiràpartirdespetitssuccès’
through‘mettreenvaleurlessavoirslocales’[buildonsmallsuccessesthroughvaluinglocal
knowledge].MmePierre-LouispointstotheworkofJeanGoulet(2006)foritsrevealing
perspectivesonthemultiplelogicsofcomplexinformalnetworksoperativeinHaiti,and
particularly,itsbidonvilles.
TheproblemsassociatedwithcommunitydevelopmentinHaitiarecomplex,indeed,with
multipleelementsandlayers.Centralgovernmenthasbeenoppressive,brutal,andpredatory
atworst,andatbest,inshortperiodsofrelativestability,ithasremaineddysfunctionaland
3Afulldiscussionofthecomplextermcivilsocietyisoutsidethescopeofthisproposal.Ourworkingdefinitionisthefollowing.Civilsocietyrefersto
“thatpartofsocial,asdistinctfromcorporate,lifethatliesbeyondtheimmediatecontrolofthestate.Itisthesocietyofhouseholds,familynetworks,civicandreligiousorganizationsandcommunitiesthatareboundtoeachotherbysharedhistories,collectivememoriesandculturallyspecificformsofreciprocity”(Friedmann,2011:140).
Thereisextensiveliteratureoncivilsocietyconstructions,suchasOxhorn(1995),Oxhorn,TulchinandSelee(2004);Castells(2008);Wagner(2006);andGursteinandAngeles(2007);myownunderstandingsdrawparticularlyonworksbyAbu-Lughod(1998),DouglassandFriedmann(1998),Friedmann(1992and2011),Mercer(2002),andStorper(1996).
23
corrupt.Thoughprescribedfor25years,decentralizationhasnotyetbeenimplemented.
Ordinarypeople–thevastmajorityverypoor--havelimitedaccesstothemostbasicservices.
IfevenpriortotheearthquakeHaitiwasahumanemergency,todayitisacatastrophe.Inspite
ofwhatseemstobehistoricgoodwillonthepartsofinternationalagenciesandgovernments,
thereislittleevidencetodayofgood,scalableprojectswiththepotentialtocreatesystemic
change.Nongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)attempttofillcratersofneedhereandthere,
butthereislittlecoordination,accountability,transparence,orconsistency,andthe
performanceandresultsofthethousandsofNGOsoperatinginHaitivaryenormously(Farmer,
2011;Pierre-Louis,2011;Schuller,2012;SchullerandMorales,2012).
Withrespecttogovernancerelations,therearelimitedcommunityrelationshipswiththestate.
ThereisnosolidprecedentinHaitiofasocialcontractinwhichthestatelistenstoorworks
withcivilsociety(Tippenhauer,2010).SowhilethereisevidenceofwhatCarleyetal.(2001)
call‘horizontal’(orintrasocial)civilsociety,theredonotseemtobeenougheffective‘vertical’
(state-society)NGOsthatareHaitian-basedandhavecapacitytonavigatetheneeded
relationshipsanddevelopmentworkamonglocalcommunities,theHaitianstate,and
internationalorganizations.
Thebroaderstorythathascontributedtoshapingpresent-dayHaitiisnolessconfounding.
Haitiistheonlysocietytohavecarriedoutasuccessfulslaverevolutionthatledtothe
independenceofthecountryin1804.Ironically,thatunprecedentedsuccesscontributed
substantiallytothecountry’sdemise.Therevolutioncameaboutduringthecolonialperiodand
aglobalizedslavetrade,whichledothercountriestoisolateHaitiandfail,atleastinitially,to
recognizeitsindependence(Girard,2010).Haitiwouldgoontopayamassive‘debtof
independence’toFranceuntil1946.ThatdebttoFrance,combinedwithvariousUS
interventionsthroughouthistory–notleastanoccupationfrom1915-1934,andthesupportof
brutaldictatorsduringtheColdWar–contributedtoHaiti’sinabilitytorecover.Haitianleaders
chosetofocusexternally,andexporttradeandinternationalrelationshipsweremoreimportant
togovernmentthaninwardeffortstobuildasolidsocietyandpoliticalculture(Dubois,2012).
Morerecently,foreigninterventions,particularlybytheUS,inpoliticalandagriculturalspheres
24
havecontributedtofurtherinstabilityandpoverty(Deshommes,2006).Thesefactors--along
withinternalpoliticalconflict--havecontributedtothecurrentsituationwhere,inspiteof
massivecontributions,internationalaidhasfailedtobringaboutbetterlivingconditionsor
institutionsinHaiti,whichremainsina‘conflict-povertytrap’despitehighlevelsofsocial
resilience(USAID,2006).Goodparadigmsforwhatcouldworktobringaboutlasting,systemic
changehavenotyetemergedonameaningfulscale(HeineandThompson,2011;Schuller,
2012;Tippenhauer,2010).
InpresentdayHaiti–sixyearspost-earthquake,amidstthegravedifficultiesandoften
inhumaneconditionsofdailylifeformanypeople,therearestoriesofpeoplethataremanaging
toself-organize,planandrebuild(SchullerandMorales,2012;Wilentz,2013).Giventhe
devastationoftheearthquakeinmaterialandhumanterms;thelackofeffectiveinstitutional
infrastructure;thedeficiencyofaccesstoadequateeducation,healthcare,water,sanitationand
housing;andthegeneralabsenceoftherighttohumanflourishingforsomany;itiscrucialto
studyhowsomegroupsseemtobefindingwaystoadaptivelylearn,effectivelyplan,and
manifestresilience.
Theoreticaldebatesandconcepts
Howisitthatsomegroupsseemtobeadaptivelylearning,effectivelyplanning,andmanifesting
whatwouldseemtobeacollaborativeformofresilience?Theoriesanddebatesfrommulti-
disciplinaryfieldsofcommunitydevelopment,planning,andinternationaldevelopmentprovide
anumberofinsights.
Twodebatesintheliteraturearerelevanttothecurrentstudy.Theyrevolvearound:1)therole
ofNGOsvis-à-visthestateincommunitydevelopmentendeavors;and2)thequestionof
whether‘resilience’inanyofitsvariousformsisahelpfulconstructforunderstandinghow
changeisoccurringinHaiti.Ioutlinethepremisesforeachbelow.Thisthesiscontributesto
severalaspectsofthesedebates(seeChapters2,3,4and5).
25
ThefirstdebateconcernstheroleofNGOsvis-à-visthestateinendeavorsofcommunity
developmentandinternationaldevelopment.4Inrecentdecades,andarguablylargelyin
responsetothediminishingroleofthestateinsocialspheres,thesectorofNGOshasgrown
significantly.InGlobalSouthsettings,officialaidhasbeendivertedto(mainlyinternational)
NGOswithexpectationsoffavorabledevelopmentoutcomes;theunderlyingpremiseisthat
activitiesofNGOswouldhelptomitigatenegativeeffectsofneoliberalmacroeconomicpolicies
onvulnerablepeople,andthatagrowingNGOsectorwouldcontributetodemocratization
throughstrengtheningandpluralizingcivilsociety(Fowler,1991).Withrespecttotheformer
theevidenceismixed,inpartbecausetheroles,intentionsandespeciallyeffectivenessof
developmentNGOsarehighlyvariable.Othershavenotedthatdespitethepresumedroleof
NGOsinlesseningvulnerability,thereisalackofattentiontotheroleoflocalorganizationsin
reducingurbanpovertyandstrengtheningurbanandenvironmentaldevelopmentprojects
(Carleyetal.,2001;Friedmann,1992;MitlinandSatterthwaite,2004;andPerlman,2007).
NGOsandcivilsocietyaremurkyandcontestedterms,andarenotunderstoodthesameway
betweenculturesorwithinanyoneculture.Here,NGOsrefertonon-statenot-for-profit
organizationsdesignedtoservecollectiveaims,andincludewhatareknownvariouslyascivil
societyorganizations(CSOs),community-basedorganizations(CBOs),grassrootsorganizations
(GROs),aswellasNGOs(nongovernmentalorganizations).Thesize,scope,aims,funding,and
effectivenessofthis‘thirdsector’varysubstantially.
Evengiventhisdiversity,thereisconsiderabledebateovertheroleofNGOsinpromoting
democracy.Mercer(2002)callsintoquestionthecommonlyheldidealofcivilsocietyandNGOs
asinherently‘good’fordemocraticdevelopment.Mercer’scriticalreviewoftheliterature
pointstohowsomearguethatNGOscanstrengthenstateandcivilsociety,andothersargue
thatstrengtheningNGOsunderminesdevelopmentofdemocracies.GursteinandAngeles
(2007)definecivilsocietiesinrelationtotheircontributiontodemocraticplanningand
governance.Theirdefinitionisnormative:“densenetworksoforganizationsandinstitutions
4Theterm‘nongovernmentalorganization’(NGO)isusedinitsbroadsenseherereferringtolocalandinternational,smallandlargenot-for-profitorganizationsthatareindependentofgovernment.
26
thatmediatebetweenstatesandcitizens,whilechallengingandtransforminghegemonicstate
policiesandmarketpractices”(p.5).DouglassandFriedmann’s(1998)editedbookoncivil
societylaysoutasetofdebatesandhealthycriticismofnotionsofcivilsocietyalongwithits
valueforplanningtheoryandpracticeinourageofglobalizationthatcoincideswithanew
awakeningtocitizenrights.
Recently,thetwostrandsofdebate–overNGOs’roleinimprovingdevelopmentoutcomesand
basisfordemocraticliving–havecometogether.Concernandcriticismhavegrownconcerning
thetransparencyandlegitimacyofNGOsand,asaconsequence,theirabilitytocontribute
positivelytointernationaldevelopmentoutcomes.Thisgrowingcriticismisparticularlyrelevant
toHaiti,whichhasbeenreferredtofrequentlyasthe‘RepublicofNGOs’.Whilethereal
numbersareunknown,itisestimatedthatperhaps10,000NGOsareoperativeinHaiti,which
wouldgiveitthehighestnumberpercapitaofanycountryintheworld.Themaindebatein
Haitirevolvesaroundthefactthat,ontheonehand,thestateishighlydysfunctionaland
corruptinthebestoftimesandHaitianscannotrelyonthestatetoprovidebasicservicesand,
ontheotherhand,NGOsthatundertakedevelopmentworkandserviceprovisionarenot
accountabletothestateorthepublicanddonotcoordinateactivitieswitheachother,which
resultsinhugeinefficiencies.Mosttelling,perhaps,isthattheplethoraofNGOsinHaitiin
recentdecadesdoesnotappeartohavecontributedtoimprovingoveralldevelopment
outcomes.However,itisexpectedtotakealongtimetoconstructalegitimate,effectivestate
inHaiti,sointhemeantime,NGOsareneededtosupportbasicserviceprovision,buttheyarea
highlyheterogeneousgroupwithwidelyvaryingeffectiveness.Aquestionthatarisesis:how
canthestatebestrengthenedincomplementaritywiththeconsolidationofNGOsinHaiti,while
improvinglivingconditionsforthepeopleofHaiti?
Theseconddebaterevolvesaroundtheusefulnessof‘resilience’asaconstructforanalyzing
andunderstandingcommunitydevelopment,particularlyinthecaseofHaiti.Fordecadesin
post-disasterorpost-dictatorepisodesofHaiti,mediapunditshavesungthepraisesofthe
‘resilientpeople’ofHaiti,whichoftenseemstobeaeuphemismforself-reliance.Thiskindof
socialresilienceisnotclearlyornecessarilydesirable.Inacademicliteraturethough,the
27
conceptofresilienceisgrowingandtakingonincreasinglycomplexconstructs.Forexample,
Folkeetal.(2010)claimthatthreeaspectsarecentraltointegratedthinking:resilience,
adaptability,andtransformability.Theirargumentisthattheresiliencenotionincludesthe
capacityforcrossingthresholdsintonewtrajectoriesofdevelopment;theyrespondinthisway
tothecriticismthatresilienceisaboutbouncingbackafterashocktoa(perhapsundesirable)
pre-shockstate.Goldstein(2012)showsthroughaseriesofcasesthat‘collaborativeresilience’
canbedevelopedthroughactivatingcollaborativemechanismsforadaptingortransformingin
responsetocrises.‘Communityresilience’(Norrisetal.,2008;Solnit,2009)(frompsychology
andpopularliteratures)and‘urbanresilience’(Bornsteinetal.,2013;Newmanetal.,2009;Vale
andCampanella,2005)arecomplementarynotionsthatareusefulforunderstanding
aftermathsofdisastersandplanningforthem.However,representationsofplaceswithlow
levelsoftransformativeresilience–suchasHaitiorotherfragileor‘outerperiphery’places–
arenotwidespreadintheliterature.Chapter2containsfurtherdiscussionontransformative
resilience,arguedtobeamoreusefulconceptinthiscasethansocialresilience.
Twotheoreticalconceptsarecentraltomyresearchobjectiveandquestion:NGO-community
developmentcollaborationsandhowtheycontribute(ornot)tosocialchange.Iturnnowto
discussingthesetwoterms.
NGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborations,orwhatIrefertoasparticipatorycommunity
developmentinthethesistitle,referstonongovernmentalorganizations–internationaland
local–workingtogetherwithlocalparticipantsoncommunitydevelopmentinitiativesand
projects.Communitydevelopmentisaninterdisciplinaryfieldthatcombinesspatialandmaterial
developmentwithdevelopmentofpeopleandtheircapacitytomanagechange(Ledwith,2011;
LedwithandSpringett,2010).Communitydevelopmentismeanttoenablepeopletomobilize
existingskills,reframeproblems,workcollaborativelyandfindnewwaystousecommunity
assets,andinvolvesflexibleprocessesguidedbyprinciplesofparticipationandself-help
(KretzmannandMcKnight,1993).Thekeypurposeofcommunitydevelopmentis“collective
actionforsocialchange,principledonsocialjusticeandasustainableworld”,accordingto
LedwithandSpringett(2010:14).Majorstepsincommunitydevelopmentprocessesareoften
28
identifyingproblems,engagingpeopleandgroups,assessingthesituationandcontext,
exploringpossibilities,planning,prioritizing,andtakingaction(KretzmannandMcKnight,1993;
Ledwith,2011;andLedwithandSpringett,2010).
Collaborativecommunitydevelopmenthereisbasedonvaluesofsocialandenvironmental
justice,socialinnovation(Moulaertetal.,2010;Mulgan,2007;KendraandWachtendorf,2007),
anddialogicalparticipation,andaimedatsocialandsystemicchangethroughinformalnetworks
andlocalpraxis(asinFreire,2011,original1972;andKennedy,2011).Collaborativeplanning
(Healey2006)andcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010)providetheoreticaland
analyticalframeworksforunderstandingcollectiveapproaches.Exploringcollaborativewaysof
working,thinking,anddesigninginstitutionsunderliesmyresearchapproach(asinOstrom,
1990),andIinvestigatewhethercollaborativeresilience(asinGoldstein,2012)providesa
helpfulframeforthinkingabouttheNGO-communitycollaborationsunderstudy.
Friedmann’salternativedevelopmenttheory(1992)andsociallearningandsocialmobilization
traditionsofnon-stateactorsinplanning(Friedmann,1987,1992,and2011)providekey
foundationsaswellformyperspectiveoncommunitydevelopmentinaninternationalcontext.
Friedmann(1992)referstoalternativedevelopmentas‘collectiveself-empowerment’ina
similarveintoBrown’snotionof‘self-efficacy’(Brown,1997).Friedmannarguesthatexternal
actors,suchasNGOsbasedoutsideofcommunities,mustbepartofcollectiveactionfor
transformativechangetooccur,whilehealsowarnsthatcivilsocietyactors(i.e.individuals
withincommunities)needtodevelop‘voices’oftheirown.Inthislight,itishelpfultoseeNGOs
notascivilsocietyitselfbutratheraspotentialcatalystsofcivilsociety.Expressing‘voice’and
learningthroughstoriesandeverydaylifeiscentraltocommunitydevelopmentplanningand
research(Flyvbjerg,2001;Healey,2006;Ledwith,2011;Sandercock,2003aand2003b).
Socialchangeisusedinterchangeablyherewithsocialtransformation.SimplyputbyMcLeod
andThomson(2009),socialchangeischangeinpersonalandsociallife.Healey(2006:91)
referstosocialchangeasthe“continuousinteractionbetweenthecreativeactivityofagencyin
relationwithothers,re-thinking,affirmingandchangingsituations,andtheorganizingpowerof
29
structuralforces”.Socialchange,accordingtoFriedmann(1987)istheaimofradicalplanning,
andmorebroadlyspeaking,planningis“anactivityinwhichknowledgeisjoinedtoactioninthe
courseofsocialtransformation”(Friedmann1987:250).Socialchangehereisspatially
cultivated.AsFriedmann(1987:297)observes,“apoliticalpracticeaimedatsocial
transformationcanbeeffectiveonlywhenitisbasedontheextra-politicalactionsofordinary
peoplegatheredintheirowncommunities.”Socialchangeinvolvesapubliclearningprocess
thatleadstopermanentshiftsininstitutionsandvalues,accordingtoSandercock(2000).She
arguesfurther
…justasinsuccessfultherapythereisbreakthroughandindividualgrowthbecomespossible,sotoowithasuccessfultherapeuticallyorientedapproachtomanagingourco-existenceinthesharedspacesofneighborhoods,citiesandregions,thereisthecapacityforcollectivegrowth(Sandercock,2000:27).
Sandercockclaimsthatsuch‘collectivegrowth’inthelanguageofpoliticsiscalledsocial
transformation.
Tosumup,communitydevelopment–inthewayapproachedhere--bringsthepotentialfor
socialchange,andinapost-disastercontext,awindowofopportunityforsystemicchange
seemstoopenup,ifonlyephemerally(Oliver-Smith,2002;Pelling,2003;PellingandDill,2010;
Solnit,2009).Theorysuggeststhatsocialandcommunitychange,includinginstitutional
adaptations,canbeeffectedthroughsocialinnovationcombinedwithcollaborativeapproaches
whicharesustainedthroughongoingparticipatoryprocessesthatallowforconstantnegotiation
betweenorganizationsandcommunityresidentsandparticipants(Healey,2006;Innesand
Booher,2010;Moulaertetal.,2010;Ostrom,1990).
Methodologicalchoices
AccordingtoCreswell(2007:102),therationaleforaqualitativestudyisthat“aneedexiststo
addtoorfillagapintheliteratureortoprovideavoiceforindividualsnotheardinthe
literature.”InthisdissertationIaimtoaddtoexistingliteratureonpost-disaster
30
reconstruction,internationalcommunitydevelopmentstrategiesandparticipatoryapproaches
towardsocialchange.Theresearchisalsomeanttoprovideavoiceforthosenotheard,namely
communityresidentsinHaitiwhohaveenduredsubstantialhardship,mostrecentlyasaresult
ofthe2010earthquake.
Participatoryresearchentailsthat
researchers,actingasfacilitatorsandguardingagainsttheirownbiases,seektominimizeanypowerdifferentialsbetweenthemandtheresearched.Theresearchdesign,therefore,isflexible,abletorespondtochangingcontextsandemergentfindingsastheyarise.Methodsareoftenvisualandinteractivetoallowparticipantswithallbackgroundstoparticipateinbothgeneratingandanalyzingthedata....thosewhoparticipatehavetheirknowledgerespected,havecontrolovertheresearchprocessandinfluenceoverthewaytheresultsareused(LedwithandSpringett,2010:93).
Whileitwouldbeanoverstatementtocharacterizethisstudyas‘pure’participatoryresearchas
above,Ihaveintegratedparticipatorymethodsinfieldworkwherepossibleandappropriate,
andthedesignwasflexibleenableadaptationasneededbasedonfindingsandconditionsthat
aroseinthefield.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis.First,participatoryresearch
methodologiesandmethodsarenowwellestablishedinfieldssuchaseducation,urban
planning,humangeography,publichealth,andcommunitydevelopment(Forester,1999;
Somekh,2006;LedwithandSpringett,2010;SarkissianandHurford,2010;andWates,2000).
Relevanttomystudyaswellareworksontheapplicationoradaptationofparticipatory
learningandaction(PLA)methodsininternationaldevelopmentandinpost-disasterorfragile-
statecontexts(MitlinandSatterthwaite,2004;NakkiranandRamesh,2009;Narayanasamy,
2009;andÖzerdemandBowd,2010).
Participatorymethodologiestypicallyemphasizetheuseofstoryandnarrativeanalysistolearn
fromlocalknowledge.Whystory?Storycanhavethepowertocommunicatewaysofknowing
thatareespeciallyappropriateinparticularculturalsettings,suchasthosewithpredominantly
oraltraditions(Sandercock,2003a).Young(1995)arguesthatstoryisparticularlyhelpfulin
cross-culturalsettingswheretheresearcheristryingtogainunderstandingofparticipants’ways
ofseeingandsituatedknowledges.Oneofthemostimportantwaysofacquiringknowledgein
31
Haitihastraditionallybeenthroughstoriesandstorytelling.Patton(2002)claimsthatnarrative
analysiscanprovidewindowsintoculturalandsocialmeaningsbyaddressingtwofoundational
questions:Whatdoesthisstoryrevealaboutthepersonandworldfromwhichitcame?How
canthisnarrativebeinterpretedsothatitprovidesanunderstandingofandilluminatesthelife
andculturethatcreatedit?Flyvbjerg(2001)claimsthatnotonlyisnarrativeourmostbasic
formformakingsenseofourexperiencesalreadylived,butalsothatnarrativescanprovidea
forwardglance,helpingustoanticipatesituationsbeforetheyareencounteredandenablingus
toenvisionalternativefutures.Usingstoryandnarrativeinqualitativeresearchisnowwell
establishedinthefieldsofplanningandhumangeography(forexample,seeBerg,1989;Birdet
al.,2009;Crang,2005;Creswell,2007;Eckstein,2003;Patton,2002;Sandercock,2003b;
SandercockandAttili,2012;Throgmorton,2003;andWilesetal.,2005).
1.2ResearchObjectiveandQuestions
Themainobjectivewastoinvestigateanapproachtopost-disasterrebuildinginHaitithat
favorscollaborationamongNGOsandlocalpeopleforcommunitydevelopment.Specifically,
theresearchaimedtoexplorehowtheapproachcontributes(ornot)toprocessesof
communityandsocialchangeandtostate-societyrelations.Anemphasisisongivingvoiceto
localresidentsthroughparticipatoryengagement.Arelatedaimistoexploreanduncoverin
whatwayscivilsocietyorganizations’collaborativeengagementstrategiesmaypointtheway
towardnewpossibilitiesforsustainable,transformativecommunitydevelopmentandfor
participatorylocalgovernanceinHaiti,throughtheireffortsinareassuchasschool
developmentandeducation,socialenterprisecreation,environmentalinitiatives,anddialogue-
basedlearning.
ThroughastrategyofinquirythatincorporatescasestudyandparticipatoryresearchmethodsI
havesoughttocollect,analyzeandexposeindividual,communityandNGOnarrativesofpost-
earthquakeexperiencesalongwithopportunitiesandobstaclestorealizingvisionsforchange.I
thendevisedwaystotranslatelearningintopolicyandaction.Thisthesispointstoeffective
32
communityplanningprocessesandstrategiesthatcouldbeadaptedtoothercontextsinHaiti
andmorewidelycontributetopost-disastercollaborativeplanning.
Thecentralthemeiscommunitydevelopmentanditspotentialtogeneratesocialchange,
particularlyinapost-disastercontext,whereawindowofopportunityforsystemicchangemay
open.Animportantrelatedsuppositionisthattheimplicationsofdevelopmentinitiativesfor
localpeopleareunlikelytobeastheymayappearonthesurface,particularlytoforeign
outsiders.Ihavesoughttointerrogatenotonlythecommunitydevelopmentinterventions,but
alsowhatliesbehindwhatisvisiblefromtheoutside,namelytheirimplicationsandmeanings
forthelivedrealitiesoflocalresidents.Aprincipalmethodologicalstrategywasthedesignof
context-specificparticipatoryresearchmethods,asdiscussedlater.
Asistypicalininterpretiveresearch,asecondaryresearchobjectiveemergedasimportant
duringthecourseofthestudy:thelocalgovernancecontextforthecommunitydevelopment
processesandprojectsunderway,includingrelationshipsbetweengovernment,localresidents,
andNGOs.FieldworkrevealedthatinternationalNGOswithasolidtrackrecordandtrusted
networksinHaitihavebeenindistinctpositionstoplaykeyrolesinpost-disastercommunity
development.
Centralresearchquestion
MyinterestwastoinvestigateNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborations’experienceand
revealwhetherandhowtheymaybeseizingthepost-disasterwindowofopportunitytobring
aboutsocialtransformationthroughnewformsofparticipationaimedatlong-termcommunity
development.Specifically,thecentralquestionofmyresearchisthefollowing.
IntheaftermathofHaiti’s2010earthquake,whatcananexplorationofthe
experiences,dynamics,andearlyoutcomesofnewNGO-communitydevelopment
collaborationsexposeabouttheirimpactonprocessesofsocialchange?
33
Twocentralconceptsintheresearchquestionwereexpoundedonabove:NGO-community
developmentcollaborationsandsocialchange.Arelatedsecondaryquestionwas:Whatisthe
impactofthecommunitydevelopmentcollaborationsonevolvingconstructionsofstate-society
relationsandlearningfordevelopmentpolicyandpractice?
Issuesub-questions
Twokindsofsub-questionsoperationalizethecentralresearchquestion:issuequestionsand
topical(orinformation)questions,thelatterwhicharemoreorientedtogatheringspecific
information,suchasdetailsofasituationwithinacasestudythroughinterviews,documents,
fieldobservation,orothermeans(Stake,2010).FollowingaretheprincipalissuequestionsI
addressedinthisresearch.5
Theory:Whattheoreticalconceptshelpusunderstandpost-earthquakeNGO-community
developmentresponsesandresults(e.g.collaborativerationality,participatoryplanningand
governance)?Howdoparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentexperiencescontributeto
change?
Methodology:casestudyandparticipatory:Whatstrategyofinquiryandsetofmethodsare
bestsuitedtoaddressresearchaims,takingintoconsiderationthefieldsettingandthe
positionalityoftheresearcher?Whatdoindividualandcommunitynarrativesandpost-
earthquakelivedexperiencedynamicsexposeaboutunderstandingsofrebuildingstrategies,
aspirationsforthefuture,obstaclesencountered,andoutcomesofcollaborationstodate?
Whatarethestrengthsandshortcomingsofparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitative
longitudinalresearchinpost-disastersettings?
Interpretation:Howdorelationshipsofpowerandtrustshapecommunitydevelopment
processes?Howdolocalpeopleexperiencedevelopmentandmakesenseoftheirexperiences,
individuallyandcollectively?Howdopeopledevelopagencytobringaboutchangeat5Topicalquestionsareinformation-orientedandincludedwithinmethodologysectionbelow.
34
communityandstructurallevelstoachievesocialtransformation?Whatdoanalytical
frameworks,includingofcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010)andphronesis
research(Flyvbjerg,2001),revealaboutthecaseexperiencesandNGOsinvolved,aswellas
understandingsofcommunitygovernanceintheabsenceofastate?Whatearlyrevelationsare
present,ifany,regardingdynamicsofsocialchange?
TheabovequestionsareaddressedinChapters2,3,4and5.OverallconclusionsinChapter6
addressthefollowingbroaderquestions.Whatlearningandnewunderstandingsareexposed
throughthisstudy,includingtransformativepossibilitiesandlimitationsofthecase
experiences?Whatarepolicyimplicationsforcommunities,NGOs,governmentsand
internationalagencies?
1.3ResearchDesignandOverallMethodology
Methodologychoicesareshapedbyresearchquestions(Stake,2010),buttheyarealsoshaped
byone’sworldview--suchaspragmatist,constructivist,oradvocacy/participatory–andvalues
andbeliefs(Creswell,2007,2009).Forexample,myownadherencetobeliefsinthepotential
fortransformationandhowitisachieved(Freire,2011),coupledwithvaluesoftherightto
humanflourishing(Friedmann,2011)inwaysthatrespectplanetaryboundaries(Raworth,
2012)influencemymethodologyandmethodchoices.AsStakepointsoutinhisworksoncase
studyandqualitativeresearch,inqualitative(orinterpretive)inquiry,theresearcherisoftenthe
principalresearchinstrument(Stake,1995,2005,2010).AccordingtoFlyvbjerg(2001,2006,
2012),casestudiesproducecontext-dependentknowledge,whichistheonlyknowledge
possibleinthestudyofhumanaffairs.Hearguesthatcasesaremoreaboutlearning
somethingthanaboutprovingsomething.MyresearchdesigndrawsparticularlyonCreswell’s
worksonqualitativeandmixedmethodsdesigns(2007and2009),andonFlyvbjerg’scasestudy
approachtowhathecalls‘phroneticsocialinquiry’(2001and2006).CreswellandPlanoClark
(2011)setsoutahelpfuldesignframe(Figure1.1).
35
Worldview
Beginningbroadly,aparadigmshapeshowoneseestheworldandapproachesresearch.My
perspectivealignsmostwithParticipatory,andalsowithConstructivismandPragmatism
worldviews.InaParticipatoryworldview(suchasLedwithandSpringett,2010),oneplansfor
thesocialworldtochangeforthebetter.Itischaracteristicinthisparadigmforresearchersto
involveparticipantsascollaborators,andtorepresentfindingsinawaythatwilladvocate
change.InConstructivism,aresearcherreliesonparticipants’viewsofthesituationwhichis
beingstudied,andstrategiesinvolveopen-endedquestioningandinductivetheorybasedon
patternsofmeaningthatariseintheresearch(Creswell,2009).Pragmatismcentersonlinking
theoryandpracticeandtypicallybringsmultipleperspectivestoresearchproblems(seePatton,
2002).InthisstudyIconsideredperspectivesofparticipants,NGOs,andpolicyactors,aswellas
myownandothers’fromacademicliterature.
Figure1.1:ResearchDesignFrame
Source:adaptedbytheauthorfromCreswell&PlanoClark(2011)
Theoreticallens
Iusedatheoreticallenstohelpfocusthestudyandtoprovideafiltertointerprettheprimarily
qualitativedataandcommunicatethe‘story’oftheresearch.AccordingtoCreswell(2009:62),
“atheoreticallensorperspective…becomesanadvocacyperspectivethatshapesthetypesof
questionsasked,informshowdataarecollectedandanalyzed,andprovidesacallforactionor
Worldview / paradigm
Theoretical lens
Methodological approach
Methods
36
change”.AsshowninFigure1.2,participatorytheoriesconnectedwithsocialand
environmentaljusticeandgovernanceprovidetheoutershapeofthelens.Focusnarrowson
transformativetheories,particularlythoseassociatedwithsociallearningandrolesforcivil
society,suchasinFriedmann(1992,2011);Freire(2011,original1972,);GursteinandAngeles
(2007);Ledwith(2011);andWright(2010).Centraltothelensispraxis,whichgenerallyrefers
tothebalancebetweentheoryandaction.IdrawonthemorespecificnotionofpraxisofPaulo
Freire(2011,original1972),whichis“reflectionandactionupontheworldinordertotransform
it”(page36).AccordingtoFreire,itisthroughpraxisthatoppressedpeoplecangaincritical
awarenessoftheirowncondition,and,withcollectiveefforts,struggleforliberation.This
‘criticalpraxis’issteeredbyvaluesandissuesofsocialjustice,sustainability,participation,and
anideologyofequality.Ledwith(2011)definesthebasisofcriticalpraxisascritical
consciousnessandananalysisofhegemonycomingtogetherincommunity.Criticalpraxis
engageswithmultiplerationalitiesinsocial,politicalandplanningcontextsthatextendbeyond
classicinstrumentalrationalitytootherrationalities,suchasthosebasedonvaluesand
collaboration.Flyvbjerg(2001)referstovaluerationalityinhisphronesisapproachtosocial
inquirywhichemphasizestherolesofcontext-dependentethicsandlearning,andInnesand
Booher(2010)havedevelopedcollaborativerationality,whichlinkstotheirtheoryof
collaborativecomplexityandnegotiationcalledDIAD:basedonincorporatingaDiversityof
interests,Interdependenceamongthem,andAuthenticDialogue.
Figure1.2:TheoreticalLens
Source:theauthor
37
Methodologicalapproaches
Mymethodologycombinescasestudyandparticipatoryapproaches.Consistentwithphronetic
research(Flyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjergetal.,2012),mystrategyofinquiryfocusesoncombining
bothactorandstructurallevelsofanalysis--understandingfromwithinandfromoutside.
BelowIdescribemycaseapproach,selectionanddesign,followedbyhowparticipatory
approachesareinterwoventhroughoutthecasestudyresearch.
Casestudyapproach
Casestudyhaslongbeenrecognizedasanappropriatemethodologicalapproachinthesocial
sciences,withitsuseexpandingintherealmofqualitativesocialandinterpretiveinquiry(see
Creswell,2007and2009;DenzinandLincoln,2005;Flyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjergetal.,2012;
Patton,2002;Stake,1995,2006,and2010;andYin,2009).
AccordingtoYin(2009),carryingoutcasestudyresearchisasomewhatlinearbutregularly
iterativeprocess(seeFigure1.3).Aftertheinitialplananddesignforthecasestudyare
developed,aresearcherpreparesforfieldwork,collectsdata,analyzes,andthensharesresults.
Thepreparation,collection,design,andanalysisphasesarerehearsediterativelyinorderto
continuallyrefineapproachesandupdatedesignandcollectionmethodsasneeded.The
researchisre-packagedandsharedalongthewayinordertogetfeedbackfromadvisorsand
fieldcollaborators.
Eachcaseinvolvesaparticulardomain,whichStake(1995)referstoasits‘quintain’or‘thing’.
Inthisstudy,thequintainisNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborationsandthecentralcase
hasbeenselectedbasedonapurposive,information-orientedsamplingstrategy,which
combinesinstrumentalandparadigmaticselection.Itisinstrumentalinthatthequintainandits
issuesaredominant(Stake,1995),anditisparadigmaticbecauseIwouldhopetobeable“to
developametaphororestablishaschoolforthedomainwhichthecaseconcerns”(Flyvbjerg,
2001:79).
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Figure1.3:PartsoftheMethodologicalProcess
Figure1.4providesagraphicrepresentationofthecasestudydesign.Theprincipalcaseisa
collectionofcommunitydevelopmentinitiativesinBellevue-La-Montagne,Haiti,whichI
categorizeas‘education-centeredcommunitydevelopment’.Collaborativeeffortsbeganinthe
yearfollowingtheearthquakewhenlocalresidentsandanNGO,HaitiPartners,discussed
possiblecollaborativestrategiesforrebuildingintheirareawhichhadbeenhithardbythe
quake.EventhoughHaitiPartners’co-directorhadlivedinthisneighborhoodformorethan15
years,theworkoftheorganizationhadalwaysbeenfocusedinotherareasofthecountry,and
primarilyoneducation.Intheyearjustbeforetheearthquake,HaitiPartnersfeltthatitwas
timetobeengagedmoredirectlyintheneighborhoodvicinityoftheirhomeandtheywere
slowlyinvestigatinginterestlocallyincollaborativeeducationanddevelopmentprojects.
Inthewakeoftheearthquake,thedesireandneedtocollaborateonlocalinitiativeswas
heightenedandtheybeganinformallytalkingwithmanyneighbors,whocommunicatedthe
needforaschoolinthearea.GiventheexpertiseandexperienceofHaitiPartnersineducation
anddemocraticpractice,theycontinueddiscussionswithpeopleastheylookedforasitefora
newschool,andeventuallyfoundanavailablepieceoflandinavillageoftheBellevue-La-
MontagnesectionofPétionville,calledBawosya.Overthecourseofthenexttwoyears(2010-
39
2012),HaitiPartnersheldregularopenpublicmeetingsinvitinglocalpeopletosharetheir
needs,concerns,andaspirationsforthearea,andtogivefeedbackonevolvingplansfora
schoolandlearningcenter.Basedonearlydeterminationoftheneedtocreateaschool,this
aimbecamethecenterpieceofthedevelopmentinbothliteralandmetaphoricsenses–itisan
education-centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopmentthatincorporatesparticipation,social
learning,andsocialenterprise.HaitiPartnersjoinedforceswithArchitectureforHumanityand
BARArchitectstodesignthesiteandschoolbuildings,andlocalpeopleprovidedtheirinputat
weeklypublicmeetingsthroughoutthedesignperiod.Thefirstschoolbuildingwasbuiltin
2012-2013andthefirstclassof25three-year-oldscompletedtheirfirstacademicyearinJune
2013.Otherneedsemergedfromcommunitydiscussions,namelytocreatemorelocaljobs
(specificallyconstruction)andproducts(abakery).HaitiPartnersthenbroughtinGrameen
CreativeLabs/YunusSocialBusiness(foundedbyNobelPeacePrizeLaureateProfessor
MuhammadYunus)tocarryoutresearchandpreparebusinessplans,andeventuallytheyraised
fundingtoestablishtwosocialenterprisestogeneraterevenuestreamsfortheschoolandto
provideneededlivelihoodopportunities,training,services,andproductsforlocalcommunities.
Thebakerycooperativewasestablishedin2012andconstructedinsummerof2013.A
constructioncooperativewasformedtoprovidelocaljobsandtrainingintheconstructionof
thebakeryandadditionalschoolbuildings.OtherNGOandindividualpartnersareinvolvedin
variousaspectsofthecollaborations,suchasahumanwastecompostingsystem,teacher
trainingprograms,andahealthclinic.
ThecasestudyofcommunitydevelopmentinBellevue-La-Montagne(Chapter2)providesa
portraitofthelocalsituationfiveyearspost-earthquake.AsFigure1.4depicts,theprincipal
case(seecentralcircle)hasinvolvedworkatthreetypesofsites:1)theschoolandsocial
enterprisehub,whichisalsoacommunitygatheringplace;2)participanthomes,wherewe
conductedinterviews;and3)placesidentifiedthroughdatacollectionsuchassacredplacesand
problemspotsofthearea.Thebottomhalfofthecentralcirclerepresentsdatacollection
methods.The‘embeddedcases’refertothegroupof12localresidentswhotookpartinthe
DyalògFotoprocessinJuly2013(detailsinMethodssectionbelowandChapter4).Otherdata
wascollectedthroughinterviewswithNGOs,governmentofficials,andinternationalagency
40
Figure1.4:GraphicRepresentationoftheResearchDesign
41
representatives,anddocumentsrelevanttothisresearchstudywerecollectedfromeachof
thesesources.
OntheleftsideofthecentralcircleofFigure1.4arecircleswithContextandCommunity
profile.IdetailedhowtheNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborationscameaboutandwho
wasinvolved,basedondatacollectedfrominterviewswithanddocumentationfromNGOs
involvedinthecollaboration.Thecommunitystudycontentfocusesonlearningfrom
collaborativeeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproaches,localinstitutionaland
civicengagementframeworks,andtheinterplayandcollaborativedynamicsofcivilsociety,
NGOs,andlocalpeopleindecision-makingandaction.Participatoryresearchmethods(see
Methodssectionbelow)areincorporatedtounderstandcommunityaspirationsandenablea
criticalanalysisofthemainbarrierstorealizingthem.Ihaveaimedtounderstandaswellhow
relationshipsofpowershapecommunitydevelopmentanddecision-makingprocesses.
Icollecteddatathatarepertinenttounderstandingcurrentconditions,suchasthehistoric
communitycontextandkeyeventsofrecentyears,particularlytheearthquake;localsocial,
political,andenvironmentalconditions;thewiderpolicycontext;andimportantsituational
factors.Idesignedtheresearchinawaythatfacilitateslongitudinalstudysothatcommunity
changecanbetrackedintheyearsbeyondthisthesis.
Asecondarycasewasinvestigated(Figure1.4,rightside)atHabitatSantoVillageinLéogâne.
LiketheprincipalcaseofBellevue-La-Montagne,thecommunitysharesacommonpost-
earthquakeparadigmofcollaborativerebuildingstrategiesandparticipatoryprocessesthat
engagecivilsociety,NGOs,andlocalleadersinplanninganddevelopment.
Bothstudycommunitieswereselectedbasedonaninformation-orientedsamplingstrategy.
Thecommunitiesrepresentatraditional‘lakou’areaadjacenttoagrowingperi-urbanarea
(Bellevue-La-Montagne)andanewcommunitybuiltpost-earthquakeonthesiteofaformer
tentcamp(HabitatSantoVillage).
42
Asamplingofcaseissuesandinformationquestions(bottomFigure1.4.)areincluded,andare
integratedininquirydesign.Anumberoffurtherquestionsaboutthissetofcollaborations
arosethatareworthyofscholarlyattention,suchasthefollowing.Whatarethefactorsthat
haveenabledtheseprojectstobecreatedandimplementedwhenmostpost-earthquake
reconstructionhasstalled?Whathavebeenthemainobstaclesandconcerns,andwhatcanbe
learnedfromthem?Howarethesecollaborativeeffortsaffectinglocalpeople,theireveryday
lives,andtheirprospectsforthefuture?Howaretheprojectsgovernedandwhoholdsthe
power?Inwhatwaysarelocalpeoplebenefitingornotfromthecommunitydevelopment,and
whataretheprospectsforsocialchange?Iengagedanumberofmethodstoaddressthese
questions,includinginterviews,documentstudy,observation,andparticipatorymethods,as
describedbelow.
Apropositionwithrespecttothisresearchisthatthecollaborativeeffortsunderwayinvolve
participationofcommunitiesandorganizations(localandinternational)indialogical
negotiationsthatappeartoaimtosharepowerandbuildcapabilitiesoflocalpeopleand
groups,andtocreate,change,orpreservemechanisms,structures,andinstitutionsconsistent
withtheinterestsoflocalpeopleandorganizations.Anaimofthisstudyhasbeentoexpose
whetherthispropositionisvalidfromthelocalparticipantpointofview.
Participatoryapproach
Theparticipatoryapproachadoptedintheresearchreflectedtheaimtolook‘behindthe
scenes’ofcommunitydevelopmentcollaborationstohearaboutandunderstandthe
perspectivesoflocalresidents.The‘embeddedcases’listedinFigure1.4represent12people
withwhomIcarriedoutparticipatoryresearchin2013.6
Iprovidedatheoreticaljustificationabove(under‘Methodologicalchoices’)forusing
participatorymethodsforthisstudy.Ialsochosethisapproachduetomyownbackground
withparticipatorydevelopmentfacilitationanditsrisinguse,andrelevance,inHaitian6IbeganparticipatoryresearchduringpreliminaryfieldworkinJuly2012,throughamethodcalled‘FowòmFoto’.
43
communitydevelopment.Ihavemanyyearsofexperienceleadingparticipatoryapproachesin
planningandcommunitydevelopment,andIhaveagoodunderstandingofwhathasbeen
effectiveandnotindesigningparticipatorymethodsfordifferentsettingsandaudiences.The
integrationofparticipatoryaspectsappliesnotonlytotheuseofmethods,butalsotothe
researchdesignsothatlocalparticipantscanhavesomeinfluenceonand‘ownership’ofthe
research,allowingittobemeaningfultothem.Thisapproachimpliesaniterativeprocessanda
willingness,onmypart,tobeopentomodifyingcertainaspectsoftheresearchifneeded.I
understoodtheimportanceofbeingclearonwhichaspectsoftheresearchwereopento
modificationandwhichwerenot.Forexample,Icarriedoutaparticipatoryphotoandstory
elicitationexercise,called‘FowòmFoto’,in2012.Iwasabletogatherdataandbetter
understandparticipantperspectives.IlearnedthattheuseofcamerasandphototakinginHaiti
isdeeplymeaningful,butthatwhilemanyHaitiansareaccustomedtobeing‘subjects’ofphotos
takenbywhitepeople,theyrarelyhaveanopportunitytoholdcamerasthemselvestotake
theirownphotosofwhattheychoose;the‘FowòmFoto’allowedthemtodoso.Furthermore,
photosofselvesandlovedonesarecherishedbyHaitiansbutaretooexpensiveformostto
afford;‘FowòmFoto’leftthemwithphotosthattheycouldshareandkeep.Ifoundaswellthat
photosenabledpeopletoseethemselvesandtheirworkdifferently.Oneparticipantremarked
thatthechairshemadewereevenmorebeautifulinphotos,andthatseeingtheminphotosled
himtolookathisworkdifferentlyandtakemoreprideinhishandiwork.Second,someofthe
NGOsandHaitiansIworkedwithhaveextensiveexperienceinandhighlyvalueparticipatory
approaches.Theirpre-earthquakeexperienceinvolvedparticipatoryapproachesprimarilyin
schoolsettingsorforeducationalpurposes,however,sincethe2010earthquake,basedonlocal
communityneeds,theirparticipatoryeffortshavebeguntoextendintocommunitydevelop-
mentandlocalgovernance,asatHabitatSantoVillage.Theseparticipatoryapproachesare
slowlyseepingintopost-disasterprogramsandpracticesinHaiti.
QualitativeLongitudinalResearchSensibility
Qualitativelongitudinalresearchisasmuchasensibilityasamethodologyandgivesclose
considerationtotemporalaspectsofresearch.Itinvolvesadanceofflexiblyandadaptively
44
designingtheresearchovertimeinordertoexposeprocessesofsocialchange.Becauseakey
aimofthisstudyistounderstandwhetherNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborationsare
contributingtosocialchange,andsocialchangeisalong-termandoftenelusivesetof
processes,Ihavedesignedthisstudyinawaythatwillenablelongitudinalstudytocontinue
afterthethesisiscomplete.Qualitativelongitudinalresearch(orQLR)isagrowinglineof
research.SeveralnewQLRresearchcentershavebeenestablished.Publishedworksinclude
McLeodandThomson(2009)andSaldaña(2003).PellingandDill(2010)callformoreQLR-like
researchtobecarriedoutinpost-disastersettings.
Qualitativelongitudinalresearchcanexposeprocessesofsocialchangethroughthelensof
individualorsmallgroupexperience(McLeodandThomson,2009).Perlman(2010),for
instance,conductedalongitudinalstudyofsortswithfavelaresidentsinRiodeJaneirawhoshe
hadinterviewedforherdoctoraldissertationinthe1960s,andthenwentbackandfound
participantsandtheirdescendants30yearslatertolearnhowtheirlivesandconditionshad
changedoverthatperiod.7Ihavecollecteddataincasecommunitiesinwaysthatwillfacilitate
goingbacktothesamefamiliesandcommunitiesovertimetostudydynamicsofcommunity
andsocialchangeinthoseplaces.
Methods
Myfieldworkwascarriedoutinthreephases:preliminaryworkandreconnaissancein2011,
phaseoneandtestingin2012,andphasetwoin2013(seeFigure1.5).During2011and2012I
undertookthefollowingactivities.
• ConsolidatedrelationshipswithHaitiancollaborators,communicatedmyresearchproject,andelicitedfeedback.
7JanicePerlman’sFavela(2010),whilenottechnicallyQLR,providesanexcellentexampleofresearchthat‘revisits’familiesinRiodeJaneirofavelasmorethan30yearsaftertheoriginalinterviewswereconducted.Thestudyprovidesuniqueinsightsaboutchangesthatoccurredindozensoffamiliesattwopointsintimeoverfortyyears.However,becauseparticipantswerenotinterviewedintheinterveningperiod,thestudydidnotenableadaptivelearningovertimethatmighthaverevealedtrendstopointtowardchangesinlocaldecisionmakingandpolicyalongtheway.
45
• Participatedinan‘OpenSpaceHaiti’eventwith60educationandcommunityleadersinordertodiscusscurrentconditionsandstrategizeaboutthefutureinthelocalandwidercontextsofparticipatorycommunitydevelopment,education,andsocialenterpriseinHaiti.
• Testedtheuseof‘story’methodsthatincorporatedphoto-takingexercises,andstoryelicitationvideosinordertohearaboutparticipantlikesanddislikesabouteverydaylifeandwhatismeaningfultothem,earthquakeexperiences,andtheiraspirationsforandconcernsaboutthefuture.
• ConductedinterviewsandresearchatHabitatSantoVillageandinterviewswiththelead
organization,HabitatforHumanity,andtheorganizationimplementingaparticipatorygovernanceprocess,HaitiPartners.Subsequently,thisresearchwaswrittenupintwopapers(Chapter5ofthisthesisandEngle-Warnick,BornsteinandLizarralde,2013).
• VisitedtheDelmas32neighborhoodwithJP/HROrepresentatives.8ThisNGOmanagedthe
largesttentcampinPort-au-Prince(population60,000atitsheight),andsince2012hasundertakeneffortstorelocateresidentsbacktotheirpre-earthquakeneighborhoods.NearlyhalfthepopulationlivedintheDelmas32neighborhoodofPort-au-Prince.JP/HROcarriedoutanumberofcollaborativerelocationanddevelopmentinitiativesintheneighborhoodinhealthcare,waterprovision,educationandcommunityservices,andphysicalreconstructionofhomesandinfrastructure.
Primarydatacollectionwassuccessfulthroughoutfieldwork,aswassecondarydatacollection
fromNGOs.Ihaddifficulty,however,collectingsecondarydatafromgovernmentsources.For
example,Iattemptedtoanswerthefollowingquestions,butwasunabletoaccesslocal
governmentdataforthemaincasecommunity.ThisissymptomaticofalargerprobleminHaiti
regardingthelackofaccuratedataavailabilitytoinformdecision-making.Forexample,itwas
notpossibletohaveclearandreliableresponsestothefollowingquestions.
Whatreliablesecondarydataareavailable,suchasdemographic,landuse,social,economic,andenvironmentalconditions?Whatwerethephysicaleffectsoftheearthquake(e.g.homesandinfrastructuredestroyed,environmentalconditionsaltered)?Whatspatialandstrategicplansexistforthecommunity?Whatmorecanbelearnedaboutthepoliticalcontextincludingdecentralizationplans?
Animportantsourceofdatainmyresearchisstory.Iusestoryinthreeways:1)asamodeof
datacollection,whereresearchparticipantsarestorytellers,asinearthquakeinterviews;2)asa
8JP/HROwasfoundedbyAmericanactor,SeanPenn,intheearthquakeaftermath.WhileIconductedinformalinterviewswithseveralstaffmembers,itwasnotpossibletoobtainapprovalforaformalresearchrelationship.
46
modeofrepresentation,whereIasresearcheramstoryteller,asinthecommunitycorestory
toldinChapter4;and3)asamodeofreasoningandinterpretation,asinnarrativeanalysis(or
narratology),asinmyinterpretationsofdatacollectedthroughparticipatoryphotography,
mapping,anddialoguecircles.Also,Icollectindividualstorydatathroughfocusgroups(called
dialoguecircleshere),semi-structuredandopen-endedinterviews,andotherparticipatory
exercises.Thesemethodswerecarriedoutprimarilyinsummer2013with12people
(embeddedcasesinFigure1.4)inaprocesscalled‘DyalogFoto’,whichfollowedthelessin-
depthinitialprocess,andFowòmFoto,whichIcarriedoutin2012.9InDyalogFoto,Iconducted
aseriesofparticipatoryactivitiesoverthecourseofamonth.Photoworkshops,participatory
mapping,probe-basedandsemi-structuredinterviews,focusgroups,andvideointerviewswere
incorporated.Imadeadjustmentsinthefieldasneededandappropriate,suchasincludinga
communitytimelineprocess,adaytovisittheregionalmarkettogethertolearnabouttrading
practicesandlocallivelihoods,andthedesignandtimetocarryoutacommunitywalkofplaces
mostimportant(orcontroversial)tolocalresidents.
Figure1.5:FieldworkPhases
2011:Conductedpreliminaryexploration,reconnaissance:consolidatedrelationships,networks2012:Collectedprimaryandsecondarycaseandcontextualdata/testedparticipatorymethods2013:Collectedprimarycaseandcontextualdata/carriedoutparticipatorymethods2014-2016:Continuedremotedatacollectionandmembercheckingwithresearchcollaborators
2011201220132014-2016
9ThebasisforworkingwithagroupthesizeofabouttenpeopleintheseparticipatoryexercisesstemsfromtheoryinFriedmann’ssociallearningapproach(Friedmann1987:185).
47
ThestructureoftheDyalògFotoprocessandrelatedfieldworkwasdesignedtoaddress
phroneticinquiryquestions(Flyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjergetal.,2012)fromthepointofviewof
participants.Phroneticresearchquestionsarethefollowing.
1. OfwhatstoryorstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?
2. Wherearewegoing(asacommunity)?Andisitdesirable?
3. Whowinsandwholosesandbywhichmechanismsofpower?
4. What,ifanything,dowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?
DuringtheDyalògFotoparticipatorymethods,Icollecteddatathroughinterviews,participant
observation,fieldnotes,audioandvideorecordings,photographstakenbymeandthe
participants,aswellasadditionaloutputsoftheparticipatorymethods,includingmaps,
communitytimeline,andacommunityguidedwalk.IconductedinterviewswithNGO
representatives,governmentanduniversityofficials,andrepresentativesofinternational
agencies.Datawerecollectedinthreelanguages:primarilyHaitianCreole,andalsoFrenchand
English.AlldataweretranscribedandtranslatedtoEnglishforeaseofanalysis.
Theaimsofanalysisandinterpretationcarriedoutpostfieldworkweretoaddressthecentral
researchquestionandissuequestions(above),includingthemeaningofNGO-community
developmentcollaborationsforlocalpeopleandwhichconditionsandstrategiesseemto
potentiallycontribute,ornot,tosocialtransformation.Icarriedoutanalysisandinterpretation
usingstandardsofrigorinqualitativeresearch,drawingonnarratology,thematiccoding,and
patternanalysis(suchasinRyanandBernard,2000).Ialsodrewoncasestudysourcesfor
analyticalandinterpretivetechniques,suchascategoricalaggregationanddirectinterpretation
(Stake,1995;Yin,2009).ForChapter5,IusedInnesandBooher’s(2010)collaborative
rationalitytheorytoanalyzecollaborativepartnershipstructures.Ianalyzedmeaningand
potentialforsocialchangeatthecommunitylevel,innovationbyNGOsaffordedbythepost-
earthquakewindowofopportunity,andcollaborativedynamicsintheareasofsocialenterprise,
education,andparticipationandgovernance.
48
1.4EthicalConsiderations
Ethicalconsiderationsarewoventhroughoutdecision-makingprocessesofresearchdesignand
implementation.Icontinuallyengagedincriticalreflexivity,whichinvolvesstudyingmyown
moralbeliefsandconductwithasensitivitytohowmyownethicsmayconflictwiththeethics
orsocialnormsinthefield.Isubmittedfieldworkproposalstotheuniversityethicalreview
boardin2012(seeAppendix),addressingissuesofinformedconsent,avoidingdeception,
ensuringconfidentialitywhenaskedfor,andprotectinganonymitywhenpossible.Throughout
fieldwork,Inegotiatedrelationships,manyofwhichhadastrongethicaldimensiontothem
(seealsoPositionalityandAcknowledgementssectionabove).WhoIchoosetoinvolveinthe
research,howIinvitedthemandhowIgathereddataraisedethicalissues.Reciprocity,orhowI
gavebacktoparticipantsfortheircontributionstomyproject,deservedcloseattentionsothatI
wasclearaboutwhatparticipantswouldstandtogainfrommystudy.Icarefullyconsidered
howbesttocommunicatewithparticipantsatkeystagesoftheresearch.Iwasawarethatmy
presenceasaresearchercouldaffectcommunitychangeandhaveunanticipatedconsequences.
IwassensitivetohowmypresenceaffectedrelationshipsofthosearoundmeandwhetherIput
participantsatrisk.Iwasalsoclearaboutwhowasentitledtovariousoutputsoftheresearch,
suchasphotos,videos,andwrittenstories.Becausemisunderstandingscanoccurindata
gathering,analysis,interpretationandrepresentation,particularlyincross-cultural
environments,Iwasconsciousofmyresponsibilitytomemberchecktoverifythatthe‘voices’
ofparticipantswerewellrepresented.ThismeansthatIconsultedsubsequentlywith
participantswhereappropriateandpossibletovalidateaccuracyofdatagathered.I
communicatedregularlywithparticipantsthroughouttheresearchprocesstohelpdecrease
potentialformisunderstandings.
1.5OverviewofFollowingChapters
Thismanuscript-basedthesiscontainsthreepapers,formattedhereasChapters2,4,and5,as
wellastwovideos,containedasChapter3.Eachchapterhasabriefintroduction.
49
Chapter2istheCommunityCaseStudyPaper,whichisbyfarthelongestofthethreearticles.
Itprovidesaconceptualframeworkfortherelationshipbetweencommunitydevelopmentand
socialchangeanditdetailstheprincipalcaseofthisthesis,theBellevue-La-Montagne
communityandHaitiPartners’approachtheretoeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment.
Italsohasa‘behindthescenes’lookatlocalresidents’communitydevelopmentexperiences,as
wellastheirexistingandaspirationalnarrativesforchange.Thenarrativesexposed‘tension
points’inanumberofpowerdynamics,andenabledidentificationof‘leversoftransformation’
thatcouldopenuppossibilitiesforsystemicchange.
Chapter3isrepresentedintheformofvideo.Itcomprisestwoversions(13minutesand6
minutes)Iproducedtocommunicateapartofthisresearchtoawideraudienceandasa
teachingtool.Bothversionsofthevideoformpartofthisthesisandmayalsobeaccessed
onlineat:vimeo.com/jayneeworviatheVimeochannelonparticipationinHaiti:
vimeo.com/channels/haitiparticipation.
Chapter4istheParticipatoryMethodsPaper,whichfocusesprimarilyontheparticipatory
photographyandmappingmethodologiesofthisthesis.Ihaveanalyzedboththeresults
generatedbycarryingoutthemethods,andthestrengthsandweaknessesofthemethods
themselves.Byiterativelydesigningtheresearchandadaptingthemethodsaccordingtothe
localcontextandconditions,Iwasabletodelvedeeperintosomeofthethreatstosustaining
thecommunitydevelopmentunderway,notablystate-societyrelationships,asenseof
powerlessnessandresignation,anddifferencesinoutcomesbetweenindividualsandthe
communityasawhole.Anaddendumisprovidedwithphotographsofandbythe12local
residentsofBellevue-La-MontagnewithwhomIconductedthein-depthparticipatory
processes.
Chapter5istheCommunityGovernancePaper,whichoutlinestheexperienceofcommunityco-
designofalocalgovernancemodelforthenewhousingcommunity,HabitatSantoVillage,
constructedbyHabitatforHumanityjustaftertheearthquakeonthesiteofapost-disastertent
camp.I,togetherwithmyco-authors,analyzeacollaborativedialogueprocess--‘Good
50
Neighbor’,asixmontheffortatdesigningcommunitylocalgovernance--throughthelensof
collaborativerationalitytheory.
Chapter6istheconcludingchapter.Itsetsoutthetheoryofchangedevelopedinthisresearch,
synthesizeskeyresults,andprovidesresearchcontributionsandpolicyrecommendationsas
wellasfuturedirectionsforthiswork.
51
PrefacetoChapter2:CommunityCaseStudyPaper
StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?
Acasestudyofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti
Thischapterdescribestheprincipalcaseofthisthesis,theBellevue-La-Montagnecommunity
andHaitiPartners’approachtoeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment.Participatoryand
phronesisresearchmethodologiesreveal‘insider’and‘outsider’perspectivesonthecommunity
developmentanditsmeaningforlocalpeople.Findingsrevealthat,inspiteofsubstantial
progressindevelopmentprojects,tensionpointspotentiallythreatenlong-termsustainability.
Localnarrativesexposedthese‘tensionpoints’inpowerdynamicsaswellas‘leversof
transformation’thatareopeninguppossibilitiesforsystemicchangeandprogressingfrom
communitychangeasrevealedhere,tobroaderanddeepersocialtransformation.
Communityorganizationsaretheplacewherepeoplelearnthepraxisofarealdemocracy,
learntodefendonepositionandtolistentoanother,todecidetogether,todividethework
tobedone,tosetobjectives.Itistheplacewhereexperimentscanbeattempted,insmall
asinlargematter,withallthejoyandstrengthofworkinsolidaritywithothers.
DiegoPalma(1988:25)quotedinFriedmann(1992:78)
Myfatherwasanimportanttontonmacoute.Everytimewesawhiminhisuniform,we
leftthehouse,werantohide.Sometimeshecamewithfellowmacoutesandhadus
marcharound.Weknewthatwhenhecamehewouldhaveusdothat,soweranandhid.
Butaftertheregimefell,theywerechasingandkillingmacoutes,nothinghappenedtomy
father.Histontonmacoutecardisstillthere[inthehouse].Atthetime,wedugabighole
toburyhisuniform,butnothinghappenedtohim.
Researchparticipant,2013
52
Chapter2:StoriesofTragedy,TrustandTransformation?
Acasestudyofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinpost-earthquakeHaiti
2.1Introduction
I’mnotcompletelycomfortable[withmylife],becauseI’mlimited.IfIhadcontinuedin
school,Icouldhaveadifferentfuture...Iammyfather’soldestdaughter1;hehaddreams
forme,butthingswentwrong;Ishouldhavegonefurtherinschooltobeabletogetajob
witharegularsalary.Currently,Ihavenoregularincome.Bynow,Iwouldhavealmost
completedmyeducation.Ihadtoquitschool[atage19],whenIwassupposedtogointo
7thgrade.
Lisa,residentofBellevue-La-Montagne,20132
Haitihasneverhadatraditionofprovidingservicestothepopulation. SinghandBarton-Dock,2015
ThemajorityofchildreninHaitidonotattendschoolregularly.Only12percentofprimary
schoolsarepublic,andmostoftherestrelyonparent-paidtuition,whichisdifficultformost
familiestosustain.Basicservicessuchascleanwater,electricity,andhealthcarearescarceor
nonexistentinmostcommunities,andmalnutritionandhungerareontherise.Therearean
estimated200,000formaljobsinacountryofmorethantenmillionpeople.Storiessuchas
Lisa’sarenotunusual.Shelivesinacountrywhereeducationisnotaright,norisaccessto
basichumanservices.Inshort,Haitiisacountrywheretherehasneverbeenatruesocial
contractinwhichthestatelistenstoorworkswithcivilsociety(Tippenhauer,2010;Singhand
Barton-Dock,2015).
CurrentconditionsinHaitiareanoutcomeofthecountry’shistoricaldevelopment,whichhas
producedweakformalgovernanceandeconomicstructures,highlevelsofinequality,and
limitedsocialsafetynets.TheHaitianstatewascharacterizedas‘predatory’,‘fragile’or‘failed’
1Thefatherhashad20additionalchildrensinceLisa.2Researchparticipants’nameshavebeenchangedornotrevealedinordertoprotecttheirprivacy.
53
evenbeforethecatastrophicearthquakeofJanuary12,2010.Therewashopethatthedisaster
wouldopenawindowofopportunityfortransformation(Pierre-Louis,F.2011;Pierre-Louis,M.
D.2012).However,outcomesinHaitihavedeterioratedsincethen.Haiti’srankingontheUNDP
HumanDevelopmentIndexfellbythreeplacesin2014to163outof188countriesand
territories--byfarthelowestofanycountryintheAmericas.Adjustedforinequalityof
educationandincomewithinthecountry,Haitiranksevenlower(UNDP,2015).
Foreignassistancewithpost-earthquakerecoveryhasproducedmixedresults.Sixyearslater,
morethan60,000peoplestillliveintentcamps.Whiletherearepocketsofsomewhat
successfulpost-earthquakedevelopment(seeEngle-Warnick,BornsteinandLizarralde,2013
andBell,2013),mostattemptsofscalablerecoveryandrebuildingeffortshavefailed.The
politicaleffectsofforeigninterventionshaveunderminedthesovereigntyoftheHaitian
Government,whichsomeclaim,hasbecomea‘virtualtrusteeship’of‘theinternational
community’(Fatton,2014;Fatton,2016).Atthetimeofthiswritinginearly2016,therehasnot
beenafunctioningparliamentforoneyear,anditisunclearwhenPresidentialelectionswillbe
held.
Giventhenumerouschallengesandbarrierstodevelopment,exploringinstanceswhere
progresshasoccurredprovidesapossibleroadmapforotherendeavours.Inthispaper,I
investigatetheexperienceofaneducation-centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopmentin
Bellevue-La-Montagne,anareawherepost-earthquakerecoveryinitiativeshavehadsome
success.Iexplorethiscommunitydevelopmentfromboth‘outsider’(NGO)and‘insider’(local
resident)perspectives,inordertoaddressthequestions:Whatdoesthiscasecontributeto
learningaboutpossibilitiesforcommunitychangeandpathwaystotransformationinHaiti?
Andrelatedly,isBellevue-La-Montagneanexampleof‘transformativecommunitydevelopment’
--thatis,localparticipatorydevelopmentthatishavinganimpactonsocialchange?
Thearticleissetoutinfoursections:1)Haiticontext,conceptualframeworkandmethodo-
logicalapproach;2)thecommunitycasestudyincludingbackgroundandvisionofthelead
54
organization,HaitiPartners;3)a‘behindthescenes’viewofthecommunitydevelopment
underway,andadiscussionof‘tensionpoints’revealed;and4)identificationofexistingand
potentialleveragepointsforsystemstransformationforwhichthiscaseprovidesamicrocosm
andisinstructivetopracticeandpolicyacrossHaiti.Iconcludebyreturningtothequestionof
whethercommunitydevelopmentforsocialtransformationisevidentinthiscase.
Haiticontextandconceptualframework
Acentralargumentofthisarticleisthatmuch-neededchangetoHaiti’sdevelopmenttrajectory
canbefurtheredbylearningfromandscalinglocalcommunityexperienceswithparticipatory
developmentthatshowpromiseoftransformation,suchasthecaseofBellevue-La-Montagne
presentedhere.Threepointsprovideimportantcontext:1)historicalpatternsofoppression
anddevelopmenthaveresultedinentrenchedstructuralinequalitiesinHaiti;2)sincetheroleof
governmenthasbeenunderminedbyforeigninterventionsandinternalpolitics,NGOs–large
andsmall,localandinternational--havecometoplayadominantroleinthedevelopment
landscape,withassociateddrawbacksandopportunities;and3)thecommunitylevelisahighly
promisingsiteoftransformationwhenlocalpeoplehavetheagency--throughparticipatory
development--toact,particularlyintheareasofeducation,socialentrepreneurship,and
women’sempowerment.Inordertounderstandthecontextforlocalcommunitydevelopment
inHaitiandpotentialpathwaysforthecountry’stransformation,itisimportanttobeginwith
thebroaderbackdropofdevelopmentchallenges.
DilemmasofdevelopmentinHaiti
Historicalpatternsofslavery,oppressionandisolationintertwinedwithdeeplyembedded
structuralinequalitiesandfrequentdisasters–mostnotablythecatastrophicearthquakeof
2010–presentenormouschallengestochangingthedevelopmenttrajectoryofHaiti(Farmer,
2011;SchullerandMorales,2012;Wilentz,2013).Butitwouldnotbethefirsttimethat
Haitiansovercameseeminglyinsurmountablebarriers.Thebroaderstorythathascontributed
55
toshapingpresent-dayHaitibeganwithanunprecedentedhistoricalsuccessofthefirst,and
stillonly,successfulslaverevolution,whichledtotheindependenceofthecountryin1804.
Thatfeat,whichwasunfathomableatthetime,cameaboutduringcolonialismandaglobalized
slavetrade,andledtoothercountriesisolatingHaitiandfailinginitiallytorecognizeits
independence(Girard,2010).Haitiwouldgoontopayamassive‘debtofindependence’to
Franceuntil1946,andvariousUSinterventionsthroughouthistory–notleastanoccupation
from1915-1934andthesupportofbrutaldictatorsduringtheColdWar–contributedtoHaiti’s
inabilitytorecoveranditsexternalfocus;exporttradeandinternationalrelationshipswere
moreimportanttogovernmentthaninwardeffortstobuildasolidsocietyandpoliticalculture
(Dubois,2012).Haiti’scentralgovernmenthasbeenoppressive,brutal,andpredatoryatworst,
and,atbest,inshortperiodsofrelativestability,ithasremaineddysfunctionalandcorrupt
(HeineandThompson,2011).Thenever-endingtransitiontoa‘stabledemocracy’beganafter
theexileofdictatorJean-ClaudeDuvalierin1986withtheestablishmentoftheHaitian
Constitutionof1987,whichhasyettobeimplemented(Deshommes,2006;Deshommes,2012).
Foreigninterventionssincethattimeandadoptionofneoliberalisminpolitical,economicand
agriculturalsphereshavecontributedtofurtherinstability,foodinsecurity,and‘obscene
inequities’(Fatton,2016:34;Fatton,2014;Deshommes2006).Intermsofeconomic
development,strategiestocreatejobsthroughexportprocessingzonesforassemblyindustries
havebeena‘manifestfailure’intendedtoexploitHaiti’s‘ultracheaplabour’(Fatton,2014:77).
Thisapproachhascontributedtoenvironmentaldegradation,reductionoflandneededfor
agriculture,increasingnumbersofpeoplelivinginmiserableconditionsinvasturbaninformal
settlements–andwithjobsthat,forthemostpart,failtopayworkersalivingwage.Foreign
donorsbypassedthecorruptstateandcontributeddirectlytonongovernmentalorganizations
(NGOs)inthefollowingdecades,anditisestimatedthatmorethan10,000NGOsnowoperate
inHaiti(Schuller,2012;Fatton,2014).3Thesefactorsalongwithinternalpoliticalconflicthave
contributedtothecurrentsituationwhere,inspiteofmassivecontributions,internationalaid
hasfailedtobringaboutbetterlivingconditionsorinstitutionsinHaiti,whichremainsina
3Whileactualnumbersareunknown,itisestimatedthatperhaps10,000NGOsworkinHaiti,whichwouldgiveitthehighestnumberpercapitaofanycountryintheworld–thereasonthatHaitiisreferredtoas‘theRepublicofNGOs’.AccordingtoNationalGeographic(seeFuller,2015),atleast4,000NGOsareregisteredofficiallyinHaiti.
56
‘conflict-povertytrap’eveninthemidstofhighlevelsofsocialresilience(WorldBank,2006).
Goodparadigmsforwhatcouldworktobringaboutlasting,systemicchangehavenotyet
emergedonasubstantialscale(HeineandThompson,2011;Schuller,2012;Tippenhauer,2010).
Continuingstructuralinequalitiesinthecountryaremanifestinlowliteracyratesandan
abysmaleducationsystem,massivepovertyanddeprivation,andculturalnormsthat
disempowerthemajorityofpeopleandparticularlywomen.
Ordinarypeople–thevastmajorityverypoor--havelimitedaccesstothemostbasicservices.
IfevenpriortotheearthquakeHaitiwasahumanemergency,todayitisacatastrophe.Inspite
ofwhatseemedtobehistoricgoodwillonthepartsofinternationalagenciesandgovernments,
thereislittleevidencetodayofgood,scalablereconstructionprojectswiththepotentialto
createsystemicchange.Intheaftermathoftheearthquake,foreignassistancepatterns
reinforcedstateincapacitybycontributingonlyonepercent($25million)ofatotalof$2.43
billiontotheGovernmentofHaiti.Infact,approximately99percentofpost-earthquakerelief
aidwenttonon-Haitianactors(Fatton,2016;UnitedNations,2011).RobertFattonJr.(2014
and2016)argues,Haitihasfurtherlostsovereigntyandbeenreducedtoa‘virtualtrusteeship’
oftheinternationalcommunity,andisnowrelegatedtothe‘outerperiphery’oftheworld
economicsystem.NGOsattempttofillcratersofneedhereandthere,butthereislittle
coordination,accountability,transparence,orconsistency,andtheperformanceandresultsof
thethousandsofNGOsvaryenormously(Farmer,2011;Pierre-Louis,2011;Schuller,2012;
SchullerandMorales,2012).
WhileNGOaccountabilityisproblematicandperformanceishighlyheterogeneous,NGOs
representasignificantsetofplayersinthedevelopmentlandscapeofHaiti,astheydoinmany
othercountriesoftheGlobalSouth.Adebateinthedevelopmentliteraturerevolvesaroundthe
roleofNGOsvis-à-visthestateinmattersofcommunityandinternationaldevelopment.In
recentdecades,andarguablylargelyinresponsetothediminishingroleofthestateinsocial
spheres,thesectorofNGOshasgrownsignificantly.InGlobalSouthsettings,officialaidhas
beendivertedto(mainlyinternational)NGOswithexpectationsoffavourabledevelopment
57
outcomes,particularlythatactivitiesofNGOswouldhelptomitigatenegativeeffectsof
neoliberalmacroeconomicpoliciesonvulnerablepeople,andthatagrowingNGOsectorwould
contributetodemocratizationthroughstrengtheningandpluralizingcivilsociety(Fowler,
1991).4NGOsandcivilsocietyaremurkyandcontestedterms,andarenotunderstoodthe
samewaybetweenculturesorwithinanyoneculture.Here,NGOsrefertonon-statenot-for-
profitorganizationsdesignedtoservecollectiveaims,andincludewhatareknownvariouslyas
civilsocietyorganizations(CSOs),community-basedorganizations(CBOs),grassroots
organizations(GROs),aswellasNGOs(nongovernmentalorganizations).Thesize,scope,aims,
funding,andeffectivenessofthis‘thirdsector’varysubstantially.
Evengiventhisdiversity,thereisconsiderabledebateovertheroleofNGOsinpromoting
democracy.Mercer(2002)callsintoquestionthecommonlyheldidealofcivilsocietyandNGOs
asinherently‘good’fordemocraticdevelopment.Mercer’scriticalreviewoftheliterature
pointstohowsomearguethatNGOscanstrengthenstateandcivilsociety,andothersargue
thatstrengtheningNGOsunderminesdevelopmentofdemocracies.GursteinandAngeles
(2007)definecivilsocietiesinrelationtotheircontributiontodemocraticplanningand
governance.Theirdefinitionisnormative:“densenetworksoforganizationsandinstitutions
thatmediatebetweenstatesandcitizens,whilechallengingandtransforminghegemonicstate
policiesandmarketpractices”(page5).DouglassandFriedmann(1998)pointtotensions
betweenthelocalandtheglobal(or‘agency’and‘structure’)addressedbycivilsocietyas
revolvingaroundthreeinterconnectedstruggles:therighttohumanflourishing,therightto
voice,andtherighttodifference.(Ireturntothefirsttwointhenextsection.)
LocalcommunitiesintheGlobalSouth,oftensupportedbylocaland/orinternationalNGOs,
haveprovidedsitesoftransformationinreducingpoverty,improvinglivelihoodsandcreating
4Asusedhere,civilsocietyrefersto“thatpartofsocial,asdistinctfromcorporate,lifethatliesbeyondtheimmediatecontrolofthestate.Itisthesocietyofhouseholds,familynetworks,civicandreligiousorganizationsandcommunitiesthatareboundtoeachotherbysharedhistories,collectivememoriesandculturallyspecificformsofreciprocity”(Friedmann,2011:140).Thereisextensiveliteratureoncivilsocietyconstructions;myownunderstandingsdrawparticularlyonworksbyAbu-Lughod1998,DouglassandFriedmann1998,Friedmann1992and2011,Mercer2002,andStorper1996.
58
socialbusinesses,andstrengtheningcommunityandenvironmentaldevelopmentprojects
(examplesinBornstein,2003;Bornstein,2006;Carley,JenkinsandSmith,2001;Devas,2004;
Friedmann,1992;Mitlin,2004;MitlinandSatterthwaite,2004;Perlman,2007;Yunus,2007).
Recently,concernandcriticismhavegrownconcerningthetransparencyandlegitimacyof
NGOsandtheircontributiontointernationaldevelopmentoutcomes,particularlyinHaitiwhere
mostNGOsarenotknowntothestateandhavenoaccountabilitytoHaitianactors.Themain
debaterevolvesaroundthefactthat,ontheonehand,Haitianscannotrelyonthestateto
providebasicservicessinceitisdysfunctionalandcorruptinthebestoftimesand,andonthe
otherhand,NGOsthatundertakedevelopmentworkandserviceprovisionarenotaccountable
(tothestateorpeople)anddonotcoordinateactivitieswitheachother,whichresultsinhuge
inefficiencies.MosttellingperhapsisthattheplethoraofNGOsinHaitiinrecentdecadesdoes
notappeartohavecontributedtodevelopmentoutcomesonabroadscale(Schuller,2012;
Deshommes,2006).However,giventhatitwilltakemanyyearstoconstructalegitimate,
effectivestateinHaiti(letaloneasocialcontract),NGOslikelyareneeded,buttheyshouldbe
heldaccountable.EffectiveNGOswouldnotonlybuildcapacityandinvestinHaitiandits
peopleforthelongterm,butalsowouldworktoimprovecivilsocietyandcommunity
relationshipswiththestate,providinggoodpracticesthatcouldbeemulatedandscaled.A
questionthatarisesis:Howcanthestatebestrengthenedinconjunctionwiththeconsolidation
ofNGOsinHaiti,whileimprovinglivingconditionsforthepeopleofHaitiandpossibilitiesfor
transformationatcommunitylevel?Iturnnowtoadiscussionofthecommunitylevelandits
potentialasasiteoftransformationtothedevelopmentparadigmoperatinginHaiti.
ThecontextofthecurrentsituationinHaitiisthatlongbeforetheearthquakeof2010,people’s
rightsandaccesstodecentlivingconditionswereseverelyrestrained,andsoitisundesirableto
‘reconstruct’whatwas.Rather,thereisanopportunitytoconstructinfrastructure–physical,
politicalandsocietal–anew,whichiswhatFritzDeshommesreferstoasa‘re-foundation’of
Haiti(Deshommes,2012).FormerPrimeMinisterMichèlePierre-Louis(2012)calledfor
deconstructionofthecurrentparadigm--referringtothebasisofproduction,education,access
59
toemployment,humanrights,socialsystems,technology,infrastructure--andreconstruction
ofsociety.Shearguesthatlocalcivilsocietyorganizationsmustbetterorganizemovementsto
bringaboutchange.Shefurtherarguesto‘buildonsmallsuccessesbyvaluinglocalknowledge’.
Likewise,EricNee(2016)arguesthat:‘tocreateeffectiveandlong-lastingsocialchange,
organizationsandtheprogramstheycreatemustinonewayoranotherbecomeembeddedin
thelocalcommunity.’
AConceptualframeworkforexaminingthecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformation
Theconceptualframeworkadoptedintheresearchaddresseslocalchallengesthrougha
structureandagencylens.Locallevelchallengesofdeprivationanddisempowermentcanbe
bestunderstoodthroughcriticalanalysisofstructureandagency,powerdynamics,and
progresstowardscertainrights.Anemphasisonbothagency(oractor)andstructurallevelsof
analysisarecoretoFreiriancriticalconsciousnessandalsotophroneticsocialscienceespoused
byBentFlyvbjerg(2001).Thenotionof‘structure’,drawingonAnthonyGiddens(1979)isas
institutionsthatframesocialinteractions,includingthe‘macro’governance,economicand
socialsystemsaswellasculturalnormsandrulesofbehaviour.‘Agency’,asusedhere,refersto
self-helpfor‘citizendrivenchange’(SheikheldinandDevlin,2015),self-efficacy(Brown,1997),
orwhattheAshokaorganizationreferstoas‘everyoneachangemaker’,inwhicheachperson
feelsempoweredandresponsibletotakeactionthatwouldcontributetopositivesocialchange
(Drayton,2006).AmartyaSen’sdefiningof‘developmentasfreedom’positsthattrue
developmentenablespeopletoleadthelivestheyvaluebyeliminatingconstraintstofreedom,
suchaslackofbasicservices,systemicinequalities,limitedeconomicopportunityandpoverty
(Sen,1999).Locallevelparticipatoryapproachesthatincorporatesociallearningareidentified
asprovidingappropriatemeansforcreatingdialoguethatcouldcriticallyanalyzeandaddress
relationshipsofpowertobringaboutchange(Friedmann,1997;GursteinandAngeles,2007).
Freiriancriticalpraxis,Gramscianhegemony,andHabermasiancommunicativeactiontheories
provideameansforanalyzingpowerimbalances.Flyvbjergianphronesisanalysesthat
emphasizepracticalwisdomandgainingexpertiseovertimethroughlearningfrommultiple
60
cases,arewellsuitedtoaddressingissuesofpower,notonlyincommunitydevelopment
practiceandresearch,butasChrisBrown(2013)argues,alsoinevidence-basedpolicy
development.
Viewingpowerdynamicsthroughthelensofcertainrightshasmerits.The‘righttovoice’and
‘righttohumanflourishing’aretwoofthecivilsocietystrugglesthatDouglassandFriedmann
(1998)castascentraltochangingpowernarrativesandenablingagencyofpeopletocontribute
tostructuralchange.
Righttovoicerefersto“ademocraticstruggleforinclusivenessindemocraticprocedures,fortransparencyingovernmenttransactions,foraccountabilityofthestatetoitscitizensand,aboveall,fortherightofcitizens--allcitizens--tobeheardinmattersaffectingtheirinterestsandconcernsatthelocalleveloflifespaceandcommunity.Itisthusasmuchabouttheprocessandformofengagementofcitizensinthemakingoftheirworldasitisabouttheendstheyseektoachieve”(DouglassandFriedmann,1998:2)Righttohumanflourishingisbasedontheprinciplethat“everyhumanbeinghastheright,bynature,tothefulldevelopmentoftheirinnateintellectual,physicalandspiritualpotentialsinthecontextofwidercommunities”(Friedmann,2011:151).Furthermore,itinvolves“astruggleforincreasedaccesstothematerialbasesofsocialpower--forhousing,work,healthandeducation,acleanenvironment,financialresources--insum,forthebasicconditionsoflivelihoodandhumanflourishing”(DouglassandFriedmann,1998:2).
TheserightsandnotionsofagencyandstructurealigncloselywithHenriLefebvre’s(1996:
1968)‘righttothecity’asarguedbyHe(2015:673),whichadvocatesa‘visionofalifefullylived
forurbaninhabitants’.DavidHarvey(1973)interpretedtherighttothecityasacollectiveright
thatwouldfurthersocialjusticethroughmoredemocraticmanagementofresources,and
ManuelCastells(1977)appliedthetheorytohisworkonurbansocialmovements.Righttothe
cityand,toalesserextent,righttohumanflourishing,havebeenappliedmorerecentlyto
discussionsregardingpublicspace,socialexclusion,migrationpolicies,housing,andcitizenship
(Marcuse,2009;Harvey,2008;AminandThrift,2002).Theserightscanbethoughtofastool
kitsforradicalchangethatenablecollectivecriticalanalysis,whichwouldprovidepossibilities
61
andspaceforpeopletomeettheirneeds,whichwouldmeanclaimingrightsofparticipationas
wellasrightsofappropriation(He,2015).
Myreadingoftheoretical,practicalandHaiti-specificliteraturehighlightstheneedtoadopt
researchapproachesthatidentifycontext-appropriateandinnovativecommunitydevelopment
inHaiti.Suchdevelopmentinitiativesexistinpocketsbut,itisargued,needtoberevealed,
surfacedandanalyzed.
InpresentdayHaiti–sixyearspost-earthquake,amidstgravedifficultiesandofteninhumane
conditionsofdailylifeformanypeople,therearestoriesofpeoplethataremanagingtoself-
organize,planandrebuild(SchullerandMorales,2012;Wilentz,2013).LaurentDubois(2012:
12;emphasisadded)assertsthefollowing.
Thesocialcohesionthathasresultedfrom[Haiti’s]longhistoricalprocesswasmadedramaticallyvisiblebythe2010earthquake….Despiteitsmassivepovertyanditsalmosttotallackofafunctioninggovernment,[Haiti]isnotaplaceofchaos.LifeinHaitiisnotorganizedbythestate,oralongthelinesmanypeoplemightexpectorwantittobe.Butitdoesdrawonasetofcomplexandresilientsocialinstitutionsthathave
emergedfromahistoriccommitmenttoself-sufficiencyandself-reliance.Anditisonly
throughcollaborationwiththoseinstitutionsthatreconstructioncantrulysucceed.
ThisarticleexaminesacasethatisattemptingtoworkwithHaiti’s‘complexandresilientsocial
institutions’atlocalcommunitylevelinwaysthatarguablyhavepotentialtocontributeto
transformativeresilience.TransformationinHaiti--anddevelopingtransformativeresilience,
whichisaboutchangingandinnovatingcollaborativelyinresponsetotrauma,andinvolves
forgingnewdevelopmentpathways(Folke,Carpenter,Walker,Scheffer,ChapinandRockström,
2010;Goldstein2012;GothamandCampanella,2010).
Astartingpoint,consistentwithtraditionsofcommunity-engagedscholarlyinquiry,isthat
communitydevelopmenthasthepotentialtocontributetosocialtransformation.Inapost-
disastercontext,awindowofopportunityformorerapidordeeptransformativechangecan
open,ifonlyephemerally(Oliver-Smith,2002;Pelling,2003;PellingandDill,2010;Solnit,2009).
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Suchtransformationcanincludeinstitutionaladaptationsthatwouldbuildtransformative
resilience.Transformationcanbeeffectedthroughsocialinnovationcombinedwith
participatorycollaborativeapproaches,whicharesustainedthroughongoingdialogueprocesses
thatallowforconstantnegotiationbetweenorganizationsandcommunity-levelparticipants
(Healey,2006;InnesandBooher,2010;Moulaert,Martinelli,SwyngedouwandGonzález,2010;
Ostrom,1990).
Transformationisunlikelywithoutsustainedconvergenceofsocialchangeatcommunitylevels
andstructuralchangeatnationalandinternationallevels.Investigatingdynamicsof‘agency’(of
peopleandorganizationsatlocallevel)and‘structure’(intermsofgovernanceandsystemic
inequalities)intransformationinHaitiisalongtermproject.ItisevidentthatHaitihasnotyet
fullytransitionedtoastabledemocracysincethe1987Constitution,andthatHaitihasbecome
increasinglydependentoninternationalaid,reliesonimportedfood,andhasfallenonthe
UNDPHumanDevelopmentIndex.Whatissorelylackingisasolidknowledgebasisofpeople’s
everydaylivedexperiencesinHaitiandevidenceofcommunity-levelchangeovertime.Many
anthropologicalandsocialmovementstudieshavebeencarriedout(notablybyJennieSmith,
2001andBeverlyBell,2013),however,agapremainsinourunderstandingofhowagencyat
locallevelsinteractswithstructurallevelstoeffecttransformativechangethatcouldbe
adaptedandscaledacrosscommunities,particularlyinthepost-earthquakeera.‘Voices’of
localpeople,andtheiragencyorlackofpowertorealizetheiraspirationsforchange,arenot
heard.Thisarticleaddressestheseissuesofagencyandstructureandprospectsforimproved
long-termchangeinHaiti,boththroughitsresearchmethodologyinthefieldaswellasthe
natureoftheapproachtoparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentbeingstudied.Theresearch–
byintent–islinkedtoaprojectofsocialtransformation.
Widespreadpracticesoftransformativeresiliencewillbeessentialtosustainingchangeona
diverteddevelopmentpathwayforHaiti,particularlybecausethe‘socialresilience’thatHaitiis
oftenlaudedforcanbeaeuphemismfor‘self-reliance’.Inordertoharnesspossibilitiesfora
‘transformativeresilience’itisimportanttocatalyzethesocialresiliencealreadyinevidence
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(VernerandHeinemann,2006),otherformsaswell,suchasurbanresilience(Bornstein,
Lizarralde,GouldandDavidson,2013),andcommunityresilience(Engle,Bornsteinand
Lizarralde,2015).Oneformofcommunityresiliencebuildingthathasparticularpromiseis
Haiti’straditional‘konbit’systemofinformalsolidaritycooperativesforcollectiveagricultural,
microcreditandcommunitywork.LouinoRobillard(2013),aleadingsocialactivistinCitéSoleil,
Port-au-Prince’slargestinformalsettlement,documentedcasestudiesofaseriesofkonbit
acrossHaitiwhichshowpotentialforscalingandconnectinginwaysthatwouldcontributeto
communitydevelopmentandsocialchange.
Centralconceptsherearecommunitydevelopmentandsocialtransformation.WhatdoImean
bytheseterms,andhowaretheylinked?Communitydevelopmentisaninterdisciplinaryfield
thatcombinesspatialandmaterialdevelopmentwithdevelopmentofpeopleandtheircapacity
tomanagechange.‘Place’isanimportantdimensionofcommunitydevelopment,including
people’srelationshipswiththeplacestheyinhabitandtheireverydayinteractionsinshared
spacesofcommunities.Communitydevelopmentismeanttoenablepeopletomobilize
existingskills,reframeproblems,workcollaborativelyandfindnewwaystousecommunity
assets,andinvolvesflexibleprocessesguidedbyprinciplesofparticipationandself-help.The
keypurposeofcommunitydevelopmentis,accordingtoLedwithandSpringett(2010:14),
“collectiveactionforsocialchange,principledonsocialjusticeandasustainableworld.”Major
stepsincommunitydevelopmentprocessesareoftenidentifyingproblems,engagingpeople
andgroups,assessingthesituationandcontext,exploringpossibilities,planning,prioritizing,
andtakingaction(KretzmannandMcKnight,1993;Ledwith,2011;LedwithandSpringett,2010).
Mystudyofcommunitydevelopmentisbasedonvaluesofsocialandenvironmentaljustice,
socialinnovation(Moulaertetal.,2010;Mulgan,2007;KendraandWachtendorf,2007),and
dialogicalparticipation,andaimedatsocialandsystemictransformationthroughinformal
networksandlocalpraxis(asinForester,1999;Freire,2011[1972],Kennedy,2011).
Collaborativewaysofworking,thinking,anddesigninginstitutionsunderliethiscommunity-
engagedsocialresearchapproach(asinOstrom,1990;Healey,2006).JohnFriedmann’s
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alternativedevelopmenttheory(1992)andsociallearningandsocialmobilizationtraditionsof
non-stateactorsinplanning(Friedmann,1987;Friedmann,1992;Friedmann,2011)providekey
foundationsformyperspectiveoncommunitydevelopmentinaninternationalcontext.
Friedmann(1992)alsoreferstoalternativedevelopmentas‘collectiveself-empowerment’ina
similarveintoBrown’snotionof‘self-efficacy’(Brown,1997).Friedmannarguesthatexternal
actors,suchasNGOswithinternationalties,mustbepartofcollectiveactionfortransformative
changetooccur,whilehealsowarnsthatcivilsocietyactors(i.e.individualswithin
communities)needtodevelop‘voices’oftheirown.Expressing‘voice’andlearningthrough
storiesandeverydaylifeiscentraltothiscommunitydevelopmentplanningandresearch
(Flyvbjerg,2001;Healey,2006;Ledwith,2011;Sandercock,2003a;Sandercock,2003b).
Socialtransformationisusedinterchangeablyherewithsocialchange.SimplyputbyMcLeod
andThomson(2009),socialchangeischangeinpersonalandsociallife.Healey(2006:91)
referstosocialchangeasthe“continuousinteractionbetweenthecreativeactivityofagencyin
relationwithothers,re-thinking,affirmingandchangingsituations,andtheorganizingpowerof
structuralforces”.Socialtransformation,accordingtoFriedmann(1987:250)istheaimof
radicalplanning,“anactivityinwhichknowledgeisjoinedtoactioninthecourseofsocial
transformation”.Socialtransformationhereisspatiallycultivated,meaningthatpeople’s
perceptionsaboutspaceandtheireverydayinteractionsinthephysicalplacesoftheir
communitiesaredeeplyimportant.OrasFriedmann(1987:297)expresses:“Apolitical
practiceaimedatsocialtransformationcanbeeffectiveonlywhenitisbasedontheextra-
politicalactionsofordinarypeoplegatheredintheirowncommunities”.Socialtransformation
involvesapubliclearningprocessthatleadstopermanentshiftsininstitutionsandvalues,
accordingtoLeonieSandercock(2000).Shearguesfurther
…justasinsuccessfultherapythereisbreakthroughandindividualgrowthbecomespossible,sotoowithasuccessfultherapeuticallyorientedapproachtomanagingourco-existenceinthesharedspacesofneighbourhoods,citiesandregions,thereisthecapacityforcollectivegrowth(Sandercock,2000:27).
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Sandercockreferstosuch‘collectivegrowth’inthelanguageofpoliticsassocialtransformation.
CultivatingsocialtransformationandtransformativeresilienceinHaitiancommunitiesisa
criticalchallengethatmanyareattemptingtoaddressthroughrebuildingstrategies,but
successfulandinstructiveexamplesarefew.Thefollowingsectionsetsoutthemethodology
usedtoinvestigateonecommunity’sdevelopmentstrategyforaddressingthischallenge.
Methodology
Thisresearchexploresexperiencesanddynamicsofaneducation-centeredapproachto
communitydevelopmentunderwayinBellevue-La-Montagne.Thecasecommunityisdescribed
inthefollowingsection.Theresearchmethodologycombinescasestudyandparticipatory
approaches,andmystrategyofinquiryfocusesoncombiningbothactorandstructurallevelsof
analysis--understanding‘fromwithin’and‘fromoutside’,whichisconsistentwithphronesis
research(asinFlyvbjerg,2001;Flyvbjerg,LandmanandSchram,2012).Integrating‘insider’and
‘outsider’perspectivesprovidefordeeperunderstandingofdynamicsofcommunitychangeand
socialtransformation.
Fromtheoutside,Iobservedinthefieldandconductedinterviewswithnongovernmental
organization(‘NGO’)representatives,includingfromHaitiPartners,YunusSocialBusiness5,
ArchitectureforHumanity,PADF,andFONKOZE.6ResearchcollaboratorsfromHaitiPartners
accompaniedmethroughoutthefieldwork,providingvaluableresearchassistanceand
contributionstoresearchdesign,analysis,andinterpretation.7Insiderperspectivescome
primarilyfromparticipatoryresearchandasociallearningprocesswith12localresidents(see
Engle,2015,forparticipatorymethodologydesignandresults,andEngle,2014,forvideos
documentingtheparticipatoryresearch).
5YunusSocialBusiness(previouslycalled‘GrameenCreativeLabs’)wasfoundedbyMuhammadYunus,winneroftheNobelPeacePrizeforhispioneeringworkinmicrocreditandmicrofinance,mostnotablyasfounderofGrameenBank.6Iconductedsemi-structuredinterviewswiththefollowingindividuals:JohnEngle,HaitiPartners;ClaudineMichel,YunusSocialBusiness;KateEvarts,ArchitectureforHumanity;andStevenWerlin,FONKOZE.7ResearchcollaboratorsfromHaitiPartnersinthefieldwereBenajaAntoineandErikBadger.AlexMyril,KerlineJanvier,MerlineEngle,andNeslieMyrilprovidedregularadviceandfieldassistance.
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Consistentwithphronesisresearch,Iemploynarrativeanalysis,prioritizehearingleastheard
voices,andfavourlearningfromcaseexamples.Casestudyhaslongbeenrecognizedasan
appropriatemethodologicalapproachinarangeofcontextsinsocialsciencedisciplines,and
theiruseisexpandingintherealmofqualitativesocialandinterpretiveinquiry,includingin
planningliterature(seeCreswell2007;Creswell2009;DenzinandLincoln,2005;Flyvbjerg,2001;
Flyvbjergetal.,2012;Patton,2002;Stake,1995;Stake2006;Stake,2010;Yin,2009).According
toYin(2009),carryingoutcasestudyresearchisasomewhatlinearbutregularlyiterative
process.Aftertheinitialplananddesignforthecasestudyaredeveloped,aresearcher
preparesforfieldwork,collectsdata,analyzes,andthensharesresults.Thepreparation,
collection,design,andanalysisphasesarerehearsediterativelyinordertocontinuallyrefine
approachesandupdatedesignandcollectionmethodsasneeded.Iconductedresearchdesign,
reconnaissancevisits,andfieldtestingofmethodsbetween2011and2013.Icontinueddata
gatheringandanalysisremotelyduring2014and2015.
Eachcaseinvolvesaparticulardomain,whichRobertStake(2006)referstoasits‘quintain’or
‘thing’thatisbeingstudied.Inthisstudy,thequintainiseducation-centeredcommunity
development.Thecentralcasehasbeenselectedbasedonapurposive,information-oriented
samplingstrategy,whichcombinesinstrumentalandparadigmaticselection.Itisinstrumental
inthatthequintainanditsissuesaredominant(Stake,1995),anditisparadigmaticbecauseI
wouldhopetobeable“todevelopametaphororestablishaschoolforthedomainwhichthe
caseconcerns”(Flyvbjerg,2001:79).Importantly,mypositionalityassisterofJohnEngleof
HaitiPartnersishighlyinfluentialinthecaseselection.Thishasaffordedmenotonlyneeded
accesstoinformationaboutthecasefromtheleadNGO’sperspective,butalso,becauseof
John’sreputationasatrustworthypersonandhislong-termresidenceinthecommunity,local
peopleextendtheirtrusttome,whichisfundamentaltomybeingabletoconductin-depth
participatoryresearchinthissetting.Iamconsistentlyawareandself-reflexive,however,that
John’sleadershiproleandreputationinthecommunityaffecthowpeopleseeandbehave
towardsme,whichhasbothpositiveandnegativedimensions,manyofwhichareinvisibleor
difficulttoanalyze.
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Figure2.1providesagraphicrepresentationofthecasestudydesign.Theprincipalcaseisa
collectionofcommunitydevelopmentinitiativescenteredaroundanewschoolinBellevue-La-
Montagne.Thecasestudyofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentprovidesaportrait
ofthelocalsituationthreeyearspost-earthquake.8AsFigure2.1depictsinthecentralcircle,
theprincipalcaseinvolvedworkatthreetypesofsites:theschoolandsocialenterprisehub,
whichisalsoacommunitygatheringplace;participanthomes,whereweconductedinterviews;
andplacesidentifiedthroughdatacollectionassacredplacesorproblemspotsofthearea.9
Thebottomhalfofthecentralcirclerepresentsdatacollectionmethods.The‘embeddedcases’
representthe12peoplewithwhomIcarriedoutsemi-structuredhouseholdinterviewsand
whotookpartinparticipatoryresearch(alsoseeEngle,2015).Theaimwastoget‘behindthe
scenes’ofthecommunitydevelopmentunderwaytohearandunderstandtheperspectivesof
localresidents.Additionaldatawascollectedthroughdocumentationfromandinterviewswith
NGOs,localleaders,internationalagencyrepresentatives.
OntheleftsideofthecentralcircleofFigure2.1arecircleswithcontextandparticipatory
researchmethods.ThecasesetsouthowtheNGO-communitydevelopmentcollaborations
cameaboutandwhowasinvolved,basedondatacollectedfrominterviewswithand
documentationfromNGOsinvolvedinthecollaboration.Thecommunitystudycontent
focusedonlearningfromcollaborativeeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment
approachesandparticipatoryengagementframeworks.Participatoryresearchmethodswere
incorporatedtounderstandcommunityaspirationsandenableacriticalanalysisofthemain
barrierstorealizingthem.Isoughttounderstandaswellhowrelationshipsofpowershape
communitydevelopmentanddecision-makingprocesses.8Mostoftheinterviewandobservationdatawascollectedduringfieldworkin2012and2013,followingreconnaissancefieldstudyin2011.Thein-depthparticipatoryresearchincludinghouseholdinterviews,participatoryphotographyandparticipatorymappingwascarriedoutin2013,followingfieldtestingin2012.AdditionaldocumentsandemailcorrespondencefromHaitiPartnersin2014and2015providedsupplementalinformation.9‘Sacredplaces’and‘hotspots’wereidentifiedinparticipatorymappingprocesses(asinHester,2010),andaredescribedinEngle(2015).Researchparticipantstogetherdesignedandconductedacommunitywalkingtourtomakestopsforcommentaryateachoftheseplaces,whichwasaudio-andvideo-recorded.Analysisandrepresentationofthiscommunitywalkisoutsidethescopeofthisarticle.Anaspirationistoeditthevideotoproduceavirtualguidedcommunitytourinordertodocumentandsharethecommunitydevelopmentandschoolaswellasthelivedexperienceoflocalresidents.
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DuringthefieldworkIinvestigatedthehistoriccommunitycontextandkeyeventsofrecent
years,particularlytheearthquake;localsocial,political,andenvironmentalconditions;the
widerpolicycontext;andimportantsituationalfactors,suchaslivedexperienceoflocal
residents.Idesignedanddocumenteddatacollection,analysis,andinterpretationinawaythat
willfacilitatelongitudinalstudysothatcommunityandsocialchangecanbetrackedregularlyin
theyearsbeyondcompletionofmythesis.Particularlyusefultolongitudinalstudywillbethe
baselinedatacollectedduringhouseholdinterviews(bottomFigure2.1).
Thephronesisquestions(bottomright)areintegratedininquirydesignandaimtoreveal
‘tensionpoints’atstructuralandactorlevelsofanalysiswithanemphasisonnarrative,power
relationships,andlisteningtoleastheardvoices.Themethodsweredesignedtoaddress
furtherquestionsaboutthissetofcollaborations,suchasthefollowing.10Whatarethefactors
thathaveenabledtheseprojectstobecreatedandimplementedwhenmostpost-earthquake
reconstructionhasstalled?Whathavebeenthemainobstaclesandconcerns,andwhatcanbe
learnedfromthem?Howarethesecollaborativeeffortsaffectinglocalpeople,theireveryday
lives,andtheirprospectsforthefuture?Howaretheprojectsgovernedandwhoholdsthe
power?Inwhatwaysarelocalpeoplebenefitingornotfromthecommunitydevelopment,and
whataretheprospectsforsocialchange?Iengagedmethodstoaddressthesequestions,
includinginterviews,documentstudy,observation,andparticipatorymethods.The
participatorymethodsaredocumentedinarticleandvideoformats;seeEngle(2014)andEngle
(2015).
Byusingamixofmethodstoaddresstheresearchquestions,Ihaveexploredwhetherandin
whatwayscollaborativeeffortsunderwayinvolvingparticipationofcommunitiesand
organizations(localandinternational)indialogicalnegotiationsachieveaimsofsharingpower
andbuildingcapabilitiesoflocalpeopleandgroups.Narrativeanalysisistheprinciple
mechanismIemploytointerpretfielddataandlearningpresentedinthenextsection
describingthecasestudyandthensharing‘storiesbehindthescenes’.Idrawonrelevant
10SeeTable1inEngle(2015)foralistofmethods,timing,samplingandrecordingofdatacollected.
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researchandliterature,suchassetoutaboveinthetheoreticalframeworksection,tointerpret
dynamicsofcommunityandsocialtransformation.Basedonmysynthesizedanalysisof
structure/actorandinsider/outsiderperspectives,Iconcludewithrecommendationsforpolicy
andpracticeinHaitithatareconsistentwiththerecentWorldBankrecommendations
mentionedabove,andmoreimportantly,consistentwithwhatIheardfromHaitians
themselvesandtheirvisionsforchange.
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Figure2.1:Graphicrepresentationofthecasestudydesign
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2.2Casestudy:Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentinBellevue-La-MontagneTheresearchsiteisBellevue-La-Montagne,officiallythe4thsectionofthecommuneofPétion-
ville,whichispartofthePort-au-Princecapitalcityconurbation.Semi-ruralandwithaquickly
growingpopulation,Bellevue-La-Montagneislocatedabout20kmfromdowntownPort-au-
Prince.Itspansabout35km2onasmallpeakplateauwithsteephillsidesandanundulating
terrain,and,asitsnamehints,providesspectacularviewsoverlookingPort-au-Princeand
mountainstothenorth,andtheCaribbeanSeatothenorthwest. Themostcommonpublic
transportationinHaiti,thecolourfultap-tappickuptrucksthatcarryabout15people(7people
linedinbenchesoneithersideofthecabandonepersonattheback),canaccessthelower
elevationsofthearea.Agoodportionofthemountainoussectorhasrockydirtroadsandis
accessibleonlybyfoot,motorcycleor4x4vehicle.Localorganizationsestimatethat
approximately30,000peopleliveinthearea,mostofwhomsupportthemselvesthrough
subsistencefarmingandmarkettradingprimarilyofproduceandanimals.Eventhoughthe
areahassufferedfromincreasingfloodinganddroughtsinrecentyearsandthereisstrong
evidenceofhighpovertyandmalnutrition,itisoften‘offthemap’forinternationalaidbecause
itistechnicallyinthejurisdictionofrelativelywell-offPétion-ville.PeoplespeakHaitianCreole,
themothertongueofallHaitians,andasmallnumberofpeoplealsospeakFrench(theother
officiallanguageofHaiti),English,and/orSpanish,withvaryingdegreesofproficiency.
Bellevue-La-MontagnesufferedsubstantiallossesduringtheJanuary12,2010earthquake.
Severalschoolsandchurchescollapsed,andmorethan300homeswerefullyorsubstantially
destroyedinjustonezoneintheimmediatevicinityofthecasestudyschool,whichisasteep
mountainouspartofthecommunity.Intheyearfollowingtheearthquake,discussionsbetween
Bellevue-La-MontagneresidentsandanorganizationcalledHaitiPartnersbeganregarding
possiblecollaborativestrategiesforrebuilding.EventhoughHaitiPartners’co-founderandco-
director,JohnEngle,hadlivedinBellevue-La-Montagneformorethan15years,theworkofhis
organizationshadalwaysbeenfocusedinotherpartsofthecountry.
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Intheyearjustbeforetheearthquake,HaitiPartners’wasworkingwithschoolsinother
jurisdictionstowardgoalsofmorestudent-centeredpedagogy,improvedinstitutionalcapacity,
integrationofparentsintothelifeoftheschools,andbetterinfrastructure.Atthesametime,
theywerefeelingthatitwastimetobemoredirectlyengagedintheneighbourhoodvicinity
wheretheywerebased,andwhereJohnEnglehadspentsomanyyears.Theybeganslowly
investigatinginterestlocallyincollaborativeeducationanddevelopmentprojects.
Inthewakeoftheearthquake,thedesireandneedtocollaborateonlocalinitiativeswas
heightened,andpeopleintheareacommunicatedtheneedforaschool.Giventheexpertise
andexperienceofHaitiPartnersineducationanddemocraticpractice,theycontinuedopen
discussionsastheylookedforasiteforanewschool,andeventuallyfoundanavailablepiece
oflandinaparticularlyimpoverishedareaofBellevue-La-MontagnecalledBawosya.Overthe
courseofthenexttwoyears(2010-2012),HaitiPartnersheldregularopenpublicmeetings
invitinglocalpeopletosharetheirneeds,concerns,andaspirationsforthearea,andtogive
feedbackonevolvingplansforanewschoolandlearningcentertobebuiltthere.Basedon
earlyestablishmentoftheneedtocreateaschool,thisaimbecamethecenterpieceofthe
developmentinbothliteralandmetaphoricsenses–itisaschool-centeredandeducation-
centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopment.Ibeginwithsomebackgroundonthehistory
andexperienceofHaitiPartnerstosetthestagefortheirdecisionwithcommunitygroupsto
takethisapproach.
HaitiPartners:vision,missionandtheoryofchange
Haitiisthesparkthatcanignitetherestoftheworld.Haiti’shistoryepitomizeshuman
depravity:genocide,slavery,exploitation.Haiti’shistoryalsoinspires:Firstandonly
successfulslaverebellion,aplaceofextraordinaryresilience,aplacewhereartand
creativityflourish.Haitihasbecomesynonymouswith“poorestcountryinthewestern
hemisphere.”HaitiPartnersiscommittedtomakingHaitisynonymouswith“cando”
culture.Inspiteofcountlessodds,Haitiisimprovingbasedontheresilience,
determination,andcreativityofherpeople. HaitiChangemakers,Ashoka(2014)
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Figure2.2:Map:Bellevue-La-Montagne’slocationinHaiti.
HaitiPartnerswasfoundedin2009byco-directorsJohnEngleandKentAnnan.Itwasspunoff
fromBeyondBorders,anorganizationwhichJohnco-foundedwithDavidDiggsin1993.The
workofBeyondBordershadfocusedprimarilyon:supportingalternativeeducationandliteracy
trainingforadultsandforchildrenlivingindomesticservitude(called‘restavèk’children)11;
practicingandtrainingincollaborativeleadershipanddemocraticmethods;andadvocatingfor
universalaccesstoeducationinHaiti.12HaitiPartnersspunoff,inpart,inordertocomplement
theeducationanddemocracyworkwithtwonewstrategicdirections:communitydevelopment
andsocialentrepreneurship.
HaitiPartners’missionisto‘helpHaitianschangeHaitithrougheducation’.Theirapproachis
basedontheassumptionthatforacountrytodevelopandevolve,childrenneedaneducation,
11‘Restavèk’children,literally‘staywith’referstochildrenwholiveindomesticservitudeinHaiti,typicallyinmiserableconditionsofsqualorandabuseandwithoutanopportunitytogotoschool.Thereareapproximately250,000restavèkchildrenin2015.Itisconsideredtobeamodernformofslavery,andaccordingtotheGlobalSlaveryIndex,Haitiisrankedsecondtobottomonalistof162countrieswithmodernprevalenceofslaveryin2014:globalslaveryindex.org.12FormoreinformationonthecurrentworkofHaitiPartnersandBeyondBorders,see:haitipartners.organdbeyondborders.org.Disclosure:theauthoriscurrentlyamemberoftheBoardofDirectorsofBeyondBorders.
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andthatthetypeofeducationchildrentypicallyreceiveinHaitineedstochange.They
advocateforchangingleadershiptobemoreempoweringtopeople,arguingthatHaiti’sbrutal
historyofslavery,acolonialpast,and‘top-down’aidovertheyearshavereinforcedan
authoritarianleadershipthatdisempowerpeople.TheirapproachisgroundedinFreirian
philosophy,andtheybelievethatthebestchanceforchangetocomeaboutisbyworking
closelywithlocalpeopleandinstitutionsthatcantransformacommunity.Theyhaveworkedto
changethetraditionaleducationinHaiti,whichofteninvolvesrotememorizationandcorporal
punishment.
HaitiPartnersconsistsofHaiti-basedandUS-basedorganizationswithboardsofdirectorsand
corestaffteamsinbothcountries.Thereare29staffmembersinHaitiandsixintheUS,
includingprogram,development,communicationsandfinancecoordinators.Morethan200
additionalpeopleareemployedorreceivestipendsintheirschoolsandprogramsinHaiti,
includingteachers,administrators,cooks,collegestudentsandschooldirectors.Thereareover
1,200studentsenrolledinitssevenschools.TherevenueofHaitiPartnersinfiscalyear2014-15
was$1.4million.Otheroutputsofitsworkinschoolsinthatyearinclude:21,429school
parent-servicehoursand1,000treesplantedbystudentsandparents.HaitiPartnershassetup
threesocialenterprises(twopoultryfarmsandabakery)towardfundingsixschools.Haiti
PartnersworkstoequipHaitianswithskillsandcapacitythatwillenablethemtodeveloptheir
potentialandchangetheircountry.
Forus,thekeytochangeistoequipHaitianswithadifferenttypeofleadershipand
educationalmodelwhichisallaboutempoweringothersandhelpingpeoplewhoare
underyoutodeveloptheirpotential.Practicallyspeaking,thismeansworkingwith
primaryschoolstocreateanewmodelofeducationwhichincludesentrepreneurial
training.Italsomeanscreatingsocialbusinessestofundeducationandtrainingand
creatingvocationaltraining.Haitiansneedtofindgainfulemployment.JohnEngle(2012)
Theybelievethattheextremeauthoritarianleadershipmodel,alongwithantiquated
educationalpractices,arelargelytoblameforHaiti’sinabilitytoevolveinapositivewayand
addressthenumeroussocietalchallenges.Childrenaretaughttomemorizewhattheirteachers
tellthem,ratherthantothinkcriticallyandcreatively.HaitiPartnersholdsthatemployeesand
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communitymembersrarelyhaveavoiceindecisionsthatimpacttheirworkandlivesandare
notencouragedtoinnovateandcollaborate.Thefollowingexample,whichcomesfromtheir
experiencewithanemployerwhowantedtopreventemployeesfromlearningtoreadand
write,illustratestheproblem.
Unfortunately,becauseoftheextremetop-downleadershipmodel,whensomeoneis
promotedtoahigherposition,theytendtodiminishorexploitthosebeneaththem.
BecausethevastmajorityofHaitianshavegrownupinscarcity,an‘abundancementality’
isinconceivable.Thus,whensomeoneelsegains,it’sathreattome.Anexampleofthisis
howourliteracyeffortsin2000,inpartnershipwithPétion-VilleRotaryClub,failed,when
weweretryingtohaveHaitianuniversitystudentsteachfactoryworkerstoreadand
write.Ultimately,itwasmid-levelmanagementthatsabotagedthe[literacy]program
becausetheywerethreatenedbythepossibilitythatotherswouldgrowandtaketheir
jobs.JohnEngle(2012)
InordertohelpHaitianstoanalyzeculturaltendencies,includingauthoritarianleadershipand
antiquatedteachingmethods,theydevelopedaprogramcalled‘CirclesofChange’.Itinvolvesa
weeklypracticeoversixmonthswherefacilitatorsmodelacompletelydifferenttypeof
leadershipwithgroupsof15-30educatorsandleadersthroughaseriesofstructureddiscussion
groups.Morethan10,000HaitianshavegonethroughCirclesofChangetrainings.Habitatfor
HumanityaskedHaitiPartnerstousethisapproachinaparticularlychallengingpost-earthquake
context.Theyhadbuiltoneofthelargestpost-disasterhousingsettlementsinthecountryand
wantedtoapplytheapproachtocreateacommunitygovernancestructurethere(seeEngleet
al.,2016;Engle-Warnicketal.,2013forafullanalysisofthecase).HaitiPartnersiscontinually
evolvingbasedoninnovativeideas,projectsandotherinputfromhundredsofHaitianswhoare
partofitsnetworkandwhohaveparticipatedinCirclesofChange.Oneimportantexamplewas
thecreationofsocialbusinessestosupportitspartnerschools,discussedbelow.
VisionandstrategyfortheADECAschool(Children'sAcademyandLearningCenter)ThestrategyfortheChildren’sAcademy(‘ADECA’inHaiti;shortforAcadémiedesenfantset
centred’apprentissage)marksasignificantdepartureforHaitiPartners.
76
Thelong-termgoal[oftheschool]includescreatinganexamplethatservestohelp
changetheeducationalandleadershipparadigminHaiti.Mynearly25yearsofworking
inHaitihasmeconvincedthatthere’sverylittlehopeforsignificantchangeuntilthere’s
atypeofeducationandleadershipthatencouragesandinspiresinnovationand
collaboration.Wealsofeelthatschoolscanbemotorsforcommunitydevelopmentand
lifelonglearning.JohnEngle(2012)
ADECA isabigvision:highqualitypreschool,primaryandsecondaryschools,training
andmeetingcenter,andagricultural/environmental/socialbusinesshub,which
aregroundedinthelocalcommunityandcultivatingcivicengagement,innovation,and
sustainability,andwhichserveasareferenceforHaiti’sMinistryofEducation,NGOs,and
otherschools.HaitiPartners(2015b)
WeoperatetheChildren’sAcademyasanincubatorforideasandapproachesthatare
reshapingeducationinHaiti.HaitiPartners(2015a)Thestrategycamefromtheirexperienceworkingwithpartnerschoolsforacoupleyears,and
whiletheywantedtocontinueworkingwithexistingschoolstodevelopgoodpracticesand
becomemoreeffective,stafffoundthemselvesinachallengingposition.Ontheonehand,they
foundthatthereweremanychangestheyfeltshouldbemadebypartnerschools,butonthe
otherhand,theydidnotwanttobeafunderwhouseditspowerinwaysthatwouldperpetuate
dynamicsofauthoritarianleadershipthatitwasfightingtochange.Theirvisionforeducation
andeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentwasnotclearlysharedamongtheirpartner
schools.Theywantedtorespectlocalautonomyandfeltitcountertotheirphilosophytopush
changes,eveniftheyfeltsuchchangeswereimportant.Sotheydecidedtobecome
practitionersthemselves–tobuildandmanageaschoolinawaythatwouldmodelthe
participatoryeducationandleadershippracticesthattheyhadbeenadvocating.Theyintend
forADECAtoprovideareferencenotonlyfortheirpartnerschools,butalsoforothersacross
Haiti.
Education-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproachatADECA
TheChildren’sAcademyandLearningCenter(knownas“ADECA”inHaiti)isavibrant
primaryschoolthatservesasourmodelschool.It’saplacewhereeducatorsfromacross
Haiticometoseeaqualityschoolinactionanddiscovermethodsofeducationand
leadershipthathelpthemtransformtheircommunities.(HaitiPartners,2015a)
77
Figure2.3:Geographicsetting:viewfromthesoutheastofHaitiPartners’schoolwithcapitalcityPort-au-PrinceandtheCaribbeanSeainbackground.
EducationinfuseseveryaspectoftheapproachtocommunitydevelopmentthatHaitiPartners
hasbuiltwiththecommunityandpartnersatADECA.Thisapproachhasevolvedtocomprisesix
elements:1)theschoolandlifelonglearning;2)socialentrepreneurship;3)planningand
construction;4)environmentalstewardship;5)healthcare;and6)participation.Short
descriptionsoftheseelementsaresetoutbelow,andTable1.providesaims,partnersinvolved,
someactivities,andmainchallengesofeachelement,asreportedbyHaitiPartnersand
consistentwithmyfieldobservationsanddocumentreview.Supportingdetailsandthe
chronologyofaccomplishments,ongoingactivities,andplansforthefutureareprovidedin
Figure2.12:ADECATimeline.
78
1.SchoolasCenterforCommunityDevelopmentandLearningforLife
Buildingondecadesofworkinleadershipdevelopmentandeducation,HaitiPartners
openeditsownschoolin2012.Fromthegroundup,we’rebuildingitasaplacethat’s
cultivatinglearningandinnovationforchildrenandadultsofallages,acenterofactivity
thatbringsthewholecommunitytogether.(HaitiPartners,2015a)HaitiPartnersopenedtheADECAschoolinOctober2012,withthefirstpre-schoolclassof30
three-year-olds.Thosefirst30childrenwillgrowupwiththeschool,aseachyearone
additionalgradeisadded.AsFigure2.12shows,by2020,therewillbeafullprimaryschool
cohort,upto6thgrade.In2021,theplanistostartahighschoolfromgrade7,andcontinueto
addonegradeperyear.Asoffall2015,therewerethreepreschoolgradesandoneprimary
gradewithatotalof155students.HaitiPartnersintendstoenrollanadditional30-60students
peryearuntilthereareapproximately1,000students.Tuitionisaffordableforlocalfamilies.
Themaincontributionofparentstoschooloperationsisfourhoursperweekinunpaidservice.
Currently,schoolparentactivitiesinvolve:cultivatingschoolgardens,maintainingcomposting
latrinesandschoolfacilities,carryingoutbuildinganddiggingprojects,assistingteachersinthe
classroom,andservingascommunityhealthagents.Morerecently,parentsarealso
contributingtheirhourstobecomecommunityorganizersandtrainersofSASA!,aprogramto
endviolenceagainstwomenandgirls,andESK,aninitiativewhichaimstoendchildservitude
andprotecttherightsofchildren.
TheADECAschoolisboththephysicalandmetaphoricalcenterofthecommunity;itisa
gatheringplaceforpeople,ideas,learning,andaction–a‘communityhub’.ThereareEnglish
classestenhoursperweekforyoungpeopleandadults,andachoirof50localyoungpeople,
calledWOZO,practicesorperformsatleasttwiceperweek.Avarietyofothertrainingsand
activitieshappenonaregularbasis.Theschoolhasbecomethecentralhiveofactivityand
eventsforthearea.
79
Figure2.4:ElementsofEducation-centeredCommunityDevelopment:ApproachofHaitiPartners2.EducationandSocialEntrepreneurship
ADECAispreparingandinspiringHaitianstosucceedaschangemakers.
HaitiPartnersEntrepreneurshipProgramreport,2015
HaitiPartnersisworkingtowardsaplanwhererevenuefromsocialbusinesseswillcoverschool
operatingexpenses.ThefirstsocialbusinesswasabakerywhichwasopenfromDecember
2014throughJuly2015.YunusSocialBusinessdevelopedabusinessplanwiththecommunity
andthereseemedtobesufficientdemandandmarketfeasibilitytoestablishabakery.
Unfortunately,thebusinessmodelturnedouttobeflawed,inthattheoperatingcostestimates
80
weretoolow,primarilyduetoelevatedtransportcoststotheremotecommunityanditspoor
roads.Thebakerywasopenforsixmonthsduringwhichtimeithadagraceperiodonitsloan
fromYunusSocialBusiness.Subsequently,HaitiPartners,Yunus,andthecommunity
‘productivecooperative’establishedtoruntheenterpriseworkedonaplantogetherfora
secondsocialbusiness.Asforthebakery,theyhavefoundasuccessfulbakeryoperatorwith
anotherlocationinHaitiwhowillleasetheon-sitespaceandpilotaventuretore-launchthe
bakeryinsummer2016,usingadifferentbusinessmodel.
Figure2.5:HaitiPartners’schoolbuilding,withitsearthquakeresistant,open-airdesign,housesfourlargeclassrooms,ahealthclinicandapharmacy.
HaitiPartnersseesanadditionalpotentialopportunityforsocialenterpriseandentrepreneur-
shipwiththeparentvolunteersatschool.Theybelievethatthatthereisbetterpotentialto
changetheeducationalparadigminHaitiifparentsbuildcollectiveenterprisestosupportthe
schoolasastrategyforlong-termsustainablefunding,ratherthanhaveparentsemployed
elsewheretoearnalivingandpayschoolfeestopayoperatingcosts.Whilethelattermaybe
thelongertermsolution,leadersdoubtthattherewillbeenoughjobsintheforeseeablefuture
forparentstofindemploymentthatwouldmakepayingschoolfeespossible.Also,Haiti
81
Partnersandcommunityresidentsneedmoreexperienceincollaborativeenterpriseandthus
willbenefitfromthetrainingandlearningthathappensattheschoolbasedsocialbusinesses.
In2016,theyarestudyingthefeasibilityofcollectiveenterprises,amongthemanartisan
papermakingsocialbusiness—greetingcards,giftbags,packaging,journals,etc.—from
recycledpaper,cardboard,bananabarkandotherorganicmaterial.Theyhypothesizethatthe
ever-growingnumberofhoursthatparentscontributetotheschoolcouldbeputtomore
productiveuseandtranslatetofunding.Parentscouldprovidelabourtowardmakingproducts
thatgetexportedandsold,generatingfundsthathelpcoverschooloperatingbudgets.They
seebenefitsnotonlyforADECA,butalsoasamodelforotherschoolsandcommunitiesto
follow.
Figure2.6:Insideaclassroom:1stgradeteacher,FrancesseAntoine,guidesastorytimeexercisewithkindergartenersonaplayparachutedonatedbyavolunteervisitingfromtheUS.
82
Figure2.7:Bakeryoperations:setupin2014asasocialenterprisecooperativedesignedtomeetalocalneedandprovideasustainablefundingsourceforschooloperations.
Figure2.8:MuhammadYunus,FounderofGrameenBankandYunusSocialBusinessHaiti,visitsBellevue-La-Montagne,wherehisHaititeamhelpedwithbusinessadviceandfinance.
83
3.Education,CommunityPlanningandConstructionBeforetheearthquake,HaitiPartnerswasnotinvolvedincommunityplanningandconstruction.
Butafterwards,whentheirpartnerschoolsweredestroyedintheearthquakeandneededtobe
rebuilt,theyrealizedthatdestructionandpopulationgrowthmeantthatschoolswereneeded
andthatconstructionpracticesneededtochange.So,theygotintotheconstructionbusiness.
AftercontractingHaitianfirmsforschoolconstructionfortwoyears,theydecidedtopartner
withExtolloInternationaltotrainlocals,supervise,andprovideoversightonearthquake-
resistantconstructionoftheADECAschool.ArchitectureforHumanityHaitiandBARArchitects
ofSanFranciscoarepartnersinsiteplanningandbuildingdesign.
Figure2.9:Renderingofsocialenterprisebuilding:firstfloorhousesbakeryoperations,upperfloorstohousevocationalandteachertrainingfacilities.
Asoflate2015,fivestructureshavebeenbuiltontheADECAsite:themainschoolbuilding
whichhousesclassrooms,ahealthclinicandpharmacy;thefirsttwofloors(ofthree)ofa
buildingtohousethesocialenterprisebakeryandtrainingfacilities;mens’andwomens’
compostingtoilets;andtwosmallbuildingsforadministrativeoffices.Landscapingand
84
vegetablegardenshavealsobeeninstalled.Thirteenlocalpeople(includingfourwomen)were
ontheconstructionteamandreceivedprofessionaltraininginearthquake-resistantmasonry
andcarpentry.Twoadditionalbuildingsareplannedtobebuiltoverthenextfiveyearsto
houseadditionalclassrooms,anauditoriumandkitchen(alsoseeFigure10.).Alonger-term
aspirationofHaitiPartnersistobuildspacetoaccommodateonlineuniversityeducationfor
studentsthatgraduatefromADECAhighschool.
Figure2.10:SiteplanbyBARArchitects:plansincludefiveclassroombuildingsandanopenairamphitheatre.
85
Figure2.11:ConstructionwithExtollo:localpeopleweretrainedinmasonryandcarpentryandemployedtoconstructthebuildings.Schoolparentvolunteerscontributetositeplanningandmaintenancework.
86
Table2.1:Education-centeredCommunityDevelopmentElementsinHaitiPartners’Approach
Keyaims Partners Accomplishments/activities Mainchallenges
1.SchoolasCommunityCenterandLearningforLifeQualityschooleducation;Lifelonglearning;Parentalengagement;Schoolas‘communityhub’
AMURT,LifeisGood,WOZOyouthchoir,WorldBlu
Asoflate2015:155childreninpre-school-Grade1;DailyEnglishlanguagelearningcourses/hangouts;Youthchoirengages50localyoungpeople;YouthgroupmeetseverySunday;underway:vocationaltrainingcurriculum
-Changingmindsetsandculturearoundsharedvision:positive,open,engaged,collaborative,curious,motivated.-Galvanizingparentengagementof4hours/weekinservice+2hours/weekofparenteducation.
2.EducationandSocialEntrepreneurshipEntrepreneurshiptraining;Creationofsocialenterprisesandproductivecooperativestobenefitcommunity&provideschoolrevenue;Growacultureofsocialentrepreneurship
YunusSocialBusiness(formerlyGrameenCreativeLabs),Ashoka
2015:Trained7localpeopleinentrepreneurship;Startedamicro-creditlendingprogramforlocalresidents(calleda‘VillageSavingsandLoan’;Indevelopment:determiningcurriculumtouseforEntrepreneurialPrograminnewtrainingcenter;determiningentrepreneur/financialliteracycurriculumtouse
-Findingrightsocialbusinessideatosupportschooloperations+servethecommunity-Findingpartnerandcurriculumforentrepreneurshipprogram;thenongoingmentorship,coaching,etc.-BuildingmomentumwithCPBM(thecooperativesetuptooperatethesocialbusiness):needgoodpracticesandculture,andgoodleadership.
3.Education,CommunityPlanningandConstructionPlanning,designandconstructionofsiteandbuildings(school,socialenterprise,andother-communityservingbuildings);skillstraininginearthquake-resistantconstruction;andjobcreation
ArchitecturefHumanity,Extollo,Miyamoto,Architects:BAR&KenLinsteadt,Degenkolb&DCIengs
Asoflate2015,4structuresonsite:1)mainschoolbuildingwithclassrooms+healthclinic;2)firsttwofloors(ofthree)of7500s.f.buildingforsocialbusiness,trainingcenterandguesthousetosleep28;3)mens’andwomens’compostingtoilets;and4)smallofficebuilding.Landscapingandvegetablegardensareinstalled.13people(4women)receivedprofessionaltraininginmasonryandcarpentry.
-Lackoflocalgovernmentplanningandlackofbasicserviceprovision(wastecollection,electricity,roadrepair,waterandsanitation,etc.)-Findingfundingpartners-Leadershipstaffingofconstructioncompany-Instillingapositiveculturewithconstructionteam
4.EducationandEcologyImproveag+ecologicalpractices;fostercultureofenviron.stewardship;maintaincompostinglatrines;localreforestation
GiveLove,localorgsandagronomists
Aimfor2016:Createandbeginimplementationofa5-yearprojectthatestablishesenvironmentalstewardshipandhighlyeffectivegardeningpracticesasanorm.
-Findinggoodagronomistpartner.-Findingfundingtodomore.-Identifyingbestwaytocultivateschoolgardenassocialbusiness,eg.:moringa,masketi(castoroil),tilapia,hydroponics,coffee
5.EducationandHealthHealthcareandmedicineforlocals;improvechildnutrition;firstaidtraining;endgender-basedviolence;end‘restavèk’practices
HaitiClinic(localandUSstaff),BeyondBorders,VitaminAngels
Healthclinicsees120-140patientsperweek.Trainingtoendpracticesofviolenceagainstwomenandgirlsandtoendchilddomesticservitude.Trainingofresidentsascommunityhealthagentstovisitneighbours,providefirstaid,delivermedicine,etc.Providemultivitaminsdailytostudentsunder5.
-Students(andotherlocalpeople)needmoreproteinandnutrients.Malnutritionischronic.[Exploringifmoringaand/orTilapiacouldbepartofthesolution.]
6.EducationandParticipationNurturecivicengagementculture;instillvaluesofrespect,learning,collaboration+accountabilityintoedu+communitylife
Dozensoflocalorgs,hundredsoflocalresidents,WorldBlu
Democracybuildingandparticipationarecross-cuttingacrossallelementsabove;ADECAstaffusingWorldBluscorecardassessmentin2016(firstschoolinHaititodothis).CirclesofChange6-monthtrainingsincivicengagementin2011-12with80localresidents.Parentprojects:landscaping,roadwork,classroomaid
-Deepening‘cultureofparticipation’to‘cultureofchangemaking’,inwhicheachpersonfeelsempowered+responsibleforcollectiveaction.
87
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Figure2.12
Source:H
aitiPartne
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88
4.EducationandEcologyThefirstinitiativeofecologicalstewardship,compostinglatrines,servedthedualbenefitof
providingamuch-neededsanitationsolutionandfertilizerforgardens.ThepartnerisUS-based
GiveLove,whichwasfoundedbyactorPatriciaArquette.GiveLoveisknowninHaitiforits
culturally-appropriatetechnologyanddesign,andinnovativeprocessandmaintenancesystem
forhumanwastecomposting,whichprovidesanexcellentalternativetothetypicalpitlatrines.
Pitlatrinescancontaminategroundwaterandarenotalong-termsolution,andwater-based
sewageisnotpossible.Humanwastecompostprovidesanexcellentandsustainablefertilizer
forcropsinHaiti,wherechemicalfertilizersthatriskdepletingsoilnutrientsovertimeareall
toocommon.
Inpartnershipwithlocalagronomistsandotherorganizations,HaitiPartnersandlocalresidents
aredevelopingafive-yearprojecttobuildonexistingcommunitygardensonsitetoestablish
environmentalstewardshipandmoreeffectivegardeningandproducecultivationpracticesas
theculturalnorm.Afocuswillincludelocalre-forestation.SimilartootherpartsofHaiti,the
Bellevue-La-Montagneareais98.0-98.5%deforested.Environmentalstewardshiptrainingand
ecologicalagriculturalpracticesarebeingintegratedintotheschoolcurriculum.
5.EducationandHealthBeforeHaitiClinicsetupin2013,therewasverylimitedlocalaccesstohealthcareservicesor
medicineinthearea.Hospitalsarefarawayanddifficulttoreach.Careisoftenoflowquality.
Manylocalresidentsreportedthattheywereaccustomedtolivingwithpainordiscomfort,and
thatoftenpeoplewoulddiewhentheybecamesickbecausetheywereunabletoaccess
medicalcare.Giventhechronicchallengeofmalnutritionandrelatedproblemsamonglarge
numbersoflocalpeople,includingchildren,itisessentialtobeabletodirectlyaddressmatters
ofhealth.
89
Asofearly2016,HaitiClinicsees120-140patientsperweek.On-sitestaffincludeaHaitian
physician,dentist,nurseandhealthagent.TheHaitianphysicianhasastrongbackgroundin
communityandpreventativemedicinehavingreceivedmedicaltraininginCubaand,following
theearthquake,aGlobalHealthDeliverySystemsdegreeatHarvard.Inadditiontodaily
outpatientservicesandthepharmacy,anumberofcommunityhealthinitiativesandtraining
programsareunderway.Dozensoflocalresidentsreceivedtrainingtoactascommunityhealth
agentstovisitneighbours,providefirstaid,delivermedicine,etc.Tencommunityhealthagents
areschoolparentswhoapplytheirfourhoursofweeklyschoolservicetothiswork.AtADECA
school,luncheswereoriginallyprovidedtoallchildren,butfundingreductionsprevented
continuingtheprogram.Theyhopetoreinstatemealprovisioninthefuture.Inthemeantime,
multivitaminsupplementscontinuetobeprovidedtopre-schoolchildrenthroughthesupport
ofanorganizationcalledVitaminAngels.
Figure2.13:Humanwastecompostinglatrines:designedbyGiveLoveandmaintainedbylocalpeople,theselatrinesaddressasanitationneed,andtheharvestedcompostisusedincommunitygardensorsold.
90
Figure2.14:Gardeninglesson:Schoolchildrenaretrainedinenvironmentalstewardship,includingecologicalandorganicgrowingpractices.
Asforfood,theschoolprovideshealthysnacksdaily,suchaspeanutbutter,locally-grown
bananas,andhard-boiledeggs.Parentsareencouragedaswelltoprovidechildrenwithsnacks,
includinglocally-grownfruitsandvegetables.
InpartnershipwithBeyondBorders,HaitiPartnersisimplementingprogramstoendpracticesof
violenceagainstwomenandgirlsandtoendchilddomesticservitude.Theyaspireinthefuture
toprovideacceleratedlearningattheschoolfortheformer‘restavèk’children–includingthose
whoweresentawaybylocalfamiliesintoservitude,aswellasanylocalchildrenwhowerein
servitudeanddidnotattendschool.
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Figure2.15:HaitiClinic:equippedwithoutpatientroomsandapharmacy,theclinic’sdoctorandnurse–alongwithregularlyvisitingvolunteerdoctorsfromtheUS--servethousandsoflocalresidentseachyear.
6.EducationandParticipation
Throughacarefullydevelopedexperientialprogram,calledCirclesofChange,we’ve
promotedleadershipandcivicengagementwithmorethan10,000Haitians.Theyhave
beenexposedtoleadershippracticesthathonorhumandignityandnurturerespect.
They’reinfectingothers.Thisapproachtoleadership,thatiscompletelynewinHaiti,is
helpingtocreatea“cando”collaborativeculturewhereinnovationand
entrepreneurshipcanthrive.HaitiChangemakers,Ashoka,2014Democracybuildingandparticipationenglobeallaspectsofeducationandcommunity
developmentwhereverHaitiPartnersworks.Consistentlyovertwodecades,itsleadersand
associateshavetrainedpeopleinmethodstochangetraditionalleadershipandeducation
paradigmsthroughparticipatorypractices(asdiscussedabove).Theyhaveearnedanexcellent
92
reputationwithinternationalagenciesandcommunityleadersfortheeffectivenessoftheir
participatoryprocesses,asIheardfrommultipleinterviewsources.
Communityinvolvementandengagingparentsinthelifeoftheschoolhavebeencorevalues
andpracticesfromthebeginningofdiscussionsbetweenHaitiPartnersandresidentsof
Bellevue-La-Montagne.Architectssharedearly-stagedrawingswithresidentsinvitinginputand
feedbackeverystepoftheway,frequentlymakingchangesbasedonlearningfromlocal
knowledge.Theyheldpublicopenspacemeetingstoinvitedialogueonthemessuchas‘What
doeseducationmean,andwhatistheroleofaschoolinthedevelopmentofacommunity?’
Evenpriortoembarkingondetailedplanning,designorconstructionfortheADECAschool,Haiti
Partnersinvited80localresidentstotakepartinoneofitssixmonthCirclesofChangetraining
programsincivicengagement,whichwasimplementedin2011-12.Manyofthose80
participantsremainactivelyengagedyearslaterintheschoolandcommunitydevelopment
projects.Somearenowschoolparents,whoareactivevolunteersinimprovingtheschool,
keepingitrunning,andofferingongoingeducationprograms.
HaitiPartnersdrawsonWorldBlu’stenguidingprinciplesfordemocraticorganizationsforits
workincommunities,schoolsanditsownorganizationalpractices.13Aspartofitscommitment,
HaitiPartners’ownemployeesanonymouslyevaluatetheorganizationannuallybasedonthose
principles.Itconsistentlyreceiveshighassessments.Inthespringof2016,staffattheADECA
schoolassessedleadershipusingthismethod,andithasbecomethefirstschoolintheworldto
applyandnowbelistedontheofficial‘WorldBluList’.Relatedly,HaitiPartnersbelievesthat
continuingtomodelparticipatorypracticesandinstillvaluesofrespect,learning,collaboration
andaccountabilityintoeducationandcommunitylifewillhelptofosteracultureof
changemaking.Thiswouldmeanthatlocalresidentswouldfeelasenseofagencytoact,
initiatingprojectswithothersandmakingchangesthatwillimprovelocalsocial,economicand
environmentaloutcomes.
13WorldBlu’stenprinciplesfordemocraticorganizationsarehere:http://www.worldblu.com/democratic-design/principles.php.
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Inshort,transformativecommunitydevelopmentiswhatHaitiPartnersaimstoachievethrough
itseducation-centeredapproach.Forthem,thatmeansinspiringandpreparingHaitianstobe
changemakers,andsupportingcollaborationsandmovementstorealizethechangetowhich
theyaspire.
Figure2.16:PublicOpenSpacemeetingontheroleofeducationincommunitydevelopment:300peoplegatheredtodiscussthetopictogether;manyledsmalldiscussiongroupsonrelatedmattersoftheirchoosing.
Onthesurface,theseeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwayappearto
besuccessfulinmanyways,butwhatdotheymeanforlocalpeople,aswellaspossibilitiesfor
socialtransformation?Weturnnowtoviewthecommunitydevelopmentfromthe
perspectivesandlivedexperiencesofsomearearesidents.
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2.3Storiesfrombehindthescenes:Whatdoesthedevelopmentmeantolocalpeople?
Iwouldreallyliketoseeachange[inmylifeandthecommunity]butIdon’tseehowto
doit.OnlyGodcanchangethings.
Thissectionprovidesaviewfrom‘behindthescenes’ofthecommunitydevelopmentprojects,
drawingonthelivedexperiencesandviewsof12localresidents.Asdescribedinthe
methodologysectionabove,wecarriedoutindepthparticipatoryresearchwith12localpeople
in2013:twohadchildrenattendingADECAschool14,twowereemployedatADECA,sixothers
hadparticipatedoccasionallyorregularlyinlocalactivities,andtwohadminimalinvolvementin
thecommunitydevelopmentsprojects.The12researchparticipantsarerepresentedasthe
‘embeddedcases’inFigure2.1.Fiftypercentofparticipantswerewomen,andthegroup
rangedinagefrom17to47years.Thenumberofparticipantswascappedat12peopleto
provideforsociallearningduringthecourseofthefieldwork.
Theaimofthisqualitativeresearchwithlocalresidentswastogobeyondwheretheusual
developmentperspectivestopsinordertoexposethedynamicsofcommunitychangeandalso
togaugewhethersocialtransformationisoccurring.Thislattermeansrevealingwhatisless
visiblefromtheoutsideandwhatthecommunitydevelopmentmeanstopeopleandimpliesin
theirlives.Whilebuildingschools,providingqualityeducation,startingsocialenterprises,and
fosteringacultureofenvironmentalstewardshipcancontributetopositivecommunity
transformation,asthecasedescriptionbelowmakesevidentisinitiatedorunderway,adeeper
understandingoftheimplicationsofthesedevelopmentsonlocalpeople’slivesisessentialto
revealingtheextentofsocialtransformation.Iinvestigatedthesedynamicsinthefield
primarilythroughparticipatorymethods(seeEngle,2015)andsemi-structuredin-depth
householdinterviewswithquestionsinsixtopicareas,namely:householdlivingconditionsand
livelihoods;earthquakestoriesandexperiencesoflifesincethen;perceptionsofthecommunity
developmentunderwayandtheirparticipationinchangeand‘voice’indecisionmaking;
subjectivewellbeing;andvisionsandconcernsforthefutureofthecommunity.
14Asofthiswritingin2016,fiveparticipantshavechildrenenrolledattheschool.
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Thefindingsinthissectionarebasedprimarilyonfieldworkin2013,andtoalesserextent
preliminaryfieldworkin2011and2012aswellasremotefollowupin2014-2016.
Incorporatingatemporalaspecttothisresearchenablesstudyofsocialchangedynamicsover
timeandlonger-termimpactsofcommunitydevelopmentandeducationprojects.Therefore,it
isdesignedasQualitativeLongitudinalResearch(QLR).15Datacollectedduringhousehold
interviewsandparticipatoryresearchin2013serveasabaseline;theintentionistogobackto
thesameparticipantseveryfewyearsinordertotrackchangesovertime.
Hearingvoicesoflocalresidentparticipants
Toanalyzeandinterpretparticipants’interviewresponses,Idrewonphronesisinquiry
questions,whichhadalsoinformedthecontext-specificresearchdesign16.Thephronesis
questionsare:1)OfwhatstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?2)Wherearewegoing
asacommunity,andisitdesirable?3)Whowinsandwholosesandbywhatmechanismsof
power?4)Whatdowewanttodo?/Whatshouldbedone?Thislineofinquiryrevealed
severaloverarchingnarratives,whichIillustratebelowwithdirectquotationsfromparticipants
(translatedfromHaitianCreole).(AlsoseeTable2.2.)The‘tensionpoints’revealedthrough
synthesizingcasedataand‘behindthescenes’participantviewsfollowlaterinthissection.17
15QLR(QualitativeLongitudinalResearch)isaboutemployingqualitativemethodstoexplorephenomenaorcommunitiesovertime.Theunitofanalysisisusuallytheindividual,anditisparticularlyusefulwhenaimingtounderstandchangeovertimebetweenagencyandstructuraldeterminants(McLeodandThomson2009:63-64).Forexample,howpathwaysareconstituted;howchangesandadaptationstakeplace;and/ortheimpactofmajoreventsorchangingcircumstances.16Phronesismeans‘practicalknowledge’orwisdom.‘Phroneticsocialscience’positsthatadifferentandhighlyrelevantkindofknowledgeisproducedthrough‘intimatefamiliaritywithpracticeincontextualizedsettings’(Schram2012:17).17Additionalfindingsexposedthroughtheparticipatoryphotographyandparticipatorymappingcarriedoutwiththesame12participants,aswellasthe‘communitycorestory’Iinterpretedfromthesedataaresetoutinaseparatepaper(Engle,2015).
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Table2.2:NarrativesandTensionPointsinBellevue-La-Montagnecase
Phronesisinquiryquestions Narrativesexposed Tensionpoints
OfwhatstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?
Vulnerability,scarcity,violence
1.MEMORY.Collectivecommunitymemoryexposedtheturbulenthistoryofslavery,disasters,dependency,andoppression;anostalgiaforDuvalierera;andabrokeneducationsystemthatperpetuatessocietalproblemsofdistrustandclassism.
Wherearewegoingasacommunity?Isitdesirable?
Communityprogress,yetindividuals’stagnationandstructuralinequality
2.OUTCOMES.Communitydevelopmentoutcomesvis-à-visindividualandhouseholdcircumstancesposechallenges,asmanylocalresidents’livedexperienceofhardshipremainsunimproved.
Whowinsandwholosesandbywhatmechanismsofpower?
Senseofpowerlessness,acceptance,resignation
3.CULTURE.Participatorycultureisnotnecessarily‘changemaker’culture.Localresidentshavecometoactivelyparticipateandtakegreatprideintheschoolandcommunitydevelopment,however,asenseofagencytobringaboutchangeisnotyetevident.
Whatdowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?
Aspirations:1)collectiveactiontobecomea‘model’community;2)connectionswithothersinHaitiandabroad;3)abetterlifeandfuture(e.g.lowerfoodprices,jobs,education,electricity)
4.RELATIONSHIPS.Dynamicsintherelationshipsofgovernments,civilsociety,NGOsandthe‘internationalcommunity’arefraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountabilityandinertia;thereisasenseofparalysisabouthowtostructurallyimprovethesituationandmoveforward.
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1.Narrativesofvulnerability,scarcityandviolence
Thedayoftheearthquake,theskywasdark[January12,2010];wethoughtitwasgoing
torain…mymotherwascooking…thebeanswereinthepot…[andshetoldmeto]‘go
lightthefire’.Iwasholdingthebaby.AllofasuddenIheardthehousego‘tootoot,too
toot’,Ifeltastonehitme…Ifeltthehouseshaking…Ithoughteverythingwasover.I
yelled,‘beprepared,Jesusiscoming!’.Ilookeddowntowardthecityandsawalotof
smoke.Iwenttomyneighbour’shouse,andherchildwaskilled…rockshadfallenonher
bedandcrushedhim.Allthehousesaroundweredestroyed.IfIhadputmybabyinbed
asInormallydidatthattime,hewouldhavebeendead,asthatroomwascompletely
destroyed.Welosteverything.
Following‘Mr.Earthquake’,Ihavebecomeverysensitivetonoise…Iwastraumatized
afterthequakeandmyheartwasconstantlybeatingfast.SometimesIstillhave
headachesfornoreason;Ihadhitmyheadtoo.[Fromawomanwhowasseriously
injuredwhenanironbarpuncturedherbackinthequake,andshedirectlywitnessed
manyotherdeadanddying,includingtwopeoplerightnexttoheronwhomaconcrete
wallfellandseveredboththeirbodies.]
Researchparticipantsweredevastatedbytheearthquake.All12knewpreciselywherethey
werewhentheearthquakeoccurredat4:53pmonJanuary12,2010,andallsufferedgreat
losses.Eachoftheirhomeswasdestroyedinthequake,asweremostlocalresidents’.
Representativeoftheareapopulationinthissense,participantshadlivedinsmallhomesofone,
twoorthreerooms,ofconcreteordirtfloors,metalroofs,andconcreteblockorstone-and-
stuccowalls.Beforeasafterthequake,mosthavenoelectricityandnonehaveindoor
plumbing.Sixyearspost-earthquake,onlyafewlocalresidentshavebeenabletorebuildtheir
homes;noneoftheresearchparticipantshavedoneso.Mosthavemaderepairsorbuiltnew
‘temporary’shelterswithcorrugatedsheetmetalorplastictarps.Whenitrains,thehomes
flood,andinfrequenthurricanestheyworrythattheshelterswillbeblownoverbyhighwinds.
Peopleexpecttofacedisastersregularly–hurricanes,flooding,andperhaps,another
earthquake.Thissenseofprecariousnesspervadesdecision-makingandcontributestoshort-
termthinkingandlackofagencyaboutthefuture.
PeopleofBellevue-La-Montagnewerefirstvictimizedbytheearthquake,andthenagain
byscamsandpromisespost-earthquake[suchastorebuildhomes].
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Furtherdevastationimmediatelypost-earthquakeoccurredwithunfilledpromisesandoutright
scamsbypeoplewhowouldtakehomeowners’cashdepositsforhousingmaterialsandeither
neverbeheardfromagainorbringsmallamountsofcementtoappearlegitimate,andthen
neverreturn.Understandably,peoplewerediscouraged,andfrustratedthattheyhadnoway
ofknowingwhoorwhentotrustothers.GiventhelackofenforceablecontractsinHaiti,
mattersoftrustarehugelyimportanttoalmostallrelationshipsandtransactions,asshownin
theresearch.
Everydaylifeisastruggleformostparticipants.Mostaresubsistencefarmersormarkettraders
wholiveday-to-daytryingtoearnenoughtofeedtheirfamilies.Aregularlyvisitingdoctor
claimsthatmalnutritioninthecommunityischronic18.Whenpeoplehavethemeans,they
makecoffeeinthemorningandeatitwithbread.Oneortwocookedmealsduringtheday
generallyconsistofriceandbeans;alsocornmeal,spaghetti,sweetpotatoes,avocadoes,
mangoes,plantains,tomatoesandpeppersarecommon.Manyreportthattheyandtheir
childrensometimesgotobedhungry.Onlytwoof12participantshavejobswithregular
salaries.Markettradersinthegroupreportedaveragenetincomesofroughly$1–2USfora
day’swork.Thesubsistencefarmerseitherownorrentsmallgardenplots.
Whenwecangetitweeatmeat;alsorice,beans,plantains,corn,sweetpotatoes,
avocadoes,oranges.Wegetthemfromourgardensandthemarket.Weeat2-3times
perday,oronceperdaywhenthingsaretight.Sometimeswegotobedwithouthaving
eaten,wewakeup,makecoffee,andhavenothingelseallday.OragoodSamaritan
comesandbringssomefoodforus,wecookamealandgotobed.Sometimeswedon’t
havesaltoroil,sowejustboilwhateveritis,takesomegreensfromthebushes,andeat
them.Wecan’tbuyoncredit,becausewewon’thavemoneytorepayit.
WhatIheardfromeldersinthecommunity,duringDuvalier,lifewasverygoodbecause
iftheywenttotownwith20[Haitian]dollars,theywouldnotbeabletocarrythegoods.
Butnowifyouhave1,000[Haitian]dollars,youwillbeholdingonlyalittleplasticbagto
carrywhatyoupurchased.100[Haitian]dollarscannotbuyagoodpairofsandals.Life
hasbecomeveryhardforus.
18ThisAmericandoctorwithHaitiClinicseeshundredsoflocalresidentsduringvisitsseveraltimesperyear.Thedoctorcitedmalnutritionthensexualhealthproblemsasthemostpervasiveconcerns,thelatterfoundinnearlyallwomenandgirlsfromage13.
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Thehighcostoffoodrelativetoincomeandthelabourrequiredtomeetdailyneeds--suchas
carryingwater,handwashingclothing,andcharcoalcooking--contributestothedailystruggle.
Additionalcostsforhealthcare,housingmaterials,schoolfees,andfuneralexpensesaddto
people’sdailystrugglesandstressors.Participantsexpresseddesireforelectricity(onlyafew
haveoccasionalaccess)andforbetterroads.Theysufferdisastersetbacks,particularly
hurricanes,atfairlyregularintervals.
Participantsexpresseddesiretoimprovethemselvesandthearea’sreputation.Theyfeela
stigmaasa‘backward’,violentcommunity,andafewexpressedthat‘Godisshiningalight’on
themthroughthelocaldevelopment.Thecommunityischanging;peopleareproudtohavethe
school,theconstructiontraining,outsidersvisiting,andnewconnections.Theywantto‘riseto
theoccasion’.Manyparticipantswanttoshedtheirreputationasaviolent,‘backward’place–
andtochangecertainbehavioursandpracticesofviolence.
WhatIwouldliketoseechange[inthecommunity],Iwouldlikeforustocollaborate,for
ustonotbefighting,becausewe’rebeginningtodevelophere.Therearecertainthings
weshouldn’tdo.Forexample,Ihearnoises,fighting,rockthrowing,andmachetes
hitting.Thatshouldn’tbe,becausenowwehaveimportantpeoplecomingtothe
community.It’suptoustoshowthatwerespectourselves;therearecertainthingswe
shouldn’tdo.
ParticipantswerenostalgicfortheDuvalierdictatorshipera.Theyclaimedthatfoodwasmore
affordableandthattheyfeltsafer.Followingthefallofthedictatorship,in1987Haitibeganits
ongoingtransitiontodemocracy.Assuggestedbelow,peoplefeelthatlifehasbecomemore
difficultandlesssecureduringthisperiod.
DuringDuvalieritwassafer.Youwerenotafraid;you’dseepeopleoutsideplaying
dominoes,drinking.Well,ifyou’reinthestreet[now],you’rewalking,someonecomesup
toyou,heasksyouaquestionandyoudon’tanswerwell,hecrushesyourightthere.
After[President]Aristideleft,theyweregoingaroundinbroaddaylight,killingpeople,
robbingpeople,takingeverythingtheyhad.Althoughpeoplesleptinbushesandtrees,
theyhadtosleepwithoneeyeopened.
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ThereasonitwasbetterandtherewasmoresecurityduringDuvalierwasthattherewere
nogangsatthetime.Maybetherewerebandits,butnogangsyet.IthinktheTVbrought
anumberofthingshereinHaiti.Thebiggestgangsters,theycomehidinghereinHaiti;
therearechildrenoutinthestreets;theyarethemostdangerousones.Thereusedtobe
[tonton]macoutes[whowererecognizablefortheiruniformsandsignaturesunglasses]
before,butnowpeopledon’tknowwhopeopleare.19
Forme,thereisnogovernmentthatdoesn’tmakemistakes.ButIthinkJeanClaude
[Duvalier]andhisDad[PapaDocDuvalier]spent29yearsinpower.TheonlythingIcan
blameJeanClaudeforisthepigshekilled,becausetheywerelikelife.Theykilledourpigs,
theygaveus40[Haitiandollars]foralargepig,20foranaverage,5forasmall.Andour
lifewasfinishedsincethen,becauseitwasourasset.Forme,that’stheonlymistakeIcan
blamehimfor.Aftertheykilledourpigs,theycamewithotherpigsandyouneededalotof
moneytobuyone.
His[Duvalier’s]governmentwasagoodone,youfoundfoodeasily.Itwasagood
governmentaslongasyoudidn’tmaketrouble.
That’swhatwewouldlikefromgovernment–toprovidefood,toprovidepeace,toprovide
jobs.
Iaskedparticipantsifthereweremanytontonmacoutes(membersofDuvalier’snotoriously
brutalsecurityforce)whohadlivedinthisarea,andifso,isthatwhylocalresidentshadasense
ofsecurity?
Thereweremany.Mostofthepeoplearoundherewere[tonton]macoutes.Itwouldbe
betterifwehadthemagain.
19‘Tontonmacoutes’werethemembersofthesecurityforceundertheDuvalierdictatorships.Theywerenotoriousfortheirbrutalityandforperpetratingviolenceandfear,andfornighttimeraidsweremanypeoplewould‘disappear’fromtheirhomesandwereusuallyneverseenorheardfromagain.SomesaythatthesolefunctioninginstitutionoftheDuvalieryearswasthemilitaryapparatus,whentherewereasmanyas300,000tontonmacoutes.Astrikingcontrast:in2015inHaiti,thereareestimatedtobe200,000formaljobsofallsectorsintheentirecountry.
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2.Narrativesofcommunityprogress,yetindividuals’stagnationandstructuralinequality.
All12researchparticipantsreportedthat,ingeneral,theschoolandcommunitydevelopment
representedpositivechangeforthelifeofthecommunityandchildren’sopportunitiesforthe
future.However,onlytwoofthe12haveregularjobsasaresultofthedevelopment,andnone
oftheparticipantshadbeenabletoaffordmaterialstorebuildtheirearthquake-ravagedhomes.
Ofthetenwithoutsalariedjobs,theyreportedthattheirownlivelihoodshavenotsignificantly
changedasaresultofdevelopment;nonetheless,theyhavegreathopesforthecommunity’s
future.Participantsindicatedthattheschoolanddevelopmentprojectsunderwayhavebecome
deeplysignificantforthecommunity’sidentityandpeople’saspirationsforthefuture.
…everyotherlocalityisadvanced,thislocalityhasneverbeenadvanced.Itwasn’tuntil
[HaitiPartners]cametobuildtheschoolhere;thelocalityhaschanged.Icansay,well,
we’renotlivinginthewoodsanymore.That’swhatIsee;wedidn’thaveaschoolnearby,
sometimesoneofmychildrenwenttoschoolupthereinthemountain,whenhewasgoing
totheofficial6thgradeexams,Ihadtotakehimallthewaydown[tothecity]forthe
exams.Moreover,togotothedoctor,youhadtogoallthewaytoPétion-villetoseethe
doctor.Butnow,wehavedoctorsinthelocalityand[nearly]freeofchargeontopofit.
Ourschool,nearby.Andwearegoingtohavebread;everythingwillbecloseby.Inthe
future,youwillhaveasupermarket;ifyouneedcertainthings,you’llbeabletobuythem.
Youseeitisagoodthing.
Participantsexpressedprideandasensethattheirvoiceshadbeenheardindecision-making
aboutthenewschoolandotherdevelopmentprojects.Theyareencouragedbytheattention
fromoutsiders,andexpressedthattheyliketoseeforeignerscomingtovisit.
EverytimeMr.John[HaitiPartners]isdoinganactivity,healwaysinvitesussowecan
brainstormtogetheranddeterminewhatisgoodforthecommunity.
Amidstwhattheyconsidertobepositivecommunitychange,10of12participantsexpressed
thattheirownpersonalcircumstanceshavenotimprovedasaresultoflocaldevelopment.They
donothavethemeanstorebuildtheirhomesandtheirincomeshavenotincreased.Thosewith
youngchildrenwhoattendorwillattendtheschoolarehopefulthattheirchildrenwillhave
betterliveswithmoreopportunityasaresultoftheireducation.
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Anumberofnewjobshavebeencreatedforschoolstaffandconstructionworkers,whichhas
beengenerallypositive,buthashadsomeunintendedconsequencesthatsurfacegender-based
structuralinequalities;inatleastofcoupleofcases,menwhohavejobshaveusedtheir
income/powertohaveadditionalpartnersandchildren,andtheirwivesandolderchildrenare
nowworseoff.
3.Narrativesofasenseofpowerlessness,acceptance,andresignation.Participantssharedstoriesandsentimentsthatrevealasenseofpowerlessnessandresignation
that‘Goddecides,sothereisnotmuchwecando.’BesidesGod,theyexpressedthat,toafar
lesserextent,powercancomefromtheirworkingcollectively(‘puttingtheirheadstogether’)
andfromtrustedinternationalallies,suchasHaitiPartners.Intermsofleadership,avacuum
wasleftwhenthelocalvodoupriest,whowasseenastheprimarylocalleader,waskilled
severalyearsearlier.
There’snotaleaderinthiscommunity;theleaderwehadwasmurdered.Afterthat,
otherslookeddownonus.Somepeopleareangrythattheschoolwasbuilthere;they
saywedon’tdeserveit.Theydidn’tthinksomethinggreatcouldhappenhere…Itwas
Godwhosentthisprojectheretohelpus.
Somefeelalackofagencytomakechange,notonlyforreasonsof‘Goddeciding’orresource
constraints,butalsoduetouncertaintyaboutthefuture,particularlyregardingthenextdisaster,
‘whichcouldhappenanytime’,asmanyparticipantsexpressed.Thissenseofacceptanceand
lackofagencykeepspeoplestuckandacceptingoftheircircumstances,ratherthanorganizing
tofightforsystemicchange.Relatedly,whilethereisevidencethatacultureofparticipationis
evolvinglocally,itisstillfarfromacultureof‘changemaking’,inwhichpeoplefeelempowered,
motivated,andresponsibleforchangingtheirsituation.
Inreportingontheirwell-being,mostindividualsclaimedtobegenerallycontentwiththeirlives,
citingamainreasonbeingthatneithertheynoranyfamilymemberswereinhospital.Most
alsoreportedthattheyfelttheirlivesanddailyactivitieswerevaluableandhadmeaning.
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Thosereportedtobetheleasthappywiththeirliveswereyoungmenwithhigherlevelsof
education(highschool)whowereunabletofindjobs.
Asenseofpowerlessnessisconnectedwiththelackofavailablejobs.Therearefarfewerjobs
thanpeoplewhowantandneedthem,andinsomecasesnewjobscreatedthroughthe
communitydevelopmenthavecausedtensionsandfamilydifficulties.Somepeoplearejealous
ofothersforbeinghiredforcovetedjobs.
Peoplealsodonothaveasenseofpowerorvoicetobeheardbygovernment.Inour
participatoryactormappingsessioninwhichwenamedallorganizations,actors,groups,and
agencieswhohaveanyengagementorprovideservicesinthecommunity,aftertwohoursof
identifyinganddiscussing,notonestateagencyorgoverningbodyhadbeenmentioned–not
evenpolice.Itisworthnotingthatoneparticipantishimselfalocalgovernment
representative!
TheHaitianstatedoesn’teventhinkaboutus,eventhemayorisnotgivingussupport;if
onesectionoftheroadgetsdamaged,wearetheonestofindaway[torepairit],friends,
webuythemsugarandsweetdrinkstogivedrinkstootherpeopletodoit.Thereisno
mayorthinkingaboutuswhereweare,it’slikeweourselvesneedtohaveourownmayor
hereinthe4th[sectionoftheward],orourownpresident.Apresidentnevercamehere,
letalonethemayor.SinceI’maCASEC’sassistant[localgovernmentrepresentative],
whenthereisaproblemwithrobbers,IusuallycallthePétion-villepolicestation;whenI
tellthemwhereIamtheytellmetheydon’tknowtheplaceBlanchard2,Ishouldgodown
tothePétion-villepolicestationtogetthem.Theytellmetheydon’thaveanyfueland
thatifIcanfindsomemenIshouldbringtherobberdowntoPétion-ville.Ifeelhopeless
whenthathappens.
ConsistentwithwhatIhaveheardfrommanyHaitians,participantsdonotexpectthatthestate
willeveractintheirinterests.Thisisrational.Thereisnotevidencethatiteverhas,andthere
isnohistorynorexperienceofthestateprovidingservicestothepeople.Expectationsofthe
stateareverylow.
Aslongasyouhaveapopulation,theyhavesecurity,theycaneat,thepeoplefeeltheyhaveagoodpresident.Nowadaystheydon’tfeelanypresidenttriedtoworktobring
downthecostofliving.TheytaketheirmoneyandhideitinSwissbanks,theywon’tbe
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staying[hereinHaiti],andtheyhaveaplacetogo.Theydon’tworktowardbringing
downthehighcostofliving.
Wherethereisgood,therehastobebad.Agovernmentnevercomesintopowerwith
destruction.Ifnot,you’renotarealgovernment.Here’showithappened.WeHaitian
people,thisiswhatweneed:beating,food,entertainmentandifthereneedstobea
killing,theywillkillyou.Here’showitwasduringthatgovernment.Duvalierhimselfgave
anorderinthemorning,lateriftheorderhadnotbeenfollowed,immediatelytheday
afterhesanctions.Thebanditscausingtrouble,hecallsyoutothe[Presidential]palace,
beforeweusedthenamebandit,hecallsyouandasksyouhowmanypresidentsthereare.
Hesayshe’stheonlyoneandhehasyoutakenawaytobekilled.Whentherestofthem
heardthatyouwentthereanddidn’treturn,theywalkedstraightandstoppeddoingwhat
theyweredoing.ThisishowtheDuvaliergovernmentfunctionedthatmadeitgoodfor
thepopulation.Ifamarkettraderincreasedthepriceoffood,he[Duvalier]decreasedit
immediately–hesettheprices.…Whatdoeshedo?[Duvalier]givesyoufoodatacheap
pricetofillyourstomach,hehasyoubeatenuptokeepyoufrombeingviolentandhe
givesyoumilkandsugaratacheapprice,whatelsedoyouneed?Agovernmentneedsto
givethepopulationfood,drink,entertainment,andbeating.
Onmywaytomymarketstalltheotherday,Istoppedonthesideoftheroadtosell
someonesometomatoes,andapersonfromCitygovernmenthitmeonthearmwitha
stick!It’sforbiddennowtosellinthestreet,youknow.
Onthenotionof‘arighttohumanflourishing’thatIintroduced,onepersonresponded:
Ithinkit’saniceideabutIdon’tknowaboutthosegovernments;ifIt’suptogovernments,
wewillneverflourish.AskthegovernmenthowmanypeoplearelivinginHaiti,theywill
notbeabletotellyou.Thestateissupposedtoknowhowmuchelectricity,howmuch
moneyisspentonfood,water,they’reverystrictaboutthatelsewhere,butthe
governmentsheredon’tknowanythingaboutyou.
4.Narrativesofaspirationsformoreconnectionswiththeoutsideworld;collectiveactiontobea‘model’community;andabetterlifeandfuture.Participantswereeagertosharetheirviews,lifeexperiences,andearthquakestoriesduringthe
courseofthisresearch,andaskedtobeidentifiedinitsrepresentation.WhenIreturnedand
sharedvideosaboutthemthatIhadproducedandsharedwithothersinthe‘outsideworld’,
participantsseemedpleased.Icarriedout‘probe’interviewstodocumenttheirreactionsand
whether,andhow,theirliveshadchangedintheinterimperiod.Participantsarepleasedand
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proudthatvisitorsfromelsewhereinHaitiandabroadcometoseetheircommunityandnew
school.WhilemanyparticipantsknowofrelativesinotherregionsofHaitiorintheUS,Canada,
orFrance,onlyonepersonof12hadevertravelledoutsideofthePort-au-Princeregion.None
receivesremittancesfromoutside.
Ifitwerenotforthemeetingsrelatedtotheschool,ADECA,Iwouldnotbesittingfaceto
facewithyoutodayforaninterviewandIwouldnotknowyoueither…itisthankstothe
schoolthatwe’reworkinginpartnershipand,asaresult,youandmemeettoday.
Peopleaspiretoliveinacommunitywithqualityschools,healthservices,electricity,roads,
visitors.Whileaspirationsforthecollectiveseemcleartopeople,nonereportedspecifically
whatactiontheypersonallywouldliketotake.Theyspokegenerallyabout‘puttingtheirheads
together’toworkforchange,buttheydidnotgiveevidenceofasenseofagencytomove
forward.Schoolparents,orthosewhoexpectedtobe,showedparticularinterestinengagingin
thelifeoftheschoolandinparticipatinginvolunteeringandeducationactivities.
I’mveryhappyabouttheschool.OnegoodthingformewiththeschoolisthatIbecame
presidentoftheparents’committee.Iamtheonewho,alongwithotherparents,plant
flowersandkeeptheschoolyardnice.Inthefuture,Iwouldlikefortheschoolto
educatethekidswellandforthekidstobeabletospeakthethreelanguages[Haitian
Creole,French,andEnglish],andalsofortheschooltogrowformorechildrentocomein
futureyears.
Ifweallcooperate,infiveyears,wecanhaveavillage–amodelarea.Itcouldhavea
park,aswimmingpool,agrocerystoresothatpeopledon’thavetogoallthewayto
townfortheirgoods;asoccerfield,adanceclubforentertainmentandstressrelief.
Therewillbechurches,schoolsforalllevelsofeducation–preschool,elementary,
secondaryandcollege.
Tenyearsfromnow,Ihopethateveryonewhosehousewasdestroyedwillhaveanew
houseandwillliveinanicecommunityandhaveabetterlife.
TensionpointsrevealedthroughtheresearchInthisdiscussionsection,Iintegrateinterpretationsfromthedescriptivecasestudysectionwith
the‘voices’heardfromlocalpeopletoidentifytensionpoints.‘Tensionpoints’arepowerrelationsthatareparticularlysusceptibletochange,“becausetheyarefraughtwithdubious
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practices,contestableknowledgeandpotentialconflict”(Flyvbjerg,2012:288).Focusingon
tensionpointsiscentraltophroneticsocialscience,andismeanttohighlighthowpower
relationsstandinthewayofaddressingproblems.Theyarerevealedprimarilythroughfield
work(includingparticipatoryresearch,householdinterviewsandobservation),aswellas
documentstudy,andinterviewswithHaitiPartners.Foursuchtensionpoints,asrevealed
throughfieldworkandparticipants’andNGOnarratives,arearound:memory;developmental
outcomes;acultureofchange;andrelationshipsbetweenthestateandthepeople.Eachis
describedbelow.
Tensionpoint1:MEMORY.Collectivecommunitymemoryexposedtheturbulenthistoryof
slavery,disasters,dependency,andoppression;anostalgiaforDuvalierera;andabroken
educationsystemthatperpetuatessocietalproblemsofdistrustandclassism.MostHaitians
havenothadaccesstoadecentqualityformaleducationsystem.Sadly,eventhosethatdo
haveaccesstoeducationareusuallypartofasystemthatisclassistandperpetuatespatternsof
oppressionandmistrust.Ofthosethatdoexpectanythingfromthestate,itistypicallysome
levelofsecurityandaffordablepricesforfood.Thatishowmanyjudgearegime,whichwere
thereasonsthatmostresidentsinterviewedgaveforbeingnostalgicfortheDuvalieryears–
theywerelesshungry,andtheyfeltsafer.Itwasdifficulttohaveacriticaldialogueabout
Duvalieryearsgiventhehardshipsoflifetodayforlocalresidents.Thetensionsaroundhistory
andmemorysuggestthatitwillbeimportantforHaitianstodevelopculturally-relevant
curriculaandeducationprogramsaboutHaiti’spastandpresent,thatincorporateFreirian
criticalconsciousnessanalysis,aspartofthecountry’spathtowardaqualityandaccessible
educationsystem.
Tensionpoint2:OUTCOMES.Communitydevelopmentoutcomesvis-à-visindividualand
householdcircumstancesposechallenges,asmanylocalresidents’livedexperienceofhardship
remainsunimproved.Itisagreedbyvisitorsandlocalsalikethatcommunitychangeis
underwayinBellevue-La-MontagnearoundtheADECAschoolandassociatedinitiatives.
However,changeforindividualresidentsandhouseholds,forthemostpart,isfarlessapparent.
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Asof2013,onlyafewofhundredsofimmediatelylocalhouseholdshadbeenabletorebuild
theirearthquake-destroyedhomes.AccordingtoaregularlyvisitingAmericandoctor,most
peopleintheareasufferfrommalnutritionandmanystruggletomeetbasicneedsonadaily
basis.Whatdoesthismeanforsocialchange,inalongertermperspective?Research
participantsreportedthatitwasfinewiththem,fornow,thatthecommunityisadvancing
whiletheircircumstancesremainunchangedforthemostpart,andtheyhypothesizethatover
time,asthecommunitychanges,theirindividualandhouseholdcircumstanceswillimproveas
well.ThoseparticipantswithchildrenwhoattendADECAorwillattendADECA,andthosewho
areemployedatADECAaremostoptimistic.Allparticipantsseemedtoderivehopeandasense
ofpridefromtheattentionthatthenewschoolandcommunitydevelopmentbringsfrom
visitorsfromoutsidetheareaandabroad.Andtheysensethattheirreputationamong
surroundingcommunitiesisimproving.
Whilethecommunityasawholeisimprovingintermsofeducation,amenitiesandconnections
withoutsiders,livingconditionsandcircumstancesofmostindividualresidenthouseholdsdo
notseemtohaveimproved.Inpart,thesetbackoftheearthquakecontributestothis.Likewise,
whilethereseemstobeevidenceofcommunitytransformationinthecasestudy,whether
socialtransformationisoccurringisunclear.Thisstudyisdesignedasqualitativelongitudinal
research(QLR)toenabletrackingchangesinhouseholdoutcomesovertime.Arelatedtension
withparticipantsiswantingabetterlifefortheirchildren(along-termaspiration),juxtaposed
withpotentialdisastersandlosingeverything(short-termfear).Peoplevaluecommunitywell-
beingovertheirownpersonallivingconditions.All12participantslosttheirhomesinthe
earthquake,andnonehavebeenabletorebuild,primarilybecausetheylackresourcesfor
materials.Yet,theyaresopleasedthattheirkidscanattendabeautifulnewschoolandthat
otherpeopleinsurroundingcommunitiesareimpressedbythelocaldevelopment.
Tensionpoint3:CULTURE.Participatorycultureisnotnecessarily‘changemaker’culture.Local
residentshavecometoactivelyengageincommunitydevelopmentactivities,however,asense
ofagencytoinitiatechangeisnotyetevident.Thousandsofpeoplehavebeeninvolvedin
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participatoryactivitiesledbyHaitiPartnersandotherlocalgroups,takingpartinpublicOpen
Spacemeetings,weeklySundaycommunitymeetingstodiscussdesignandimplementation
plans,healthtraining,andcommunitygardeningprojects.Thereisevidenceofagrowing
cultureofparticipation,wherepeopleattendmeetingsandtrainings,areactivelyinvolvedin
communitydevelopmentactivities,expressthemselvesandfeelthattheirvoicesareheardand
takenintoconsiderationindecisionmaking.Thekeychallengenowistoevolvethatcultureina
waythatpeoplewouldhaveastrongersenseofagency,orself-efficacy,andwouldtake
collectiveactiontoexpressthemselvesnotonlytoHaitiPartnersandlocalcommunitymembers,
butalsotolocalgovernment,largerorganizations,andothersinpowerworkingoutsidethe
communityandwhoseworkaffects(orcouldaffect)theirlives.Importantly,anevolutionto
sucha‘changemaker’culturewouldmeanthatlocalpeoplewouldinitiatetheirownprojects
including(social)enterprisesandotheractivitiesthatdemonstrateastrongersenseofagency
fortakingcollectiveactiontobringaboutchange.
Tensionpoint4:RELATIONSHIPS.Dynamicsintherelationshipsofgovernments,civilsociety,
NGOsandthe‘internationalcommunity’arefraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountabilityand
inertia.Haiti’stumultuoushistoryandperpetuallackoffunctioninginstitutionsthatoperatein
thepublicinteresthaveleftavoid,andhencealackoftrustbypeopleininstitutionsofthe
state,asclearlyreflectedinparticipants’commentsandparticipatorymappingmethods.There
issimplynotaperceptionthatgoverninginstitutions–Haitianorinternational–haveprovided
sustainedsupportinawaythatwasintheinterestsoflocalpeopleorcommunitiesbettering
themselves.Historicalevidenceshowsthat,thoseinpowerhavetypicallybeentop-downin
theiraidregimesinwaysthatwouldperpetuatedependence.AtworstHaitiangovernments
havebeenpredatoryorruthless,whileinternationalagencieshaveactedmoreintheirhost
countries’ordonoragencies’countries’interests,thanintheinterestsof‘ordinary’Haitians.
Thishasledtoasituationwherepeopletendnottotrustinstitutionsandhavenoexpectation
thatagovernmentwouldeveractintheirinterests.Ifaidisbestowed,itisoftencarriedoutin
ashort-term,‘relief’perspective,andisnotaboutbuildingcapacityofresidentssothattheycan
changetheirlonger-termlivelihood,education,ordevelopmenttrajectories.HaitiansIspoke
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withjudgeagovernment’ssuccessbasedonwhetherfoodwasaffordableandtheyfeltsafe
undertheregime.Bythesemeasures,participantswerehighlynostalgicforDuvalieryears.A
numberoftontonmacouteslivedinthearea,whichseemstohaveprovidedasensea
protectiontolocalpeopleduringtheDuvalierdictatorshiperafrom1957-1986.Peopleinthis
areafeellesssecureinthepost-dictatorshipyearsfrom1987tothepresent,whichcoincide
withtheyearsoftransitioningtodemocracyandattemptstowardadecentralizedstate.
Inthiscontext,peoplehavebecomehighlyreliantonthemselves,theirneighboursandsocial
networksforbasicsurvival.ThatHaitiansare'sociallyresilient'hasbecomeaeuphemismfor
‘self-reliant’.Andlivingconditionsappeartohavedeterioratedinthepost-earthquakeperiod
forthevastmajorityofpeople.Duringthesameperiod,Haitihasbeenreducedtoa‘virtual
trusteeship’oftheinternationalcommunity,accordingtoRobertFatton,Jr.(2014and2016),
whocharacterizesHaitiasoneofahandfulofcountriesontheplanet(andtheonlyinthe
Americas)whichhasfallentothe‘outerperiphery’oftheworldeconomicsystem.Withthis
backdrop,bringingaboutsocialtransformationatcommunitylevelisextremelychallenging,yet
equallyimperative.Fundamentaltosocialtransformationischangingrelationshipsand
improvingaccountabilityaswellastransparencyofstateagencies,NGOsoperatinginthe
country,andimportantly,renderinginternationalagenciesresponsiblefortheresultsoftheir
policiesandpracticestoordinarycitizensofHaiti.
Thiswouldimplymovingfromgoalsof‘socialresilience’inHaitito‘transformativeresilience’,
whichwouldbecultivatedthroughpracticesof‘transformativecommunitydevelopment’,such
astheADECAcase.‘Transformativecommunitydevelopment’meanscommunitydevelopment
whichiscontributingnotonlytocommunitytransformationbutalsotosocialandsystems
transformation.GlimpsesofsystemstransformationareunderwayatADECA,suchasforging
newrelationshipswithpoliceandgettingtheminvolvedattheschoolwitheducationprograms.
Muchmoreisneededifstate/societyrelationshipsaretobeimproved.
110
InthenextsectionIaddresshowtensionpointsrevealedinthiscasecanbeaddressedthrough
existingandpotentialleversoftransformation,whichareinstructiveforbroaderpolicyand
practicechangeinHaitiaswellassystemicchangeproposalsputforwardasprioritiesinthe
report‘Haiti:TowardaNewNarrative’(SinghandBarton-Dock,2015).]
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2.4Leveragepointsfortransformation‘Leveragepoints’insystemstheoryare‘placeswithinacomplexsystem(acorporation,an
economy,alivingbody,acity,anecosystem)whereasmallshiftinonethingcanproducebig
changesineverything’(Meadows,1997:1).Leveragepointsrepresentpossibilitiesfor
transformativechange.Ihaveidentifiedexistingandpotential‘leversoftransformation’based
onsynthesizinganalysesof:thetensionpointsrevealedfrom‘outsider’and‘insider’
perspectives;literatureinthetheoryandmethodologysectionsabove;andmyresearchinHaiti
(notablyEngle,2014;Engle,2015;Engleetal.,2016;Engleetal.2013)aswellasmyown
professionalexperienceincommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.Learningfromthe
Bellevue-La-Montagnecasepointstoanumberofpossiblestrategiestoactivateleversof
change.
LeverofTransformation1:Education
Theslaverebellionhistoryandstruggleforindependencein1804tobecometheworld’sfirst
blackrepublicseemtobewidelyknowninHaiti.However,thereappearsalackofacollectively
understoodandshared‘criticalconsciousness’aboutsubjugationandoppressionperpetratedin
variouswaysparticularlyinthe20thcenturythrough,forexample,theAmericanoccupation,the
genocideofHaitiansbyDominicans,andtheextentoftheDuvalierbrutality.Alsothereseems
tobealackofinformationamongHaitiansaboutothercountrieswithsimilarstruggles,and
aboutHaiti’sroleintheworldandwhatithasincommonwithmanyothercountries,suchas
formerdictatorshipstransitioningtodemocracyandwhichalsohavesufferedongoing‘conflict-
poverty’traps.Bycreatingcontext-appropriatecurriculaandmechanismsforsharinghistorical
knowledgeandengagingincollectivecriticalanalysis,Haitianswouldhavetoolstotogether
forgepathwaystowardreducingtheirvulnerabilitiesandstrengtheningresilience.
Beyondthecontentofeducation,asmentionedpreviously,traditionaleducationinHaitidoes
notencouragecriticalthinking,creativity,questioning,orsolutions-basedthinking,butrather
hasbeenoneofrotememorizationandoftencorporalpunishment.Theparticipatoryapproach
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Table2.3:LeversoftransformationfromcommunitytostructurallevelsinHaiti
NarrativesexposedinBellevue-La-Montagne
case
TensionpointsRevealed
Leversoftransformation:communitytostructurallevels
PrioritiesforHaiti(SinghandBarton-Dock,2015)
Vulnerability,scarcity,violence
1.MEMORY.Turbulenthistoryofslavery,disasters,dependency,andoppression;nostalgiaforDuvalierera;brokeneducationsystemthatperpetuatessocietalproblemsofdistrustandclassism.
Education:Developculturally-relevantcurriculaandeducationprogramsaboutHaiti’spastandpresent,thatincorporateFreiriancriticalconsciousnessanalysis.Expandthereachofcharacterstrengtheningandvalues-basededucationalandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentapproachesandpracticesofHaitiPartnerstoexistingandnewschoolsinHaiti,includingpublicschools.Relatedly:Strengthenliteracyskills,improveeducationsystem,andincreaseaccesstoeducation.
Reducing
vulnerabilities
andbuilding
resilience.
Communityprogress,yetindividuals’stagnationandstructuralinequality
2.OUTCOMES.Communitydevelopmentoutcomesvis-à-visindividualandhouseholdcircumstances.
PlaceIdentity,NetworksandResearch:Support,connectandprofileplace-basedexamplesofeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentacrossHaitithatarecommittedtoqualityplanningandarchitectureandshowpromiseoftransformativechange/transformativeresilience,andtrackchangesinindividualandcommunityoutcomesovertimethroughlongitudinalstudy.
Senseofpowerlessness,acceptance,resignation
3.CULTURE.Participatorycultureisnotnecessarily‘changemaker’culture.
SocialEntrepreneurshipandSocialInnovation:Investinsocialenterprisecreationandfosteracultureofsocialinno-vationatcommunitylevel,andnationallythroughnetworks.Buildon,strengthenandshareADECAaspirationalmodelofsocialenterpriseforfinancialsustainabilitytosupportschooloperations,providejobs,training,andlong-termsocialandeconomicdevelopment.
Creating
greater
economic
opportunities
andbetter
jobs.
Aspirationsforconnections,a‘model’community,andabetterlifeandfuture
4.RELATIONSHIPS.state,society,NGOsandinternationalcommunityrelation-shipdynamicsfraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountability,inertia.
State/SocietyTrustandAccountability:Buildnewstate-societyrelationshipsthatengendertrustandengageoutsidersconstructively--suchasinternationalagenciesandNGOs,butthatdonotcontinuetoinstitutionalizedependenceandexploitation.
(Re)building
thesocial
contract.
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toeducationatADECAisdirectlycountertotraditionalwaysandinvolvescultivatingaloveof
learning,integratingparentsintothelifeofschool,andworkingtochangetheeducational
systemtoonethathelpschildrendevelopstrongcharacterthroughvalues-basededucation.
Valuesofmutualrespect,integrity,compassion,empathy,trust,andcollaborationarecentralto
theapproachandaimtocontributetostrengtheningethicalcitizenshipandleadershipfroman
earlyage.Also,apositivecultureoflearningandlifelongeducationpervadeseachelementof
thecommunitydevelopmentatADECA,whichisslowlytakingholdintermsofsocialattitudes
andpractices,asevidencedthroughlocalresidents’engagementinregulardialoguetoreview
andplanthecommunity’sfutureandtheirownrolesinit.
LeverofTransformation2:PlaceIdentity,NetworksandResearchTheimportanceoflocationand‘place’–includinghistory,environmentalconditions,amenities,
andvisualimagery–contributetocollectiveidentityamonglocalresidents.Placematters.
Bawosyaisnow‘onthemap’becauseofthenewschool,localdevelopment,andvisitsfrom
outsiders.Localpeopleexpressedaplaceattachmentandpridetolivethere,whenuntil
recentlytheyfeltshame.Thecontext-sensitiveandhighqualityplanning,architecture,and
constructioncontributetotheplacedimension.Earthquake-resistantconstructionand
excellentsiteandbuildingdesignoftheschool,socialenterpriseandtrainingfacility,
compostingsanitation,andrecreationareaandgardensarehallmarksofthiscaseandprovide
importantexamplesforothercommunities.Toaddresswhatisperceivedasunevenoutcomes
amongindividualsandforthecommunityasawhole(e.g.highqualityconstructionofthe
school,andpoorhousingandlivingconditionsoflocalresidents),itwouldseemimportantto
connectthiscasecommunitywithothersinHaitiwhichareattemptingsimilareffortssothat
theycanexchangeexperiences,learnfromeachother,andpotentiallyjoinforcestoeffect
widerpracticeandpolicychange.Establishingnetworksofcommunitydevelopment
practitionersthataretakingeducation-centeredapproacheswouldpotentiallyleadtomore
examplesoftransformativechangeinHaitiancommunitieswheretransformativecommunity
developmentandtransformativeresilienceseemtobeoperative.Profilingandnetworking
suchcommunitiesandsupportingamovementamongthemwouldhelptoinformandinspire
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others.Learningexchangescouldbetopicspecific,suchasecologicaleducationand
agriculturalpracticesthatdrawonandimprovelocalknowledge.Researchdocumentationof
learningandexchangescouldthenbesharedwithadditionalcommunities.Inaddition,
researchovertimewithinandacrosscommunitieswillbecriticaltounderstandingdynamicsof
changewhichistrulytransformational.ConsistentwithandbuildingontheWorldBankgoalof
reducingvulnerabilitiesandbuildingresilience,Haitimustmovebeyond‘socialresilience’,
whichisalreadyapparent,toatransformativeresiliencethatwouldpermanentlyaltersocial,
economicandenvironmentalpractices,beginningatthecommunitylevel.Field-based
community-levelresearchovertimewillbeimportanttotrackwhethercommunity
developmentinterventionsarehavingapositiveimpactonthelivesoflocalpeopleaswellason
broadersocietalsystemsandstate/societyrelations.
LeverofTransformation3:SocialEntrepreneurshipandSocialInnovationWhileestablishinga‘participatory’cultureisanimportantsteptowardfacilitatingasenseof
agencyamongpeople,itisnotsufficient.Ifthegoalisa‘changemaker’culturewhereeach
personhasasenseofself-efficacyandempowermenttoinitiatechange,thenitisimportantto
buildacultureofsocialentrepreneurshipandsocialinnovationinlocalcommunitiesand
schools,andtoproviderecognitionandinvestmentatnationallevel.Also,directinvestmentin
socialenterprisecreationatcommunitylevelwillhelptoinspiresuchpractices.Aculturally-
relevantmeansfordoingthiswouldbetobuildonandrecognizethevalidityandpowerofthe
‘konbit’culturedescribedinRobillard(2013).BeginningDecember2015,HaitiPartners
supportedlocalcommunitymembersindoingjustthatthroughthecreationofseveralVillage
Savingsandloansgroups.HaitiPartnersseesthisasakeystrategytohaveanimpactonlocal
individualsandtheirfamilies.Groupparticipantsareprovidedwithaccesstocreditaswellas
trainingonhowtosaveandspendmoneywell.AsofMarch2016,100localpeopleare
members,andHaitiPartnersintendstoscaletheinitiativefurther.Theyseeitasacritical
strategytonurturechangemakerculture.
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Asof2016,thereissomeevidencethatacultureofcollectivechangemakingmaybeslowly
emerging.Notonlydoschoolparentsvolunteerfourhoursperweekasdescribedpreviously,
butrecently,youngpeopleandadultsintheEnglishlanguageclassandthe49membersofthe
localsocialenterprisecooperativedecidedtocommitto4-8servicehourspermonthfor
collectivecommunityprojects.
Anadditionalwaytosupportsocialinnovatorswouldbetorecognizeandrewardsocial
innovationsandtoconnectsocialentrepreneurswhoareworkingatthecommunitylevel.
Supportingthekindofcommunity-drivensocialentrepreneurship,suchasHaitiPartners’work
withYunusSocialBusinessandPADFincreatingsocialenterprisesandcooperativebusinesses,
suchasthebakeryintheBellevue-La-Montagnecase,providesonelong-termstrategyfor
creatingbettereconomicopportunitiesandjobsinHaiti.
LeverofTransformation4:State-SocietyTrustandAccountabilityGiventhatthereisnohistoryorexperienceofatruesocialcontractinHaiti,itisessentialto
buildnewstate-civilsocietyrelationshipsthroughnewformsofengagement.Giventhelong
historyandcurrentsituationwhereinternationalagenciesholdsomuchpowerinHaiti,they
mustbepartofthesolutioninitiallybutnotlong-termifHaitiistobreakitshistoricpatternsof
‘top-down’aid.Relatedly,internationalNGOstypicallylackaccountabilitytoeithertheHaitian
stateorlocalcommunities.MostofthemarenotevenregisteredinHaiti.HaitiPartners
providesanotableexceptiontothispattern.Itisimportanttoincreasetheaccountabilityof
NGOsoperatinginHaitiinasystematicway,sothatlocalembeddedness,transparency,and
truelong-termcapacity-buildingandinvestmentarethenorm,ratherthantheexception.Local
NGOsofferanopportunitytobuildbetterinter-connectednetworksofcommunitiesthathavea
directvoiceinpolicymaking.Haitiwillremainextremelylimitedifafunctionalandaccountable
stateisnotestablished,butitisnotsomethingthatcanbebuiltovernight.Becauseformal
institutionsareunreliableandtypicallydysfunctional,informalinstitutions--suchas
relationshipsoftrust,reciprocity,andrespect--arecentraltosocialinteractionsandsuccessful
developmentengagement.Also,buildingasocialcontractbetweenpeopleandthestatecould
116
benurturedbyconnectingtocommunitylevelparticipatorypracticeandresearchandto
academics,governments,andpartnersinsideandoutsideofHaiti.Asappropriate,this
collaborativeworkcandrawonnewtechnologiesparticularlyinareaswhereHaitihasbeenable
toleap-frog,suchasmobiletelephones,mobiledatacollectionandcitizenscienceapplications.
2.5ConclusionIsBellevue-La-Montagneonapathwaytotransformativecommunitydevelopment,andwhat
learningfromthiscaseisinstructivefordevelopmentpracticeandpolicyinHaitiandsimilar
contexts?Theeducation-centeredandhighlycollaborativecommunitydevelopmentapproach
thatHaitiPartnershastakenatBellevue-La-MontagneisinnovativeandappropriateforHaiti
andthelocalcontext.Theparticipatorycommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwaytherehave
placedconstructionofanewschoolandeducationattheheartofrebuildingefforts.Education
andparticipatorypracticesareembeddedinallaspectsofthecommunitydevelopment--
includingsocialentrepreneurship,healthcare,environmentalstewardship,community
agriculture,siteplanningandbuildingconstruction.Theseeffortsinvolveparticipationof
peopleandorganizations(localandinternational)indialogicalnegotiationsthatappeartoaim
tosharepowerandbuildcapabilitiesoflocalpeople,andtocreate,change,orpreserve
structuresandinstitutionsconsistentwiththeinterestsoflocalpeople.Multiplemethodsand
narrativeanalysis,includingcontext-specificparticipatorymethods,exposethevalidityofthat
propositionfromthelocalparticipantpointofview.Findingsrevealthehighlyfragilenatureof
state/societyrelations,theimportanceoftrust,newprideandpossibilityforthecommunity,as
wellastensionpointsthatpotentiallythreatenthelong-termsustainabilityofdevelopment
projects,suchasdifferencesbetweenoutcomesforthecommunityasawholeandindividual
households.
Nonetheless,theBellevue-La-Montagnecaseshowspromisingresultssofarintermsof
communityamenities,education,localcohesion,hope,pride,jobs,training,andconnections
withothersinHaitiandelsewhere.Itisevidentfromthiscasestudythatcommunity
transformationisoccurring,andglimpsesofsocialtransformationseemtobepresent,butitis
117
earlydaystoassessclearly.Theformerdoesnotrequireachangeinculturenecessarily,while
thelatterdoes,andithappensmoreslowly.Followinghouseholdlevelchangesovertimewill
beimperativeinordertoclearlyunderstandtheextenttowhichsocialtransformationisin
process,particularlyinwaysthatcontributetotransformativeresilienceandlong-term
sustainabilityofthecommunitydevelopmentprojects.Critically,socialtransformationthat
wouldrenderthecommunitytransformationresilientandlastinginthefaceoftheabsenceof
HaitiPartners,isnotclear.IfHaitiPartnersweregonetomorrow,wouldthecommunity
developmentunderwaycontinueinitscurrenttrajectory?Havethegainsmadeduringthefirst
fiveyearsofworkofthisremarkableeffortrenderedthecommunitymoreresilient?Whileitis
tooearlytoassesswithcertainty,itisclearthatthereispotentialfortransformativecommunity
development--thatis,communitydevelopmentthatleadstopermanentchangesinvaluesand
institutions.TheintentionistocarryoutQualitativeLongitudinalResearcheveryfewyearswith
thesame12participanthouseholds.
Followinglocalresidents’storiesovertimewillenabletrackingofoutcomesanddynamicsof
socialtransformation.Forexample,toreturntoLisa’sstoryfromtheopeningquoteofthis
article,wewillfollowherandherchildren’slivedexperiencesandoutcomesovertime.Lisa
currentlyhastwochildren–bothenrolledatADECAschool.Sheearnsalivelihoodof
approximately$1perdayasasubsistencefarmerandmarkettrader,andisanactiveparentat
theschool,andaboardmemberofthenewlocalcooperativesetuptocreatesocialbusinesses
toprovidesustainablefundingforschooloperations.Lisacurrentlyliveswithherchildrenand
partnerinonesmallroomofhermother-in-law’stworoommetalshanty,andshedreamsthat
theywillhavetheirownhomeoneday.Herhopeisforherchildrentocontinuewithaquality
educationthatshecouldnot,andtoworkwithotherstocreateacommunitythatwouldserve
asamodelforallofHaiti.Bytrackingresultsrelatedtotheseaspirationsandthesocialand
economicoutcomesofLisa’sandotherlocalchildren–andperhapsoneday,theirchildren’s
children--wewillmakevisiblewhether,andtowhatextent,thiseducation-centeredapproach
tocommunitydevelopmentcontributestosocialtransformationoverthelongterm.
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Atpracticalandpolicylevels,learningfromthiscasecaninformdesignandimplementationof
improvedstrategiesforparticipatoryandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentthat
provideimportantrolesforlocalpeopleandcivilsociety,andanuancedroleforinternational
organizationswhichissensitivetopowerdynamics.Suchdevelopmentstrategieswould
similarlygive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglesforchangeandwouldactivatekeylevers
oftransformationsuchasthoseidentifiedinthiscase,including:1)education;2)placeidentity,
networks,andresearch;3)socialentrepreneurshipandsocialinnovation;and4)strengthening
trustandaccountabilityamongthestate,civilsocietyandNGOs.Theseleversareinlinewith
themedium-termprioritiesforpolicyactionproposedbytheWorldBankinits2015report,
‘Haiti:TowardaNewNarrative’,whichare:(re)buildingthesocialcontract;creatinggreater
economicopportunitiesandbetterjobs;andreducingvulnerabilitiesandbuildingresilience
(SinghandBarton-Dock,2015).Theseworthyandimportantgoalswillneedtobevigorously
pursuedatalllevelsifsignificantprogressistobemadetowardthem.Thelocalcommunity
levelhasaparticularlyimportantroletoplay,giventhelackoffunctionalformalinstitutionsof
thestateandtherelianceofpeopleonthemselves,neighbours,andcommunitiesinorderto
meettheirbasicneeds.
Thiscaseprovidesanexampleofstrategiesforchangeatcommunitylevelthathavethe
potentialtocontributetochangingnarrativesinHaiti,andofHaiti.Byscalingandconnecting
similarcommunitylevelinitiatives,Haitimaycreateanarrativeofsocialtransformationthat
wouldpermanentlychangeitsdevelopmenttrajectoryandoutcomesforcommunitiesacross
thecountry.Ithasthepotentialtoprovideabeaconforotherouterperipherycountriesand
marginalizedsocieties.Education-centeredcommunitydevelopment,asexemplifiedinthe
Bellevue-La-Montagnecase,showspromiseasonepathwayforscalingtowardsuch
transformation.
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PrefacetoChapter3:ParticipatoryPracticeandResearchVideos
Haiti:FromTragedytoTransformation?Participatorypracticeandresearchforcommunitydevelopment
andsocialchange
Thischapterispresentedinvideoformat.ItconsistsoftwoversionsofavideoIproduced.
Figures3.1and3.2arethe13-minuteand6-minuteversions,respectively.20Thevideos
representapartoftheresearchcarriedoutattheprincipalcasestudysiteofBellevue-La-
Montagne.Theyprovideabriefoverviewofthepost-earthquakesituationandarationalefor
carryingoutparticipatoryresearchtoinvestigatecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.
Eachvideoincludesinterviewfootagewithasamplingoflocalresidentsaswellasphotographs
takenbyresearchparticipants.Thetwovideosaresimilar,exceptthatthelongerversion
providesmoreinformationabouttheresearchmethodologyandfindings.
20Bothvideoversionsmayalsobeaccessedonlineat:vimeo.com/jayneeworviatheVimeochannelonparticipationinHaiti:vimeo.com/channels/haitiparticipation.
120
PrefacetoChapter4:ParticipatoryMethodsPaper
CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?Investigatingcommunitydevelopmentthroughparticipatorymethodologies
andqualitativelongitudinalresearch
Chapter4isfocusedonmethods–particularlyparticipatoryphotography–carriedoutat
Bellevue-La-Montagne.Ihaveanalyzedtheresultsgeneratedbycarryingoutthemethods,as
wellasthestrengthsandweaknessesofthemethodsthemselves.Thestudyisdesignedas
qualitativelongitudinalresearchinordertoexposedynamicsofsocialchangeovertime.
Whentheearthquakehit,Iwasworkinginthefield.WhileIwasturningtheground,I
wasliftingthepickaxe,IfeltIwasswinging,somethingwassweepingmeaway.Ididn’t
knowwhattodo,soIdroppedthepickaxe.Ilaydownontheground.Therewereother
peopleathome,Iheardthemcallingme.Iaskedwhatwaswrong.Theysaidthey
didn’tknow.Ilearnedthehousewasdestroyed.Iaskediftherewerepeopleinside.
Theysaidtherewasnoone.Everybodywasoutside.IsaidthankGod,ifeveryonewas
outside,therewasnooneinside,toheckwithit.Noproblem,wecanbuildhouses,but
wecan’tbuyhumanbeings.Aslongasyouwerenotinside,iftherewasfoodinside,
everythinginsidegotbroken,that’snotaproblem.AllIcareaboutisthatyouwerenot
inside.
Researchparticipant,2013
ThewayIseeit,fiveyearsfromnow,ifeveryoneinthecommunityputstheirheads
together,wework,wecollaboratewithoneanother,itcanbecomeavillage.Inthe
sensethatthisareawillmakeanameforitselfandwillbeconsideredamodelarea.I
thinkwecouldhaveapark.Sincethisareaisnotneartheocean,therecouldbea
swimmingpool...Amarketwherepeoplecanbuyeverythingtheyneed,theywon’t
havetogodowntownfortheirgoods;asoccerfieldforthemtoplay,adanceclub
wherepeoplecanaccessentertainmentandgetridoftheirstress.Then,Ithinkthere
willbechurches,theschool,alllevels–pre-school,elementary,secondary,college.
Researchparticipant,2013
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Chapter4:CanDisastersOpenPathwaystoSocialChange?
Investigatingcommunitydevelopmentthroughparticipatorymethodologiesandqualitativelongitudinalresearch
4.1IntroductionIntheaftermathofanydisastersocialandpoliticalchangecancomeaboutfromeithernew
powerstrugglesor‘fromthenewsenseofselfandsocietythatemerges’(Solnit,2009:21).
ManyhadhopedthatsuchwouldbethecaseinHaiti,followingthecatastrophicearthquakeof
January12,2010;theearthquakeleftsome220,000peopledeadand1.5millionhomeless,and
itdestroyedmostbuildingsofcentralgovernmentandthousandsofschools,hospitals,andlocal
institutions.
Followingthedisaster,formerPrimeMinister,MichèlePierre-Louis,calledforthe
deconstructionofthecurrentparadigminHaiti–thebasisofproduction,education,accessto
employment,humanrights,socialsystems,technology,infrastructure;shethencalledfor
reconstructionofsociety.Shearguedthatlocalcivilsocietyorganizationsshouldleadthewayin
theseeffortsbyvaluinglocalknowledge,andbuildingonsmallscalesuccesses(Pierre-Louis,
2011;emphasisadded).OnecommunitytakingthisapproachiscalledBellevue-La-Montagne,
locatedinthemountainssouthofPort-au-Prince.Incollaborationwithinternationalandlocal
civilsocietyorganizations,primarilyHaitiPartners,theyadoptedaparticipatoryapproachto
communitydevelopment,onewhichhasinvolvedongoingdialoguewithcommunityresidents
aboutwhatisneededtobuildabettercommunity.
Fiveyearspost-earthquake,thehopedforsocialchangeisnotclearlyevidentinBellevue-La-
Montagne,norelsewhereinHaiti.Accordingtomany,Haitianreconstructioncanonlysucceed
ifeffortsentailimprovedcollaborationswithHaiti’scomplexandresilientsocialinstitutions
(Dubois,2012).Morebroadly,internationaldevelopmentresearchersrecognizetheimportance
oflocally-based‘people-centered’approaches,‘participatorydevelopment’and‘agency’
(Friedmann,1992;KortenandKlauss,1984;Mohan2008).However,socialinstitutionsinHaiti
122
havesubstantiallyeludedconventionalstrategiesofinternationaldevelopment.Qualitative
analysesthatinvestigatecommunitydevelopmentinacontext-specificanddistinctlyhuman
wayarelacking.Suchanalysesareneededinordertorevealpatternsofsocialchangein
communities,whichisalong-termandoftenelusiveendeavour.
Thisresearchisdesignedtoinvestigatecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchangeusing
methodsthatrecognizelocalsocialinstitutions,thatvalueanddrawoutlocalknowledge,and
thatelicitnarrativesfromresidentsabouttheirlivedexperienceandcommunitydevelopment
processesunderway.Frequentlyininternationaldevelopmentresearch,theeffectsofwhat
wouldappearontheoutsideas‘positive’communitydevelopment(e.g.,creationofnewjobsin
thecommunity)areinvisible.Theunseenrealityforlocalpeople(e.g.,mixedconsequencesof
newjobs)andeffectsoncommunitiescanbesurprisinganddevastating.
Anaimofthispaperistoaddressagapinliteraturethatprovidesmethodslinkingcommunity
developmenttosocialchange,particularlyinapost-disastersettingoffragilityandextreme
poverty,andinacountrycharacterizedbyFatton(2014)asthe‘outerperiphery’oftheworld
economicsystem.Moregenerally,thisresearchquestions:Underwhatconditionsdoes
communitydevelopmentleadtosocialchange?And,whatnewinsightscanbegainedabout
thisquestionfromexperiencesinHaiti?Whatresearchmethodsareappropriateandusefulfor
elicitingthiskindofinformation?
Themethodologyforthispapercombinesparticipatorymethodsandnarrativeanalysiswitha
qualitativelongitudinalresearch(‘QLR’)‘sensibility’(ThomsonandMcLeod,2015).Thisstrategy
attemptstogive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglestoovercomethemainbarriersto
realizingchange,includinghowpowerrelationshipsshapecommunitydevelopmentand
decision-makingprocesses.Iusemethodsofparticipatoryphotography,participatorymapping,
communitywalks,probe-basedandhouseholdinterviews,focusgroups,andvideointerviews.
Thisresearchmethodologyhasasitslensparticipatoryandtransformativetheoriesthathave
embeddedvaluesofsocialjustice,sustainability,participation,andanideologyofequality
123
(Freire,1972andLedwith,2011).Thefocusisonexposingwhatparticipatoryphotographyand
participatorymappingcanrevealaboutearlyoutcomesincommunitydevelopmentand
potentialforsocialchangeinthiscommunity.
Inthefollowingsections,Idescribetheparticipatorymethodsusedandtheircontext-specific
designthataimedtoexposenuancedrealitiesoflivedexperienceandthecommunity
developmentunderwayinBellevue-La-Montagne.Ithendiscussboth1)learningfromthe
participatorymethods:includinga‘communitycorestory’,themesthatemergedandwhatthey
exposeaboutthedynamicsofcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange;and2)learning
aboutthemethods:whatarestrengthsandshortcomingsofthemethodsinthisparticular
context,andwhatdoesthemixingofmethodsreveal?First,Iturntothefieldsettingandmy
positionalitywithinit.
FieldsettingandresearcherpositionalityTheresearchsiteisBellevue-La-Montagne,asemi-ruralareainthemountainssoutheastof
Port-au-Prince,whichsufferedsubstantialdestructioninthe2010earthquake.Fiveyearslater,
fewpeoplehadbeenabletorebuildtheirhomesandmostnowlivein‘temporary’shelters
madeofmetalsheetsandplastictarps,orstillintheirpartially-destroyedhomes.Construction
ofcommunityfacilitieshasbeenmoresuccessfulwithresidentscollaboratingwithlocaland
internationalorganizations,oneofwhichisHaitiPartners.21Throughparticipatorypractices,
residentsdecidedonaneducation-centeredapproachtocommunitydevelopmentthatincorp-
oratessocialenterprise,sustainabilitygoals,andcommunityhealth.Theybeganwithbuildinga
newschool;thefirstphaseofconstructionwascompletedin2012,andasof2015,153students
wereenrolledfrompre-schoolthroughfirstgrade.(SeeChapter3.)
21Otherpartnersinvolvedincommunitydevelopmenteffortsinclude:1)ArchitectureforHumanityandBARArchitects,forsiteandbuildingdesign;2)ExtolloConstruction,forconstructionofbuildings,aswellastrainingandjobsforlocalpeople;3)Miyamotoforseismicstructuralengineering;4)GiveLove,fortoiletcompostingsystems;5)HaitiClinic,forhealthcare;6)YunusSocialBusiness(formerlyGrameenCreativeLabs)forsettingupsocialenterprises;7)AMURT,forteachereducation;and8)BeyondBordersfortrainingtoendchilddomesticservitudepracticesandgender-basedviolence.Forfurtherdetails,seeEngle(2015),whichprovidesadetailedcasestudyaboutBellevue-La-Montagne’sschool-centeredcommunitydevelopment.
124
HaitiPartnersisasmallnot-for-profitorganizationwithofficesinHaitiandtheUS.The
foundersareAmericanswhohaveworkedinHaitiformanyyears,earlierasBeyondBorders,
andhaveanetworkofhundredsofHaitiancolleaguesineducationandcommunityleadership
acrossthecountry.22Theirworkhasfocusedonparticipatoryeducationanddemocracy
building.AfounderofHaitiPartners,JohnEngle,haslivedinBellevue-La-Montagnesince1990,
iswellknowntolocalresidents,andismybrother.Fromaresearchperspective,thisfamily
connectionisdouble-edged.Ononehand,Iwouldnotbecarryingoutthisresearchifitwere
notforthisfamilyconnection,giventhedifficultyofgainingaccessandtrustoflocalpeopleas
anoutsider.Ontheotherhand,John’sleadershiproleandreputationinthecommunityaffect
howpeopleseeandbehavetowardsme.MostHaitiansrelyheavilyonreputationand
relationshipsoftrusttoconductdailytransactionsandmeettheirbasicneeds.Becausepeople
trustJohn,ashissister,Iamautomaticallyconsideredtrustworthybymostpeople.
Beyondmattersofaccess,Iselectedthiscommunityforstudybasedonapurposive,
information-orientedsamplingstrategy,whichcombinesinstrumentalandparadigmatic
selection.Itisinstrumentalinthattheissuesofthecommunityandlearningwhichismore
widelyapplicablearedominant(Stake,1995),anditisparadigmaticbecauseanintentionis“to
developametaphororestablishaschoolforthedomainwhichthecaseconcerns”(Flyvbjerg,
2001:79),whichispost-disastercommunitydevelopmentthatisparticipatory,collaborative,
andeducation-centered.
Inresearchdesignandinthefield,Ihavebeensensitivetomypositionalityasawhitemiddle-
classwomanfromtheglobalnorthworkinginapredominantlyblacksocietywherepositionsof
powerareoverwhelminglyheldbymen.Iamconsciousofthehistoryofslaveryandoppression
bywhitepeopleinHaiti’spast,andoftheongoingimperialismofthe‘internationalcommunity’
exacerbatedinthepost-earthquakeperiodthroughpolicyandstructuralinterventionsthat
havereducedHaiti’ssovereignty(Deshommes,2012;Fatton,2014).
22JohnEngleandDavidDiggsco-foundedBeyondBordersin1993andservedasco-directorsuntil2009,atwhichtimeJohnEngleandacolleague,KentAnnan,spunoffHaitiPartnersasanindependentorganization.
125
ParticipatorymethodologytoexplorecommunitydevelopmentandsocialchangeThissectionoutlinesacentralpropositionofthisresearch,anddescribesthemethodologyand
methodsthatwerecarriedoutinthefieldtoexplorethatproposition.
Existingliterature–bothacademicandpractitioner,aswellasmyprofessionalworkindiverse
settingssuggeststhatcommunitydevelopmenthaspotentialtocatalyzesocialchange(Oliver-
Smith,2002;Pelling,2003).Moreover,inapost-disastercontext,awindowofopportunityfor
suchchangeseemstoopen,ifonlyephemerally(PellingandDill,2010;Solnit,2009).Social
change,includinginstitutionaladaptations,canbeeffectedthroughsocialinnovation23
combinedwithparticipatorycollaborativeapproacheswhicharesustainedthroughongoing
dialogueprocessesthatallowforcontinualnegotiationbetweenorganizationsandcommunity
participants(Healey2006,InnesandBooher,2010;Moulaertetal.,2010;Ostrom,1990).Haiti
Partnersandlocalresidentsaimforsuchchange;agoalofthisresearchistoexplore,fromthe
residents’viewpoint,howthatisworking.Iturnnowtoexplainwhatismeanthereby
communitydevelopmentandsocialchange.
Communitydevelopmentisaninterdisciplinaryfieldthatcombinesspatialandmaterial
developmentwithdevelopmentofpeopleandtheircapacitytomanagechange.Community
developmentismeanttoenablepeopletomobilizeexistingskills,reframeproblems,work
collaborativelyandfindnewwaystousecommunityassets,andinvolvesflexibleprocesses
guidedbyprinciplesofparticipationandself-help.Thekeypurposeofcommunitydevelopment
is“collectiveactionforsocialchange,principledonsocialjusticeandasustainableworld”,
accordingtoLedwithandSpringett(2010:14).Communitydevelopmenthereisbasedonvalues
ofsocialandenvironmentaljustice,socialinnovation(Moulaertetal.,2010;Mulgan,2007;
KendraandWachtendorf2007),anddialogicalparticipation,andaimedatsocialandsystemic
changethroughinformalnetworksandlocalpraxis(asinFreire,1972;Kennedy,2011).
23Socialinnovationrefersto‘newideasthatworktomeetpressingunmetneedsandimprovepeoples’lives’(Mulgan2007:7).Moulaertetal.2010assertsthatdemonstratingthatprocessesofsocialinnovationareoccurringprovidesthelinkagebetweencommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.
126
Socialchangeischangeinpersonalandsociallifeandinvolvesapubliclearningprocessthat
leadstopermanentshiftsininstitutionsandvalues(McLeodandThomson,2009;Sandercock,
2000).Socialchangeinvolves“continuousinteractionbetweenthecreativeactivityofagencyin
relationwithothers,re-thinking,affirmingandchangingsituations,andtheorganizingpowerof
structuralforces”Healey(2006:91).Socialchange,accordingtoFriedmann(1987:250,297),is
spatiallycultivatedinlocalcommunities:“Apoliticalpracticeaimedatsocialtransformationcan
beeffectiveonlywhenitisbasedontheextra-politicalactionsofordinarypeoplegatheredin
theirowncommunities.”
ParticipatorymethodologywithaQualitativeLongitudinalResearch(QLR)sensibilityParticipatorymethodologiesarenowwellestablishedinfieldssuchaseducation,urban
planning,humangeography,publichealth,andcommunitydevelopment(Forester,1999;
Somekh,2006;LedwithandSpringett,2010;SarkissianandHurford,2010;andWates,2000).
Theyareappliedaswellininternationaldevelopmentandinpost-disastercontexts(Mitlinand
Satterthwaite,2004;NakkiranandRamesh,2009;Narayanasamy,2009;andÖzerdemandBowd,
2010).24AccordingtoCreswell(2007:102),therationaleforaqualitativestudyisthat‘aneed
existstoaddtoorfillagapintheliteratureortoprovideavoiceforindividualsnotheardinthe
literature.’WiththisarticleIaimbothtoaddtoexistingliteratureonpost-disasterand
participatorystrategiestowardsocialchange,aswellastoelicitnarrativesandprovideavoice
forthosenotheard,namelycommunityresidentsinHaitiwhohaveenduredtremendous
hardship,mostrecentlyasaresultofthe2010earthquake.AccordingtoLedwithandSpringett
(2010:93),participatoryresearchentailsthat
researchers,actingasfacilitatorsandguardingagainsttheirownbiases,seekto
minimizeanypowerdifferentialsbetweenthemandtheresearched.Theresearchdesign,
therefore,isflexible,abletorespondtochangingcontextsandemergentfindingsasthey
arise.Methodsareoftenvisualandinteractivetoallowparticipantswithall
backgroundstoparticipateinbothgeneratingandanalyzingthedata.
24Participatorymethodologiesininternationaldevelopmentincludeparticipatorylearningandaction(PLA)andparticipatoryruralappraisal(PRA).
127
Withregardtosocialchange,itisnotpossibletoconvincinglyarguethatdynamicchange
processesareoccurringwithoutatemporalaspecttotheresearchstudy.Iconductedfield
workoverseveralyears,whichprovideslimitedunderstandingofchangeovertime,butthe
researchisdesignedwithaneyetocarryingoutqualitativelongitudinalresearch(QLR)withthe
sameparticipantslongerterm.QLRisconnectedtoarecent‘temporal’turninsocialscience
research,whichcanprovide‘strikinglydifferentinsightsintopolicyproblems’(Thomsonand
McLeod,2015).25
Thestrategyofinquiry,therefore,focusesonunderstandingfromwithinandfromoutsideand
engagesparticipatoryapproacheswithinawideraimor‘sensibility’ofqualitativelongitudinal
research.26Consistentwithphronesisresearch(asinFlyvbjerg,2001andFlyvbjergetal.,2012),
guidingquestionstoelicitnarrativesfromthepointofviewofparticipants,werethefollowing:
1. OfwhatstoryorstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?
2. Wherearewegoing(asacommunity)?Andisitdesirable?
3. Whowinsandwholosesandbywhichmechanismsofpower?
4. What,ifanything,dowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?
Iusedmultiplemethodsatthreelevelsofengagement:individual,collectiveactivities,and
institutions(SeeTable4.1;formatadaptedfromMdee,2010).Thescopeofthisarticleis
limitedtoworkwithindividualsandcollectiveactivities.Withindividualswelistenedtolocal
perspectives,oftencomingatthesamequestionsfrommultipleanglesinordertotriangulate
datacollectedandanalysis.
25JanicePerlman’sFavela(2010),whilenottechnicallyQLR,providesanexcellentexampleofresearchthat‘revisits’familiesinRiodeJaneirofavelas40yearsaftertheoriginalinterviewswereconducted.Thestudyprovidesuniqueinsightsaboutchangesthatoccurredindozensoffamiliesattwopointsintime,fortyyearsapart.However,becauseparticipantswerenotinterviewedintheinterveningperiod,thestudydidnotenableadaptivelearningovertimethatmighthaverevealedtrendstopointtowardchangesthatmighthavebeenmadealongthewayinlocaldecisionmakingandpolicy.26Thedetailedcasestudyandagency-structureanalysisisaseparatearticle(Engle2015).
128
Tab
le 4
.1:
Ove
rvie
w o
f R
ese
arc
h M
eth
od
s an
d D
ata
Co
llect
ion
Leve
l o
f En
gag
em
en
tM
eth
od
s (y
ear)
Sam
plin
g/
Sca
le (
# p
art
icip
an
ts:
year)
Reco
rdin
g (
lan
gu
ag
e)*
Part
icip
ator
y ph
otog
raph
y (2
012,
201
3)Sel
f-se
lect
ed (
20:
2012
); P
urpo
sive
(12
: 20
13)
mix
of ag
e, g
ende
r, an
d le
vels
of
enga
gem
ent
in c
omm
unity
deve
lopm
ent
Phot
ogra
phs
Part
icip
ator
y m
appi
ng:
Mob
ility
(20
13)
Han
d-dr
awn
map
s sh
owin
g da
ily t
rips
and
spa
tial
co
nnec
tion
s
Hou
seho
ld in
terv
iew
s (2
013)
Aud
io,
phot
ogra
phs,
inte
rvie
w for
ms
(Hai
tian
Cre
ole)
Eart
hqua
ke s
tory
inte
rvie
ws
(201
2, 2
013)
Purp
osiv
e (5
: 20
12;
12:
2013
)Aud
io,
vide
o (H
aitian
Cre
ole)
Prob
e in
terv
iew
s (2
012,
201
3)Pu
rpos
ive
(5:
2012
; 5:
2013
)Aud
io,
vide
o, n
otes
(H
aitian
Cre
ole)
Part
icip
ant
obse
rvat
ion
/ fie
ld n
otes
(20
12,
2013
)Act
ivitie
s ch
osen
col
lect
ivel
y by
par
tici
pant
s:
com
mun
ity
wal
king
tou
r +
mar
ket
visi
t (w
ith
one
cam
era)
Fiel
d no
tes,
aud
io a
nd v
ideo
of w
alki
ng t
our
guid
ed
by p
artici
pant
s; p
hoto
s of
mar
ket
visi
t (E
nglis
h/H
aitian
Cre
ole)
Info
rmal
dis
cuss
ions
with
rese
arch
col
labo
rato
rs a
nd
key
info
rman
ts /
res
earc
her
refle
ctio
ns (
2011
, 20
12,
2013
)
Hai
ti P
artn
ers
staf
f, fa
mily
,col
leag
ues,
ho
usem
ates
(5:
201
1, 2
012,
201
3)
Fiel
d no
tes
(Eng
lish)
Phot
o D
ialo
gue
Circl
es (
2013
)Aud
io r
ecor
ding
and
not
es;
Com
mun
ity
tim
elin
e w
ith
phot
ogra
phs,
dat
es,
and
draw
ings
(H
aitian
Cre
ole)
Part
icip
ator
y m
appi
ng:
Plac
es (
2013
)D
raw
n in
cha
lk b
y pa
rtic
ipan
ts o
n co
ncre
te flo
or,
then
tra
nspo
sed
to p
aper
Com
mun
ity
wal
ks (
2013
)Aud
io a
nd v
ideo
(H
aitian
Cre
ole)
Part
icip
ator
y m
appi
ng:
Act
ors
(201
3)Fl
ipch
art
lists
of or
gani
zation
s an
d ag
enci
es b
y se
ctor
; ph
otog
raph
s of
flo
or m
aps
Key
info
rman
t an
d or
gani
zation
al r
epre
sent
ativ
e in
terv
iew
s (2
011,
201
2, 2
013)
Purp
osiv
e, s
now
ball
(25:
201
1, 2
012,
201
3)Aud
io;
in s
ome
case
s vi
deo
(Fre
nch/
Engl
ish)
Info
rmal
dis
cuss
ions
with
key
info
rman
ts a
nd fie
ld
colla
bora
tors
/ r
esea
rche
r re
flect
ions
, do
cum
ent
revi
ew
(201
1, 2
012,
201
3)
Hai
ti P
artn
ers
staf
f, fa
mily
, co
lleag
ues,
ho
usem
ates
(10
: 20
11,
2012
, 20
13)
Doc
umen
ts a
nd fie
ld n
otes
(En
glis
h)
Part
icip
ant
obse
rvat
ion
/ fie
ld n
otes
(20
11,
2012
, 20
13)
Publ
ic c
omm
unity
mee
ting
s; v
ario
us H
P m
eeting
s; O
pen
Spa
ce H
aiti c
onfe
renc
e;
scho
ol g
over
ning
cou
ncil;
cul
tura
l act
ivitie
s Fi
eld
note
s (E
nglis
h)
!"#$%&'()&*+",$-".),/012&"3)'4/&"'&
40'-)$1+"*&'&"+25+&6
2&$%/7"%',$+4')5&
-",$-"%',$+/,%&-
"%0"8$1/)+9
Ind
ivid
uals
: list
en
ing
to
vo
ices
an
d p
ers
pect
ives
Co
llect
ive a
ctiv
itie
s:
reve
alin
g in
terf
ace
s o
f st
ruct
ure
an
d
ag
en
cy
Inst
itu
tio
nal
evo
luti
on
: u
nd
ers
tan
din
g
pro
cess
es
of
chan
ge
Purp
osiv
e (1
2: 2
013)
All
part
icip
ator
y ph
otog
raph
y pa
rtic
ipan
ts
Purp
osiv
e (1
2: 2
013)
All
part
icip
ator
y ph
otog
raph
y pa
rtic
ipan
ts
129
Collectiveactivitieswereintendedtorevealinterfacesofstructureandagency(asinFlyvbjerg
2001).Table4.1setsoutthemethodsusedtoinvestigateeachlevelofengagement.Column
twoliststhemethodswhichwereimplementedandthetimeframe.27Thethirdcolumn
providesthesamplingstrategyandnumberofparticipants.Thelastcolumnindicatesthemain
recordingmediaused,andwhereapplicable,theoriginallanguageofthedata.
Participatorymethods
Participatorymethodsrepresentasubsetofmyresearchmethodsandarethefocusofthis
article.Thesemethodsrecognizethatpeoplehavetheirowncommunitybased,localknowledge
systemsthatareofteninvisiblefromtheoutside,particularlytoforeigners.Theyhavethe
potentialtoyieldmoreaccuratedatabydrawingoutandhearingthevoicesofthosewhoare
impoverishedandexcluded,therebydeepeningunderstandingaboutcommunitydevelopment
impactsonlocalpeopleandpowerdynamicsatplay.Inordertomaximizethepotentialof
participatorymethods,Idesignedtheminawaythatisspecifictothelocalcontext.Iused
primarilyparticipatoryphotographyandmapping,andIchosetoworkwiththesamegroupof
12peoplethroughoutinordertofacilitatesociallearningofthegroup(Friedmann,1987).The
12participants,ofwhomsixwerewomen,rangedinagefrom17through50.Somehadbeen
involvedinthecommunitydevelopmentprojectsunderway,andsomehadnot.Thelevelof
formaleducationvariedfromzeroyearstopost-highschooltraining.
Inmethoddesign,Idrewonqualitativeresearchsources(Berg,1998;Crang,2005;Denzinand
Lincoln,2005;ÖzerdemandBowd,2010;Patton,2002;ReasonandBradbury,2001;and
Somekh,2006),participatoryplanningliterature(SandercockandAttili,2012;Sarkissianand
Bunjamin-Mau,2009;SarkissianandHurford,2010;andWates,2000),aswellasmyown
experiencepracticingthesemethods.Table4.2providesthescheduleforthemainphaseof
fieldwork.Interviewsanddialoguecirclesservedasmeansforcollectiveanalysisofdata
27Thepresentarticleislimitedtodiscussionoftheparticipatorymethods.Descriptionsanddatacollectedfromadditionalmethods,suchasprobeandhouseholdinterviews,areprovidedinaseparatecommunitycasestudyarticle(Engle2015).
130
gatheredthroughphotographsandmaps.Communitywalks–includingalocaltourandawalk
totheregionalmarket–weredecideduponcollectivelybyparticipantsandresearch
collaborators.Ascolumntwohighlightsinbold,activitiesweredesignedtoaddressphronesis
researchquestions.
Participatoryphotography
Participatoryphotographyinvolvesprovidingcamerastoparticipantstorecordtheirlived
experiencesandperceptions.Ithasbeenusedfordecadesinurbanplanningpractice,andwas
usedbyPauloFreireinthe1970sasameansfordialogueandconscientisation(critical
awarenessofone’ssocialrealitythroughreflectionandaction).Morerecently,ithasbecome
widespreadinmultipledisciplines,particularlypublichealth,geographyandcommunity-based
participatoryresearch(CBPR),whichbroughtaspecificsetofstepstoparticipatoryphotography,
andnameditPhotovoice(WangandBurris,1997).28
InBellevue-La-Montagne,Iusedparticipatoryphotographyastheprimarystructuringelement
foraddressingtheresearchquestionsandforcommunicatingtheresearchprojectto
participants.Giventhepotentialbarrierstoclaritybetweenresearcherandparticipants,such
asdifferencesinlanguage,culture,worldviews,andlifeexperiences,Iusedphotographyasa
commonlanguageandframedtheworkas‘Photodialogue’(‘DyalògFoto’inHaitianCreole).
Priortothemainphaseofparticipatoryphotography,Isentinvitationletterstothe12
participantstoexplaintheresearchandexpectations.Onceinthefield,Itookthefirstfullday
withparticipantstoreadthroughtogethertheethicsconsentformsanddiscussindetailwhat
wewereembarkingontogether.Thesecondandthirddaysoffieldworkweredevotedto
photographytrainingwithaprofessional.Intheweeksthatfollowedweinterspersedphoto-
takingexerciseswiththemethodsbelow(alsoseeTable4.2).
28Photovoiceisatypeofparticipatoryphotographythathasprescribedstepswiththefollowingaimsinknowledgeproduction:(1)enableparticipantstodocumentandreflectontheircommunity'sconcernsandstrengths;(2)facilitatecriticaldialogueandlearningaboutimportantissuesthroughgroupdiscussionofphotographs;and(3)beheardbypolicymakers(WangandBurris1997).
131
• Dialoguecircles(akintofocusgroups)todiscussphotosandexploretopicsinaforumdesignedforknowledgegeneration,collectivesensemaking,andsociallearning;
• Probe-basedinterviewswhereIshowedparticipantsvideosofthemselvesfromthepreviousyeartoinvitereactionsandprobehowtheirlivesandthecommunityhavechangedsince;
• Earthquakestoryinterviewswhichwerevideo-recordedtohearearthquakeexperiences
andwhatlifehasbeenlikesincethedisaster;and
• Householdinterviewsineachparticipant’shometocollectbaselinedataonhouseholdmembers,housingtypes,livelihoods,socio-economicconditions,education,earthquakestory,communitydevelopmentinvolvementandperceptions,andsubjectivewell-being.
Participatorymapping
Participatorymappingisaprocessinwhichparticipantspresentinformationinaspatialform.It
caninvolvemappingmanykindsofenvironmental,social,oreconomicinformation,suchas
landuse,healthconditions,resources,skills,orvulnerabilities.InthisresearchIcarriedout
threemappingprocesses:mobility,places,andactors,inordertoaddresstheresearch
questionsandprovidemeansfortriangulationofdataandmethods.Idrewonparticipatory
ruralappraisal(PRA)methods(primarilyNarayanasamy,2009)todesignmappingexercises
specifictothelocalcontextandresearchaims.
1) Mobilitymapping.Mobilitymapsaredrawninordertoexposethemovementpatterns
ofindividualsorgroups.Forthisresearch,Ichosetohaveeachofthe12individual
participantsdepictonamap:1)whereeachpersontravelsonadailyandweeklybasis;
2)whethereachpersonhasconnectionsoutsidetheregion–elsewhereinHaitior
overseas,andifso,whethertheyhaveanycontactwiththeseconnectionsorreceive
remittances;and3)whetherparticipantshavetravelledoutsideofthelocalregion,and
ifso,where.
132
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133
2)Placesmapping.Inordertoexplorehowparticipantsperceivetheireverydayspatial
surroundings,wemappedthegeographicplacesandspacesofthecommunitytogether.We
usedchalkontheconcreteflooroftheschooltoindicatethemaingeographicfeaturesofthe
area,aswellasroads,sacredplaces(churches,vodoutemple),theirhomes,community
facilities(school,dancehall,cockfightpit,healthclinic),andthewatersource.Wethen
transposedthemaptopaper,madecopies,andinvitedparticipantstoworkingroupsofthree
todiscussthemapsandtodevelopacommunitywalktrajectory,i.e.howtheywouldliketo
sharethestoryoftheircommunitythroughawalkingtour.Participantsdecidedwhichplaces
andhomeswouldbevisitedandwhowouldprovidecommentaryateachstop,andthen
rehearsedthetourtogether.
3)Actormapping.Thegoalofactormappingwasto1)identifybysectorallofthe
organizationsandagenciesoperatinglocally;and2)togetherassesstherelativeimportanceto
thecommunityandeffectivenessoftheworkofeachorganization.Wecarriedouttheprocess
collectively,andagreedtogroupactorsaccordingtosectorsof:education,health,environment,
spirituallife,finance,andacatch-all‘otherservices’.Wehadadiscussionabouteach
organization,sectorbysector,anddepictedgroupassessmentstogetheronthefloor.Apaper
starinthecenterrepresentedthecommunity.Eachactorwasidentifiedbyacircle;thelarger
thecircle,themoreimportanttheactortothecommunity.Anextstepwastoplaceeachcircle
onthefloorinrelationtothecenterstaraccordingtohoweffectivelyitworks–thecloserto
thestar,themoreeffectiveinthecommunity.Theproductisa‘mapping’ofallactorsinthe
communityincludingtheparticipants’collectiveassessmentofeachactor’slocalimportance
andeffectiveness.
4.2Learningfromthemethods:communitycorestoryandthemesrevealed
Oneofthechallengesofmakingsenseofdatafromparticipatorymethodsisthequantityand
multipleformsittakes;inthiscase:transcriptsfromdialoguecirclesandinterviews,audioand
videorecordings,photographs,maps,andfieldnotes.Inordertomakesenseofthevarious
134
data,storiesandtopicsheardinthefield,Idecidedtouseprimarilynarrativeanalysisand
thematiccoding,andItestedmyinterpretationswithresearchcollaborators.Therearea
varietyofwaysthatthefindingscouldberepresented;thefollowingnarrativeisbutone(also
seeTable4.3.)Inkeepingwiththe‘listeningtostories’themeofthisresearchandwitha
‘sensibility’oflong-termstudyofsocialchangeinthiscommunity,Isharethefindingsasa
meta-narrative,or‘communitycorestory’followedbyadiscussionofthree‘socialchange
dynamics’revealed.
CommunityCoreStory
Wehavewoventogetherfindingsfromthemethods--individualstories,imageandmapping
analysis,andcollectivedialoguesessions--andsearchedforpatternstocreateameta-
narrative,or‘communitycorestory’(seealsoDunstanandSarkissian,1994).Thisnarrativeis
oneinterpretationandisbynomeansacompleterepresentationofallthequalitativedata
collected.AsanextstepinthislongitudinalresearchIwilltakethiscorestorybacktothe
community,asameansforboth‘memberchecking’thatIhaveunderstoodwhatparticipants
intended,aswellasabasisfordiscussionabouthowlifehaschangedintheinterveningperiod
andhowparticipantswouldwanttohavethecommunitycorestoryevolveovertime.Thecore
storyconsistsofsixvignettes:‘forgotten’place;the‘goodyears’;violenceandinsecurity;never-
endingtransition;theearthquake;andcommunityprideandconnections.Eachvignetteis
brieflydescribedinfirstpersonplural–intendedtorepresentvoicesofcommunityresidents,
anddirectquotationsfromparticipantsprovidesampleillustrations.29
v ‘Forgotten’place.Weareconsideredbysurroundingcommunitiestobe‘backward’,and
somesaywe’reviolent.Wearea‘forgotten’place–developmenthappenedaroundus,but
nevercamehere.Whenpeoplearesickhere,theylivewithpain,ordiebecausehealth
clinicsaretoofarawayandmedicineistooexpensive.Ifweneedthepoliceandcallfor
them,theyusuallysaytheydon’tknowwhereweare,ortheywantustopayfortheirfuelto
29AllparticipantquotesinthisarticlearefromJuly2013.Ihavenotattributedparticipantnamesinkeepingwithacademicethicsnorms.
135
comefindus.Wedon’thavemoneyforthat.Someofourkidsgotoschool,someofthetime,
butit’shardbecausetheschoolsarefarawayandcostmoney.Sometimeswehaveto
choosewhethertoeatorsendourkidstoschool.
…everyotherlocalityisadvanced,thislocalityhasneverbeenadvanced.Itwasn’t
until[HaitiPartners]cametobuildtheschoolhere;thelocalityhaschanged.Icansay,
well,we’renotlivingthewoodsanymore.That’swhatIsee;wedidn’thaveaschool
nearby,sometimesoneofmychildrenwenttoschoolupthereinthemountain,when
hewasgoingtotheofficial6thgradeexams,Ihadtotakehimallthewaydown[tothe
city]fortheexams.Moreover,togotothedoctor,youhadtogoallthewayto
Pétionvilletoseethedoctor.Butnow,wehavedoctorsinthelocalityandfreeof
chargeontopofit.Ourschool,nearby.Andwearegoingtohavebread;everything
willbecloseby.Inthefuture,youwillhaveasupermarket;ifyouneedcertainthings,
you’llbeabletobuythem.Youseeitisagoodthing.Researchparticipant,2013
v ‘Goodyears’underDuvalierdictatorships.WhenPapaDocandthenhisson,Jean-Claude,
Duvalierwereinpower(1957-1986),lifewasmuchbetterhere.Wecouldaffordtoeatand
weweresafer.Thetontonmacoutes[Duvaliers’police,manyofwhomlivednearby]only
gaveyoutroubleifyouweremakingtroubleyourself.Aslongasyoumindedyourown
business,lifewasmuchbetter.
DuringDuvalieritwassafer.Youwerenotafraid;you’dseepeopleoutsideplaying
dominoes,drinking.Well,ifyou’reinthestreet[now],you’rewalking,someonecomes
uptoyou,heasksyouaquestionandyoudon’tanswerwell,hecrushesyourightthere.
Researchparticipant,2013
v Post-Aristideviolenceandinsecurity.Followingthecoupd’étatandexileofAristideinthe
early1990s,lifebecameinsecure.Foodpricessurged,therewaslittleopportunityto
improveourlivelihoods,andcriminalsoftencameupthroughourvillage.Onthebrightside,
duringthattime,in1997,theGermanyEmbassypaidtohavewaterpipedhere.
AfterAristideleft,theyweregoingaroundinbroaddaylight,killingpeople,robbing
people,takingeverythingtheyhad.Althoughpeoplesleptinbushesandtrees,they
hadtosleepwithoneeyeopened.Researchparticipant,2013
136
v Never-endingtransition.Throughoutthe2000s,foodpricesincreased;wehadregular
disastersetbacksthataffectedourhomes,roads,andcrops–primarilyhurricanesand
floods;andwecontinuedtolackconnectionstotheoutsideworld.Fewofushadtelephones
oreverlefttheregion.Wecontinuetodaytolackelectricity,goodsanitation,goodroads.
Democracyanddecentralisationofgovernmentnevercameaboutasexpected.
Iusedtobuyasmallcanisterofricefor5cents,afterthecoupd’étatagainstAristidein
1991,itstartedincreasing.Aristidehadanotherterm,hewonandthenhadanother
coupd’état.Ifthericecost10cents,itincreasedto20.TherewasanotherPresident,
thenAristidecameagainin2004,thesmallcanisterofricecost5dollars,agallonof
fuelwasabout50gourdes.Assoonasheleft,itincreased,anditkeptincreasing.
Everythingincreasedthatway.That’sbecauseofthecoupsd’état.Aslongasthereis
noPresident,goodscannotenterinthecountryandbecauseofthatthemarkettraders
increasedprices,buttheydidn’tdecreasethemwhengoodsstartedcomingin.It
continueslikethisuntilnow;wedon’tknowwhatitwillbeliketomorrow.Research
participant,2013
v Theearthquake.The2010earthquake[knownas‘goudougoudou’]wasdevastating.We
sufferedhugemateriallosses;someofuswereinjuredorsawothersdie.Mostofushad
smallonetothreeroomhomes;nearlyallweredestroyed,andnoneofuscanafford
materialstorebuild.Scamartistsmadeitworseintheaftermath.Wepaidwhatmeagre
moneywehadforthepromiseofmaterials,whichnevercame.Whoknowswhenthenext
quakeorotherdisasterwillcome?
Whentheearthquakehit,Iwasworkinginthefield.WhileIwasturningtheground,I
wasliftingthepickaxe,IfeltIwasswinging,somethingwassweepingmeaway.Ididn’t
knowwhattodo,soIdroppedthepickaxe.Ilaydownontheground.Therewereother
peopleathome,Iheardthemcallingme.Iaskedwhatwaswrong.Theysaidthey
didn’tknow.Ilearnedthehousewasdestroyed.Iaskediftherewerepeopleinside.
Theysaidtherewasnoone.Everybodywasoutside.IsaidthankGod,ifeveryonewas
outside,therewasnooneinside,toheckwithit.Noproblem,wecanbuildhouses,but
wecan’tbuyhumanbeings.Aslongasyouwerenotinside,iftherewasfoodinside,
everythinginsidegotbroken,that’snotaproblem.AllIcareaboutisthatyouwerenot
inside.Researchparticipant,2013
137
PeopleofBellevue-La-Montagnewerefirstvictimizedbytheearthquake,andthen
againbyscamsandpromisespost-earthquake[suchastorebuildhomes].Research
participant,2013v Communityprideandconnections.Withtheconstructionoftheschool,thehealthclinic,
thebakeryandallthetrainingandparticipationactivitieshappeninghere,wefeelless
forgottenandhaveasenseofprideandhopeforthefuture.Ourcommunityisimproving,
andsurroundingcommunitiesnolongerlookdownonus.Eventhoughfoodpricesarestill
high,thereislittleopportunityforwork,wehavedroughtsandfloodsthatthreatenour
crops,andwestillhavenotbeenabletorebuildourhomes,wearegratefulfortheschool
andtheothercommunitydevelopmentprojects,andwethinklifewillbebetterforourkids
becausetheywillgetagoodeducationandhaveconnectionswiththeoutsideworld.We
don’texpecttheHaitiangovernmenttoevercareaboutusorprovideserviceshere,butwe
willworktogetherandwithtrustworthyinternationalpartnerstobuildabettercommunity.
Iamsohappyaboutthenewschool.ThegoodthingformewiththeschoolisthatI
becamepresidentoftheParents’Committee.Iamtheonewho,alongwithother
parents,plantsflowersandkeepstheschoolyardniceandclean.Inthefuture,Iwould
likefortheschooltoeducatethekidswellandforthekidstobeabletospeakthethree
languages[French,HaitianCreoleandEnglish]andalsofortheschooltogrowformore
childrentocomeinthefuture.Researchparticipant,2013
Theschoolisagreatthingforthecommunity…Thereare10-year-oldchildrenwhogo
tootherschoolswhohaven’tlearnedcertainthingsthethree-year-oldswhogotoour
schoolhavelearned.Researchparticipant,2013
ThewayIseeit,fiveyearsfromnow,ifeveryoneinthecommunityputstheirheads
together,wework,wecollaboratewithoneanother,itcanbecomeavillage.Inthe
sensethatthisareawillmakeanameforitselfandwillbeconsideredamodelarea.I
thinkwecouldhaveapark.Sincethisareaisnotneartheocean,therecouldbea
swimmingpool...Asupermarketwherepeoplecanbuyeverythingtheyneed,they
won’thavetogodowntownfortheirgoods;asoccerfieldforthemtoplay,adance
clubwherepeoplecangetentertainmentandgetridoftheirstress.Then,Ithinkthere
willbechurches,theschool,alllevels–pre-school,elementary,secondary,college.Researchparticipant,2013
138
SocialChangeDynamicsThereareanumberofthemesaswellascommunitydevelopmentandsocialchangedynamics
thatwererevealedfromtheparticipatorymethods,andwhicharelistedinTable4.3.Some
themesareintegratedintothecommunitycorestoryabove;otherrecurringthemesfrom
dialoguecirclesincluded:post-earthquakehousingchallenges,multipleandconflictingviewson
religionandspirituality,folkloretraditions,andthechallengesassociatedwithdeathofloved
onesandfuneralrites.Intermsofsocialchangedynamics,thefollowingthreedimensions
camethroughstronglyindatainterpretation(andarehighlightedinboldinTable4.3).
1. Peopletendtovaluecommunityoutcomesoverindividualwellbeinganddespite
challengesofeverydaysurvival,peopletakealongviewandhopeforabetterfuturefor
theirchildren.Theyhavegreataspirationsforcommunitychange,eventhoughpeoplehave
seriouseconomicstruggles,andmanysufferfrommalnutrition.
You’llfindsomepeoplewhocanaffordcoffeeinthemorning,andothers,evenamong
ushere,whocan’t.Researchparticipant,2013
Participantsareproudtovaluecommunityandcollaborationoverindividualgain.Some
participantsexpressedthattheyfelttheircommunityhadbeen‘chosen’byGodforthe
schoolandotherdevelopmentprojectsunderway,andtheyshareanewsenseofpride
andhopeforcommunitychange.Theyareencouragedaswelltohaveforeignvisitorsto
theirarea,astheyclaimthatno‘blan’(whitepeople)hadvisitedregularlyinthepast.
Iwouldliketoseeallofuslivelikebrothersandsisters;forinstance,ifIhavean
opportunityormoney,Isharewithothersortheotheroneshareswithme.OrifIhad
50gourdes,andthatladyneeded25gourdesandsheaskedmetolendher25gourdes,
Iwouldlikeforustoremainfriends….Tomorrow,ifsheneeds25gourdesagain,she
willhaveit.It’scalledcollaboration.Youneedmetoday,Ihelpyou;tomorrowIneed
you,youhelpme,youneedme,youhelpme.Weneedoneanother.Research
participant,2013
139
2. Participantsfeelthattheirvoiceshavebeenheardincommunitydevelopmentprocesses
andthattheyhavecontributedtoshapingdevelopmentdecisions.Thissenseofagency
seemedtobeempoweringtopeople,andtheyunanimouslyexpressedthattheyfeltthat
theiropinionscountedandtheywerewelcomeatthetablebyHaitiPartnersregarding
communitydevelopmentprojects,andthatdecision-makingprocesseswereopenand
transparent.Alsonoteworthy,HaitiPartnersreceivedthehighestratingspossiblefrom
participantsintheactormappingprocessforbothitsimportancetothecommunityand
effectivenessinitswork.
Everytime[HaitiPartners]isdoinganactivity,theyalwaysinviteussowecan
brainstormtogetheranddeterminewhatisgoodforthecommunity.Research
participant,2013
3. Participantsdonotexpectthestatewilleveractintheirinterests.Thestateof
state/societyrelationsislamentable.Peopledonotrelyonthestateforeventhemost
basicneedsofcleanwater,sanitation,andhousing,norforservicesofpoliceprotection,
health,education,roadrepairs,orelectricity.Appallingly,manypeopleexpectthestateto
beviolent.PerhapsbecauseHaitianshavenohistoryorexperiencewithatruesocial
contract(Tippenhauer,2010),andthestatehasbeenreferredtoas‘predatory’(Fatton,
2002;Locher,1990)peopledonotexpectthatthestatecouldbeaforceforgood.
Participantsexpressedthat,forthem,positivechangewillonlycomeaboutthroughtheir
workingcollaborativelyandmoreeffectively,includingwithinternationalorganizations.
Oneparticipantdescribedarecentencounterwithalocalgovernmentworker.
Onmywaytomymarketstalltheotherday,Istoppedonthesideoftheroadtosell
someonesometomatoes,andapersonfromCitygovernmenthitmeonthearmwitha
stick!It’sforbiddennowtosellinthestreet.Researchparticipant,2013
Iquestionedwhetherpeopleshouldbeabletoexpectgovernmentstoupholdhumanrights
ortoprovideservices.
140
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141
Whatwewouldlikefromgovernment–toprovidefood,toprovidepeace,toprovide
jobs.Researchparticipant,2013
Aslongasyouhaveapopulation,theyhavesecurity,theycaneat,thepeoplefeelthey
haveagoodPresident.Nowtheydon’tfeelanyPresidenttriedtoworktobringdown
thecostofliving.TheytaketheirmoneyandhideitinSwissbanks;theywon’tbe
staying[hereinHaiti],andtheyhaveaplacetogo.Theydon’tworktowardbringing
downthehighcostofliving.Researchparticipant,2013Idon’tknowiftherewillcomeagovernmentthatwillrespecthumanrights,butIdon’t
thinktherewilleverbeagovernmenttorespecthumanrightsinHaitisince1986.
Researchparticipant,2013 Iintroducedthenotionofthe‘righttohumanflourishing’asinFriedmann(2000).
Ithinkit’saniceideabutIdon’tknowaboutthosegovernments;ifit’supto
governments,wewillneverflourish.Askthegovernmenthowmanypeoplearelivingin
Haiti,theywillnotbeabletotellyou.Thestateissupposedtoknowhowmuch
electricity,howmuchmoneyisspentonfood,water,they’reverystrictaboutthat
elsewhere,butthegovernmentsheredon’tknowanythingaboutyou.Research
participant,2013
ItistruethatvastnumbersofHaitiansare‘invisibletothelegalsystem’,meaningthatthey
donotpossessofficialdocumentation,suchasabirthcertificateoridentitycard,letalonea
bankaccount.Thisrepresentsyetonesymptomoftheimmensechallengeofstate/society
relationsinHaiti.
Thissetoffindingsonstate/societyrelationsofwhichwehaveonlybeguntoscratchthe
surface,hasimportantimplicationsforstructureandpolicy,ananalysisofwhichisoutsidethe
scopeofthisarticle.Furtheranalysisofstructure/agencydynamicsinthiscaseisprovidedin
Engle(2015),andrecentworksthatexploreindepththetopicoftheroleofthestateinHaiti
areFatton(2014and2016),andSinghandBarton-Dock(2015).
142
IssuesAhead
Aqualitativelongitudinalresearchsensibilitygivescloseconsiderationtotemporalaspectsof
research,andatransformativetheorylensentailsanalyzinginteractionsoftheagencyofpeople
withrespecttobroaderstructuresandinstitutions,aswellasfavouringparticipatorymethods
withpotentialtocontributetocriticalconsciousnessanddirectaction.Followingaresomeof
thequestionsthatsuchaperspectivebegsregardingfutureresearchatthelevelof:1)thecase
community;2)Haiti;and3)otherpost-disasterandouter-peripherycontexts;aswellas4)the
potentialforchangeaffordedthroughthepracticeofparticipatorymethods.
• Whatwillthiscommunitylooklikeinfivetotenyearsandhowcan/willlocalpeopleand
participatoryprocessesshapeitsevolution?
• Whatagencydopeoplehavetoimprovestate/societyrelationsandmajorsystemicandstructuralchallengesinHaiti?
• WhatlearningfromthisparticularcommunityisinstructiveforothercommunitiesinHaitias
wellasforHaitiangovernmentandinternationalagenciestoinformcommunitydevelopmentpolicies,practicesandfundingmechanisms?
• Howcanthisresearchbenefitthiscommunity,Haiti,andotherpost-disasterorouter-
peripherycountries?• Howtoexpose,aswellascontributeto,socialchangeandbettercommunitydevelopment
outcomesthroughparticipatoryresearch?4.3Learningaboutthemethods:strengthsandshortcomingsencounteredInparticipatorymethodologies,anaimisnotonlytocollectdataandconductanalysisto
generateresults,suchasthethemesandcommunitycorestoryinthelastsection,but
importantlytocontributetochangethroughtheprocessofcarryingoutthemethods.Inow
turntowhatwehavelearnedinthatprocessaboutthemethodsthemselves.Wedraw
attentionheretostrengthsandshortcomingsofeachparticipatorymethodandthenreflect
143
morebroadlyonbenefitsanddrawbacksofmixingmethods.Table4.4providesasummaryof
thestrengthsandshortcomingsofthemethods;adiscussionofasubsetofthepointsfollows.
Withparticipatoryphotography,wehadthebenefitoftestingandlearninginafirstphaseof
fieldwork,beforeredesigningandimplementinganimprovedversiononeyearlater.We
learnedinphaseonethattheuseofcamerasandphototakinginHaitihasspecialmeaning.
ManyHaitiansareaccustomedtobeing‘subjects’ofphotosbyoutsiders,butmostrarelyhave
anopportunitytoholdcamerasthemselvestotaketheirownphotosofwhattheychoose.
PhotosofthemselvesandlovedonesarecherishedbyHaitians,butaretooexpensiveformost
peopletoafford.Wealsofoundthatphotosenabledpeopletoseethemselves,theirlives,and
theirworkdifferently.Oneparticipantremarkedthatthewoodenchairshehadmadewere
evenmorebeautifulinphotographs,andthatseeingtheminthiswayledhimtolookathis
workdifferentlyandtakemoreprideinhiscraft.Intermsofouradaptivelearningaboutthe
methodbetweenphases,participantsexpressedinphaseonethattheywouldhaveappreciated
using‘real’camerasinsteadofthe‘toy’(disposable)camerasprovided.Inphasetwo,weused
digitalcamerasandprovidedprofessionalphotographytraining,whichsubstantiallyimproved
theexperienceforparticipantsaswellasthequalityofdatacollectionandresearch.
Twoofthemainstrengthsofparticipatoryphotographywere1)thephotographsthemselves
providevisualdocumentationofcommunitylifefromparticipants’perspectives;and2)the
photographsprovideameansforelicitingdialogueasparticipantsareinvitedtodiscusswhy
theytookphotographsandwhattheymeantothem.Thiscreatesspaceandopportunityfor
deeperdiscussionontopicsandacriticalanalysisofcommunitydevelopmentunderwayaswell
aslargerissuesofunintendedconsequencesofcommunitydevelopmentefforts.Themain
themesthatemergedthroughdialoguecirclesarelistedinTable4.3.
Thethreetypesofparticipatorymappingwerequitedistinctandhaddifferentstrengthsand
weaknesses.Themethodsmighthaveprovidedmorelocally-usefuldatawithhighertechnology
144
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toolssuchasgeographicinformationsystems,particularlyforplacemapping.Theactor
mappingmighthaveproducedslightlydifferentresultsifthethirtylocalorganizationshadbeen
analyzedforimportanceandeffectivenessbyindividualsorsmallgroups,ratherthan
collectivelyasagroupof12participants.Ontheupside,theactormappingexerciseproduceda
comprehensivelistofallagenciesandorganizationswhoseworkaffectsthecommunity,which
providednewknowledgetomanymembersofthegroup.Participants’collectiveanalysisofthe
actorsservedasawaytoexposekeyissues,notablythegravelackoflocalpublicservicesand
lamentablestate/societyrelations,whichweresubsequentlyfurtherexploredindialoguecircles.
Withrespecttothebenefitsofmixingmethods,havingaflexibleapproachandrepertoireof
methodsavailableinthe‘toolbox’enabledustoadjustaccordingtowhatwashappeninginthe
field.Ifanimportanttopiccameupthatwefeltwarrantedfurtherexploration,orweneededto
allowdifferentperspectivesfromthesamerespondentstoprovidewindowsintocommunity
socialrelationsandpowerdynamics,wecouldbringoutanothertool.Thistriangulationofboth
methodsandanalysisforexploringthesamethemesfromadifferentperspectivewasalsoan
importantmechanismforvalidatingdata.Andnotleast,theimportanceofthorough
preparationsandorganizationwithadetailedplanandscheduleforallresearchactivities,
protocols,andmaterialsshouldnotbeunderstated(asinTable4.2).Thepointistobeflexible
tochangetheplanasneededbasedonfieldlearning.
Intermsoftimespentinthefield,designingmultiplephasesoffieldworkwithperiodsoftime
inbetweenforreflectingonfindingsandmodifyingresearchdesignwasawaytobuildin
adaptivelearning.Thiswashugelybeneficial,notonlyforimprovingthequalityoftheresearch
design,butalsoforstrengtheningrelationshipswithparticipantsandbuildingtrust,which
contributedtoimprovedresearchresults.
Hearingandsharingstorieswasakeystrengthofthemethods.Asisusualinparticipatory
methodologies,Iputemphasisonstoryandnarrativeanalysistolearnfromlocalknowledge.
Whystory?Young(1995)arguesthatstoryisparticularlyhelpfulincross-culturalsettings
146
wheretheresearchistryingtogainunderstandingofparticipants’waysofseeingandsituated
knowledges.Sandercock(1998)claimsthatourattentiontopeoples’storiescanbe
empowering,byvalidatingandrespectingpeoples’localknowledgeandmovingforwardto
enableacontextofmutuallearning.Storycanhavethepowertocommunicatewaysof
knowingthatareespeciallyappropriateinparticularculturalsettings,suchasthosewith
predominantlyoraltraditions(Sandercock,2003a).Oneofthemostimportantwaysofacquiring
knowledgeinHaitihastraditionallybeenthroughstoriesandstorytelling.Patton(2002)claims
thatnarrativeanalysiscanprovidewindowsintoculturalandsocialmeaningsbyaddressingtwo
foundationalquestions:Whatdoesthisstoryrevealaboutthepersonandworldfromwhichit
came?Howcanthisnarrativebeinterpretedsothatitprovidesanunderstandingofand
illuminatesthelifeandculturethatcreatedit?AccordingtoFlyvbjerg(2001),thereisaforward-
lookingreasontostudystories.Heclaimsthatnotonlyisnarrativeourmostbasicformfor
makingsenseofourexperiencesalreadylived,butalsothatnarrativescanprovideaforward
glance,andhelpustoanticipatesituationsbeforetheyareencountered,andenableusto
envisionalternativefutures.Usingstoryandnarrativeinqualitativeresearchisnowwell
establishedinthefieldsofplanningandhumangeography(forexample,seeBerg,1998;Birdet
al.,2009;Crang,2005;Creswell,2007;Eckstein,2003;Patton,2002;Sandercock,2003b;
SandercockandAttili,2012;Throgmorton,2003;andWilesetal.,2005).
Myexperiencewithparticipantswasthatframingthisresearchprojectas‘story’washelpful,
becausestorytellingtendstocutacrossculturesandclassdistinctions.Describingaresearch
aimas‘thehearingandunderstandingofyourandyourcommunities’stories,andlearning
effectivewaystoretellthosestories’,wasmorecomprehensible,ethicallyandculturally
appropriate,andfactualthansayingexplicitlyorimplicitly,‘Iamheretostudy(orteach)you.’
Alongwiththepoweroflisteningtoparticipants’storiescomesrisks.Forexample,promisingto
sharecommunitystorieswiththe‘outside’worldcanraiseexpectationsforwhatmighthappen
asaresultoftheresearch.Otherrisksandethicalissuesarewoventhroughouttheresearch
designandfieldwork.Inordertobecontinuallyreflexiveaboutethicalissuesaswellasthe
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effectsofourpresenceinthefield,IdebriefedwithHaitianresearchcollaboratorsattheendof
eachdayinthefield,andwecollectivelyanalyzedexperiencesanddiscussedtogether
adjustmentsthatmightbemadethefollowingday–whethermodifyingthemethodsor
exploringtopicsfurtherindialoguecirclesorinterviews.
4.4Conclusion
Participatoryresearchrecognizesthatpeoplehavetheirowncommunitybased,local
knowledgesystemsthatresearchershavenotwellorfullytapped.Wehaveseenthatengaging
participatorymethodsinHaiti’spost-disastercontextenabledhearingfromtheleastheardand
elicitinglocalknowledge,providingawindowintodynamicsofcommunitydevelopmentand
socialchange,whichistypicallyopaquetooutsiders.Byinvitingresearchparticipants’active
engagementthroughphotography,dialoguecircles,mapping,communitywalks,video,and
variousinterviewtypes,wefacilitatedself-expression,sociallearning,andsharingofstories,
views,ideas,hopes,aspirations,andfears.Themethodsthemselvesprovidedpossibilitiesfor
change,beyondthedatathattheyrevealed.
Participatoryphotographyandparticipatorymappingexposeda‘communitycorestory’and
severalrecurringthemes:1)Participantstendtovaluecommunityoverindividualwellbeing,
anddespitestruggleswitheverydaysurvival,peopletakealongviewandhopeforabetter
futurefortheirchildren;2)Peoplefeelthattheirvoiceshavebeenheardandthattheyhave
contributedtoshapingcommunitydevelopmentdecisions;and3)Peopledonotexpectthe
statetoactintheirinterests.Wehaveseenadarksideofstate/societyrelationsexposed
throughparticipatoryresearch,inacommunitythatfacesmultiplepressuresofcopingina
disasteraftermathinconditionsofextremedeprivationandavirtualabsenceofthestate.
Thesemethodshaveaffordeduswaysofthinkingandcollaborativetools,notablyFreirian
criticalconsciousnessanddialoguecircles,toilluminatepossibilityregardingthekindofchange
thatisnecessaryifHaitiistoalteritsdevelopmenttrajectory.Giventhatparticipatorypractices
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arereinforcedinongoingdevelopmentinthiscasecommunitybylocalorganizations,primarily
HaitiPartners,andweplantorevisitthecommunityovertheyears,wecanstudythenature
andextentofsocialchangeovertimeinparticipanthouseholds,aswellasthebroaderimpacts
ofcommunitydevelopmentprojects.
Bydesigningcontext-specificparticipatorymethodswithanunderlyingQLR(qualitative
longitudinalresearch)sensibility,wewereabletomakevisiblesomeemergingchallengesand
dynamicsofsocialchange.Aflexible,iterativeresearchdesignentailedmakingdaily
adjustmentsinthefieldwhenneededbasedoncircumstancesortorevisitimportantquestions.
Also,bytestingparticipatorymethodsinafirstphase,wecouldadaptivelylearn,redesignthe
researchandmodifymethodsforamorein-depthphaseoffieldworkthefollowingyear.
Thecombinationofresearchfindings,experiencesinthefield,andrelationshipswithresearch
participantsandcollaboratorsprovidesasolidspringboardforcontinuingtolearnfrompeople’s
livedexperiencesovertime.Anaimistoexposedynamicsofsocialchangeovertheyearsthat
willtrackconditions,perceptions,andoutcomesofparticipants,theirfamiliesandlocal
communities.Wehopetocontributetoimprovedcommunitydevelopmentpolicy,research,
andpracticeinHaitiandbroaderstructuraltransformationwherecitizens’voicesareheardand
communitiesareempoweredtorealizetheiraspirationsforchange.
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Figure4.1:AddendumtoChapter4,ParticipatoryMethodsPaperTwelvelocalresidentsofBellevue-La-Montagnetookpartinthisparticipatoryresearchproject.Eachparticipantispicturedinthefollowingpagesalongwithoneillustrativephotographthats/hetooktorepresentsomeaspectornarrativeofdailylifeoranaspirationforchange.Participants’photosprovidedatoolforincitingdialogueontopicsrelatedtocommunitydevelopment.Theresearchaimwastoaddressthefollowingquestionsofphronesisresearchfromtheperspectivesoflocalpeoplethroughtheparticipatoryresearchprocess.
1. OfwhatstoriesdoI(we)findmyself(ourselves)apart?
2. Wherearewegoing(asacommunity)?Isitdesirable?
3. Whowinsandwholosesandbywhichmechanismsofpower?
4. Whatdowewanttodo?Whatshouldbedone?
AllphotographsweretakeninJuly2013,andparticipants’agesindicatedareasofthatdate.ThestudywasdesignedwithQualitativeLongitudinalResearch(QLR)inmind,asweintendtofollowovertimetheoutcomesoftheseresidentsandtheirhouseholdsandfamilies.
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CindyJosef
ThekitchenatCindy’shome.Cookingoverawoodcharcoalfireis
typicalinHaiti
CindyJosef,23yearsold,hangingoutonatreealongtheroad,paintedwithHaitiancolours.
151
FrancesseAntoine
AnativeflamboyanttreewhichFrancessepassesonherwalkhomefromschool.Sheisengagedasavolunteerin
environmentalandreforestationwork.
FrancesseAntoine,28yearsold,seenhereleadingatourofthe
ADECAschoolwheresheisateacher.
152
GuerlineErnest
Guerline’s‘dreamhome’.Thisisoneofonlyseveralnewhomesthatwerebuiltintheareatoreplacedestroyedhomesfollowingtheearthquake.Funds
wereprovidedthroughalocalNGO.
GuerlineErnest,27yearsold,inherhomemadeofplastictarpswithwoodbranchestoprovide
structure.Twoofhersonslivewithherinthisone
roomshelter.
153
JacquelineSt-Vaudré
Jacqueline’sdaughteratthecommunitywatersource.Thesefaucetsarethedrinking,cookingandwashingsourceforresidents.Whenitisnotworking,residentswalkanextramileorsotothenextsource.Thesignonthetreereads
‘Landforsale’withatelephonenumber.
JacquelineSt-Vaudré,47yearsold,inhertwo-roomhome.Oneofher
kidshidesatthedoorway.
154
JacquesLucet
Jacques’homeandkitten.Hishousewasdestroyedintheearthquakeandhisfamilynowlivesinthistemporaryshelterofmetalandplasticbuiltonthefoundationoftheoriginalhouse.HeisadevoutChristianandwantstolettheworldknowsowrotehismessage‘IloveyouJesus’inEnglish.
JacquesLucet,31years
old,poseswithhismotherfollowinga‘Photo
Dialogue’sessionandcommunitywalk.
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Marie-AngeMeristyl
Marie-Ange’ssonandnieces,picturednexttohertemporarymetalhome;herfamilyjokinglyrefers
toitasthe‘albatross’.Herhomemadeofconcreteandstonecollapsedintheearthquake.
Marie-AngeMeristyl,32yearsold,poseswithherparticipatoryphotography
cameraintheschool.
156
MesilusBien-Aimé
Mesilusstageshisowndeathforthecamera.Inthebackgroundishishomethatwasdestroyedintheearthquake.Hisfamilyisseparatedstayingwith
friendsuntilhecanrebuildhisownhome.
MesilusBien-Aimé,49
yearsold,nexttoacoffinhebuilt.Heisawoodworkerandfurnituremaker.
157
PatricksonBien-Aimé
Patrickson’sfriendposeswithadonkeyinfrontofthegagè,orcockfightpit.
PatricksonBien-Aimé,17yearsold,enjoyingtunesonhismobilephone.
158
ProphèteAntoine
Thelocalmambo(vodoupriestess)infrontofthecommunityvodoutemple,agatheringplaceforhealing,ritualsand
entertainment.Likethecockfightpit,theroleofthevodoutempleinthecommunityiscontroversialamongparticipants.
ProphèteAntoine,47yearsold,withhisdaughterandnewgranddaughter.
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SherlyneBien-Aimé
Motorcyclesandfour-wheel-drivevehiclesarethesolemodesofmotorizedtransportwhichcanreachtheschoolcommunity.MotorcyclesareincreasinglyusedinHaitiaspublictransport.
SherlyneBien-Aimé,25yearsold,withhertwo
daughters.
160
TalamasJean
Talamas’daughtersweepsuptheareaoutsideherhome.
TalamasJean,47yearsold,onawalkwiththeauthortovisithishomeforaninterview.Heisalocal
governmentrepresentativeofthearea.
161
YolandeBien-Aimé
Yolande’smother,nowdeaf,inherkitchen.Yolandebegangoingtomarketeverydaywithhermotherwhenshewasthreeyears
oldandneverhadtheopportunitytogotoschool.
YolandeBien-Aimé,45yearsold,walkinghomefrommarketwithproducetoresell.Thevisittothemarketwasoneoftheparticipatoryresearchactivitiesofthegroup.
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ParticipatoryresearchgroupphotosinJuly2013:1)onthefirstphotographytrainingday;and2)thefinal
daytogivecertificates,invitefamilymemberstoviewtheparticipantphotoexhibit,andto
celebrate!
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PrefacetoChapter5:CommunityGovernancePaper
ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:Creatingcollaborativedialogueina‘communityofdesperation’
Thischapter’stopicisthecollaboratively-designedcommunitygovernanceprocessatHabitat
SantoVillage,whichisthesecondarycasestudyofthisthesis.HabitatSantoVillagewasbuiltby
HabitatforHumanityHaitionthesiteofatentcampattheepicentreofthe2010earthquake.
Acollaborativedialogueprocess,called‘GoodNeighbour’,wascarriedoutatHabitatSanto
Villageoverthecourseofsixmonthswiththeaimofdesigningalocalgovernanceprocessand
structurethatwouldprovideforcommunitysustainabilitywhenHabitatforHumanitywasno
longeronsite.Withco-authorsLisaBornsteinandGonzaloLizarralde,Ianalyzedtheprocess
throughthelensofcollaborativerationalitytheorybasedbothonparticipantperceptionsand
expectedcontributionstothecommunityovertime.Findingsrevealthatthiscommunity-
orientedapproachofparticipatoryandadaptivegovernancebuildsonsocialresilienceinHaiti
andinstitutionalizesengagementoflocalgovernmentwithcommunitygroupsandNGOs.
Theseresultscontributetoabetterunderstandingofcommunitygovernance,collaborative
approachesduringpost-disasterreconstruction,andnarrativeresearchthatvalueslocalvoices.
…Collaborativeprocessescanleadtochangesinthelargersystemthathelpmakeourinstitutionsmoreeffectiveandadaptiveandmakethesystemitselfmoreresilient.Theseprocessesdonotjustproduceimmediateoutcomeslikeagreementsandjointactivities,butparticipants’experienceswiththemoftenleadthemtoextendcollaborationtoothercontexts.Participantslearnmoredeeplyaboutissuesandotherinterestswhichtheytransfertotheirorganizations.Theydevelopnewskills.Theybuildnewnetworksthattheyusetogetnewsortsofthingsdonethattheycouldnothaveotherwiseconsidered.Astheyextendtheirambitionsandactivities,theydiscoverthatthenormsandstructuresoftraditionalgovernmentconstrainadaptationandimpederesilienceinresponsetostresses. JudithInnesandDavidBooher(2010:10)
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Chapter5:ParticipatoryGovernanceinPost-earthquakeHaiti:
Creatingcollaborativedialogueina‘communityofdesperation’5.1IntroductionOn January 12, 2010 in Léogâne, Haiti, Marie Veronila Antoine was at home with her three
children.At4:53pma7.0earthquakeviolentlyshookthehouse,andasitcollapsed,sheandher
childrenmanagedtoescape.Herhusbandperishedwhenanearbybuildingcollapsed.Mariehad
notimetogrieve;shefacedstrugglesofdailysurvival.Shelosther incomefromteachingata
schoolthatwasnowgone.Sheimprovisedatent‘home’forherfamilyonlandinnearbySanto.
Marie coiuld no longer afford to sendher children to school, and the youngestwas sick from
conditionsoflifeinthetent.Mostofthefamily’smaterialpossessionswerestolen.Itwouldnot
beuntiltwoyearsaftertheearthquakethatMariewouldfinallyhaveahouseinHabitatSanto
Village.1
InHaiti’s2010earthquake,morethan200,000peoplelosttheirlivesandanestimated1.5
millionpeoplelosttheirhomes.Adevastatedlandscape,widespreadpoverty,andafragilestate
arebutsomeoftheproblemsthatcomplicaterecovery.Threeyearslater,mostsubstantial
reconstructioneffortshavestalledpriortoimplementation.Equallytroubling,ofthepost-
disasterhousingprojectsthathavebeenimplemented,fewaddressgovernanceina
comprehensiveormid-tolong-termmanner.AnotableexceptionisHabitatSantoVillage,a
reconstructionprojectthatexceedsthescale–and,seemingly,thesuccess–ofmostefforts.
ThispaperinvestigatestheHabitatSantoVillage(orSanto)inlightoftherelationshipsbetween
effortstobuildthesettlementandmechanismsformaintainingappropriatelivingconditionsfor
residentsovertime.Qualitativedatafrominterviews,observations,andlocalproject
documentationsupporttheanalysis.Threeaspectsofourresearchareemphasizedinthispaper.
First,thedataongovernanceisanalysedinlightofInnesandBooher’s(2010)collaborative
rationalitytheory;thecriteriaofanalysisinclude:diversityandinterdependenceofactors,
1InterviewwithMarieVeronilaAntoine,HabitatSantoVillageresident,July,2012.
165
authenticdialogueandcollectivelearning,andsystemadaptationsassociatedwithshared
identities,meanings,andheuristics.Second,weexplorehowprojectsthatfocusonlocal
governancecontribute,ornot,towidereffortstobuildstatecapacity,anessentialneedinHaiti,
wherethestateisoftenviewedaslackinglegitimacyandeffectiveness.Wecloselydocument
theiterativeprocessesofcreatingagovernancesysteminthenear-absenceofastate.Our
researchprovidessupporttoassertionsintheliteraturethatspecificgovernanceelementscan
contributetoenhancedadaptivecapacityandsocialresilienceinthecontextofHaiti,where
community-levelgovernancecontributessubstantiallytoreconstructioneffortsandtowider
governanceprocesses.Third,attheendofthepaper,wereflectonmethodsappropriatetothe
topicsunderstudy,arguingthatthenarrativesofparticipantsinthegovernanceprojectprovide
invaluableinsightsintoitsfunctioning,associatedlearningandthegradualenhancementof
governancecapacity.
5.2AnalyticalFrameworkHaiti,intheaftermathofthe2010earthquake,facesaset‘wicked’problemsthatincludea
dysfunctionalstatewithinstitutionsthatneitherservepeople’sneedsnorfitthepostdisaster
context;veryfragilesocial,political,andenvironmentalcircumstances;andanoveralllackof
consensusregardinggoals,prioritiesandhowtoaddressthesecomplexproblems.Most
housingprojectsdevelopedafterthedisasterhavefailedtorecognizetheimportanceof
developinglonglastingstructuresandmechanismsofgovernancethatcanmakethem
sustainableinthelongrun(Aquilino,2013).However,giventherecognizedandproven
strengthsofHaitiansociety,isitpossiblefornewformsofcollaborationtodevelopwherethe
resilientsocietalinstitutionscanbeharnessedtocontributetochange?LaurentDubois(2012)
contendsthatcollaborationamongstcomplexsocietalinstitutionsisneededforHaitian
rebuildingtosucceed.2Inlinewiththatobservation,wesoughtananalyticalframeworkfor
2 Dubois (2012: 12) argues that successful reconstruction depends on collaboration with social institutions:“Despiteitsmassivepovertyanditsalmosttotal lackofafunctioninggovernment,[Haiti] isnotaplaceofchaos.LifeinHaitiisnotorganizedbythestate…Butitdoesdrawonasetofcomplexandresilientsocialinstitutionsthathaveemergedfromahistoriccommitmenttoself-sufficiencyandself-reliance.Anditisonlythroughcollaborationwiththoseinstitutionsthatreconstructioncantrulysucceed.”
166
assessingtheprocessesandmechanismsforcollaborationamongcommunitygroups,local
governments,andinternationalorganizations.
Moreover,Santocanbecharacterizedasa‘communityofdesperation’.Intheimmediate
aftermathoftheearthquake,peopleatSantowere‘throwntogether,findingthemselvesin
geographicalproximityandeconomicinterdependence,whichmeansthattheactivitiesand
pursuitsofsomeaffecttheabilityofotherstoconducttheiractivities’(Young,1995:141-142).
Forsucha‘polity’tooperateasafunctionaldemocracywithgoodcommunication,Young
arguesthata‘minimalunity’ofthreeconditionsisneeded:‘significantinterdependence,
formallyequalrespect,andagreementonprocedures’(1995:142).WealsodrewonHealey’s
callforattentionto‘thepotential,intheevolutionofnewcollaborativeforms,towidenthe
rangeofvoicesandvalueswhichgettoshapegovernanceagendas’(2006:323).Consistent
withHealey’sclaimthat‘therearenostandardanswerstothespecificationofthesystemic
institutionaldesignofgovernancesystemsforinclusionaryparticipatorydemocraticpractice’
(2006:294),wesoughtaframeworkthat,ratherthancomparingthedesignofthegovernance
systemagainstaprescribedmodel,allowedassessmentofhoweffectivelythegovernance
approachfacilitatedcontext-specificcollaboration.
Theseaimsledtoadoptionofcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010:1)approaches,
whichcallfor‘thinkingdifferentlyforanageofcomplexity’inordertoaddresswickedproblems
associatedwithurbangovernance.Thetheoryofcollaborativerationalityisemergingasan
alternativetoinstrumentalrationalitythathasdominatedplanningthoughtandpractice(cf.
North,1990).3InnesandBooher(2010)buildanargumentaboutthevalueofcollaborative
decisionmakingprocessesbasedoncollaborativedialogues.Thelogicofthisargumentconsists
ofthreeparts,foreachofwhichexamplesareprovidedlater.First,some,butnotall,
collaborativeprocessesarecollaborativelyrational;thosethatareinthelattercategoryare
characterizedbyadiversityofinterests,aninterdependenceofinterests,andauthenticdialogue3CollaborativerationalityisgroundedintheworkofJürgenHabermas(1981)andcommunicativerationality,andinlessonsfrompractitionersinvolvedinmultiplestakeholderandcross-sectoralcollaborativegovernanceprocesses.Forexample,Hollander(2011)examinesrecentweb-basedtechnologiesforurbanplanninginlightofcollaborativerationality.
167
(seeFigure5.1).Second,processesofcollaborativerationalityofferindividualandcollective
learningopportunitiesthathavethepotentialtostrengthenacommunity’sadaptivecapacity
andresilience.Third,theseprocessesmayproducesystemicchangesthatleadtoinstitutions
beingmoreadaptiveandeffective.
InnesandBooher(2010)suggestthatcollaborativerationalitybringsaboutfourresults:1)
participantsdiscoverthereciprocalnatureoftheirinterests;2)participantsdevelopnew
relationshipsthatengendertrust;3)bothsingleanddoublelooplearningoccur;and4)asa
resultofthisindividualandcollectivelearning,‘secondandthirdordereffects’or‘adaptations’
occur.Adaptationsoftentaketheformofdevelopingsharedidentities,sharedmeanings,new
heuristics,andinnovativepracticesandmechanismsforgovernance.
Figure5.1:DIADTheory(Diversity,Interdependence,andAuthenticDialogue)NetworkDynamics
Source:Innes&Booher(2010:35) Thegovernanceprocessesunderstudyarethosethatarelikelytoleadtotransformationof
existingpatternsofsocietalinteractionatthelocalscale,andtherebycontributetothe
functioningofpoliticalprocessesofterritorial,socialandeconomicmanagementinare-built
Haiti.Asdefinedintheliterature,thistypeofgovernanceistermedcommunitygovernance,
referringtopoliticalgovernanceofaterritory(usuallyfairlysmall)thatallowsforahighdegree
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ofdemocratizationbygivingcitizensparticipationrights,decisionmakingpower,andoften
directcontrolthroughinstitutionssuchascommunitycouncils(Somerville,2005).4Otherterms
usedinthewiderliteratureincludeparticipatorygovernanceandcollaborativegovernance,
usedinterchangeablywithcommunitygovernanceinthispaper,whichemphasizetherolesof
NGOs,communityorganisationsandgovernmentingovernance,drawingontheoriesofsocial
mobilization(Friedmann,1987;Friedmann,1992),inclusive,participatorygovernance(Healey
2006)andcollaborativegovernance(InnesandBooher,2010).Communitygovernancealso
includeselementsofwhatFungandWright(2003:5)refertoas‘empoweredparticipatory
governance,’meaningthatgovernancerelieson‘thecommitmentandcapacitiesofordinary
peopletomakesensibledecisionsthroughreasoneddeliberationand…attemptstotieactionto
discussion’.Adaptivegovernanceisadistinctprocess,oneinwhichformalandinformal
institutionsevolvetobetteruseandmanagesharedresourcesincollaborative,flexible,
learning-basedways(Ostrom,2005;InnesandBooher,2010).
5.3MethodologyAqualitativeresearchmethodologywasadoptedbecauseofitspotentialtoenable
understandingofcomplexitiesandrichnessofhumanexperiencewithinitsowncontext,andof
meaningsandprocessesthatprovidestructuretosocio-spatiallife(Herbert,2010).Our
methodsofdatacollectionduringfieldworkinJuly2012canbebroadlycategorizedas
interviews,observation,anddocumentstudy.Becausethegovernanceplanwascompletedand
thefirstVillageCouncilelectionsheldsubsequenttofieldvisits,wecontinueddatacollection
remotelythroughdocumentgatheringandfollow-upinterviewsbytelephoneandemail.The
followingparagraphssetouthowandwithwhomeachmethodwasemployed,followedbyour
approachtodataanalysis.ThreedifferentsetsofinterviewswereconductedinHaiti:with
NGOs,withresidents,andwithlocalgovernment.5Duringfieldwork,fourNGOinterviewswere
4Ourfocusisoncommunitygovernance,thestructuresofco-existenceinsharedspaceaimedatservinglong-termneeds,asopposedto‘projectgovernance,’whichreferstostructuresinplacetomanageaprojectduringdesignandbuildingphases.5AllinterviewswereconductedbyJayneEngle,withassistancefromAlexMyril.NGOandlocalgovernmentinterviewswereconductedinFrenchorEnglish,andresidentinterviewswereconductedinHaitianCreole.Fieldinterviewswereaudio-recordedandtheresidentinterviewswerevideorecorded.
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conductedwithstaffofHabitatforHumanity(‘HfH’)6andHaitiPartners(‘HP’)7.Twointerviews
wereconductedwithfemaleresidentsofSanto,andadiscussionwasheldwiththeMayorof
Léogâne.Theinterviewscouldbecharacterizedas‘semi-structured’withHabitatforHumanity
andHaitiPartnersrepresentatives;as‘open-ended’withSantoresidents;and‘unstandarized’
withthelocalmayor.8InformaldiscussionswerecarriedoutwithadditionalSantoresidents
andNGOstaffduringneighborhoodwalks.Observationandvisualdataconsistoffieldnotes,
photographs,andvideo.
Wecollectedplans,reportsandpromotionalmaterialfromthreeNGOsinvolvedwiththe
project:HabitatforHumanity,HaitiPartners,andArchitectureforHumanity(‘AfH’).AfHplayed
akeyroleinplanninganddesignofSantofromearlystagesoftheprojectin2010andprepared
amasterplan.9On-sitestaffsharedprojectdocuments,includingahouseholdsurveyand
beneficiaryselectioncriteria.HaitiPartnersprovidedaccesstoalldocumentationoftheGood
Neighborcommunitygovernanceproject,includingpedagogicalmaterialfortrainings,notes
fromparticipatoryanddialoguesessions,monthlyprojectreports,andtheHabitatSantoVillage
GovernancePlan,consistingoffoundingby-lawsofthegoverningbody,SIDDEVAS(‘Dedicated
citizensfortheDevelopmentofHabitatSantoVillage’)andtheGoodNeighborCodeofConduct.
Ouranalyticstrategyreliesontheoreticalpropositionsalongwithlearningfromnarratives(Yin,
2009:130).Afirstpropositionisthat,inspiteofgoodintentionsandmajoreffortsonthepart
of many organizations and aid bodies, it has been difficult to carry out substantial
reconstruction projects in Haiti following the 2010 earthquake, in part due to challenges of
governance(Bornstein,Lizarralde,Gould,andDavidson,2013).Second,ouranalyticstrategy
emphasizes learning from community narratives, as revealed in interviews, observations, and
documents.Wehaveheardfromresidentsthroughinterviewsanddiscussions,andparticularly
6HabitatforHumanityHaitiistheleadorganizationofconstructingHabitatSantoVillage.InterviewswereconductedwiththeHfHcountrydirectorandcommunityengagementstaffwhoworkonsite.Informaldiscussionsprovidedsupplementalinformation.7HaitiPartners,asmallerNGO,wascontractedbyHfHin2012tocarryoutdialoguetrainingandparticipatoryprocesseswithSantoresidents,andtoprepareacommunitygovernanceplan.8SeeBerg(1998)forinterviewdefinitions.9TheSantoVillagemasterplanmaybeaccessedat:openarchitecturenetwork.org.
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through their involvement in the Good Neighbor governance project. The theoretical
propositionbehindthisfocusonnarrativesisthatstorieshavethepowerto‘revealculturaland
socialpatternsthroughthelensofindividualexperiences’(Patton,2002:116)andto‘notonly
givemeaningfulformtoexperiencesalreadylived,butalsoprovideaforwardglance,helpingus
anticipate situations before we encounter them, allowing us to envision alternative futures’
(Flyvbjerg, 2001: 137). According to Young (1995) and Sandercock (1998) the use of story is
particularly appropriate in cross-cultural settings where the researcher is trying to gain
understandingofparticipants’waysofseeingandsituatedknowledges.
Weanalyzedthedatausingatwo-tieredapproachtocodingthefollowingsetsofdata:1)field
notesummaries;2)HaitiPartners’draftnarrativereportandtheSantoGovernancePlan;3)
notesfromthreeOpenSpacesessions;4)by-lawsforthenewly-establishedSantogoverning
body,SIDDEVAS;5)notesfromthefirstmeetingoftheSantoVillageCouncil;6)theGood
NeighborCodeofConduct;and7)interviewtranscripts10.
Ourdataanalysiscombinedthematiccodingwithnarrativeinterpretiveinquiry.Weused
thematiccodingasanorganizationandrigordevicetoanalyzedataaccordingtothe
collaborativerationalitytheoreticalframework,andalsoasabackupmethodfordrawingout
descriptivepartsofthedata.Thefirststepwasan‘initialcoding’involvingreadingtheeight
datasets,andmakingnotesofinitialimpressions,emergingpatterns,andidentifying‘patches’,
orquotationsthatcaptureimportantmeanings.Inthesecondstageofcodingwere-readall
dataandidentifiedwherethefollowingthemeswerepresent:generaldescriptivedata;theme
1:diversityofactorsandindependenceofactors;theme2:authenticdialogueandcollective
learning;andtheme3:systemadaptationsandsystemicchangesthroughsharedidentities,
meaningsandheuristics.Thethematicanalysisprovidesasystematicbasisforlookingacross
10InterviewswereconductedbyJayneEngle,withresearchassistanceandHaitianCreoletranslationbyAlexMyril.EightinterviewswithNGOsandresidentswereaudio-recorded,andseveralwerealsovideo-taped.ResidentinterviewswereconductedinHaitianCreole,thelocalgovernmentinterviewwasconductedinFrench,andNGOinterviewswereconductedinFrenchorEnglish,basedonthechoiceoftheinterviewee.Informaldiscussionswereconductedwithseveraladditionalresidents.SupplementaldocumentswerecollectedfromHaitiPartnersinNovember2012,andfollow-upinterviewswereconductedbyemailthroughDecember2012.
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thedatatointerpretivelyanalyzethenarrativesthatemerge.Findingsofthisinterpretive
analysisarediscussedinthenextsection.
5.4TheHousingProjectThirtykilometreswestofHaiti’scapitalPort-au-Prince,withintheLéogânecommune(county)
oftheOuestdepartment(region),isthedistrictofSanto(Figure5.2).Locatednearthe
epicentreofthe2010earthquake,Santo’svisibility,proximity,topography,andsecurityledtoa
largeparcelofitslandbecomingatentcampfollowingthedisaster.Inthemonthsafterthe
earthquakeHabitatforHumanity(HfH)wasgranted$3millionfromtheInter-American
DevelopmentBank’sMultilateralInvestmentFunds(IDB-MIF).Grantfundingwasdirected
towardsassistingearthquake-affectedfamiliesthroughincome-generatingtrainingand
constructionoftheirownhomes.Léogânewasthefocusoftheseeffortsasitwasunderstood
tobetheareamostaffectedbytheearthquake11.HfHestablishedtheHabitatResourceCenter
andcommunityengagementteamonaplotoflandcededbythegovernmentfortheprojectin
Februaryof2011.Theprioritywastoconstructhousingandrelatedamenitiesforthosemade
mostvulnerablebytheearthquake,whichbecametheselectioncriteriaforHfH’snewhomes.
Figure5.2:MapofLéogâne,Haitiand2010EarthquakeEpicentre
11InterviewwithClaudeJeudy,HaiticountrydirectorforHabitatforHumanity,July,2012.
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InpartnershipwithArchitectureforHumanity,HfHcarriedoutaparticipatoryprocessto
developamasterplanforwhatwouldbecomeHabitatSantoVillage.Developedin2011,the
planincluded:500homesforabout2,500residents,schools,acommunitymarketplace,
recreationalfacilities(e.g.,asportscenter,playgrounds,andpublicspaces),anddesignated
spaceforbothagriculturalplotsandecologicalcorridors.Thefirstbeneficiaryfamilieswere
trainedinfinancialliteracy,disasterriskreductionandbasicconstructionskillsinAugustof2011.
Inadditiontothesefamilies,570localcontractorsandworkersunderwenttraininginimproved
constructiontechniques.12Thefirst155familiesmovedintonewly-builtresidencesinFebruary
2012;homeshadastandardformat–detached,26squaremetersoffloorarea,builtwitha
timberframe,fibercementsidingforwalls,aconcretefloorandacorrugatedmetalroof.
Individualhouseholdlatrinesandsharedwaterserviceareprovidedinbackyards.(SeeFigure
5.3.)Noelectricalserviceisprovidedtohouses,howevertherearesolar-poweredlightslining
allvillagestreets.Followingmove-in,residentsquicklybegantodecorate,furnishand
landscapearoundtheirhomes(seeFigure5.4).
AsofMarch2013,300homeshadbeenconstructedatSanto.(Fundshadnotbeensecuredto
constructtheoriginallyplannedforadditional200homesortheplannedcommunityfacilities,
suchasschoolandcommunitycenter).Withthisproject,HabitatSantoVillageisthelargest
permanenthousingsettlementconstructedinLéogânesincetheearthquake.13Althoughthere
havebeensomeconcernsthathousesizesaretoosmall,thatlatrinesinitiallywerepoorly
designedforlocalusers,andthatthedesignofthesettlementconstrainsaccommodationof
extendedfamily,(withamodifiedgridformatthatdiffersfromtraditionalHaitianlakou
settlementforms),theprojectisseenas‘asymbolofnewfoundstabilityandpermanencefor
familiesstartinglifeanew’(ShelterCentre,2014).
12InterviewwithMimzDiño,communityengagementofficer,HabitatforHumanity,July,2012.13InterviewwithClaudeJeudy,July,2012.
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Figure5.3:OriginalSitePlanofHabitatSantoVillage(2011)
Source:ArchitectureforHumanity,HaitiRebuildingCenterFigure5.4:TypicalHousesandStreetscapeasBuilt(2012)
Source:JayneEngle
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5.5CommunityGovernanceinHabitatSantoVillageMarieVeronilaAntoinewasamongthefirstfamiliestomoveintoherSantohome;shedescribes
receivingthehousekeyasoneofthehappiestmomentsofherlife.Marieparticipatedinthe
GoodNeighborGovernanceProject.OnSeptember13,2012,shepresentedherselfasa
candidateofthenewHabitatSantoVillageCouncil,andshewasdemocraticallyelectedasits
firsttreasurer.
ThissectionsetsoutthebroadercontextforMarie’sevolvingstory:thebeginningsofHabitat
SantoVillageCouncil,andthestructureandprocessoftheGoodNeighborGovernanceProject.
HabitatforHumanityrecognizedtheneedtodevelopacommunitygovernanceprocessand
structure,giventhescaleandintensityoftheproblemofthousandsofpeoplelivingintentsor
T-shelters17,includingsitesimmediatelyadjacenttotheVillage,inadditiontoconflictsarising
amongVillageresidents.Santowasa‘communityofdesperation’wherepeoplecametogether
tosurvive,similartoothertentcampsandpost-disastersettlementswhichdonotorganically
evolve.HfHcontractedHaitiPartnersinApril2012,twomonthsafterthefirstresidentsmoved
in,tocarryoutacommunitygovernanceprogram,whichbecameknownas‘BonVwazen’in
HaitianCreole(‘GoodNeighbor’inEnglish).HaitiPartnersisahybridNGO-CSO
(nongovernmentalorganization-civilsocietyorganization)withsisterorganizationsbasedin
HaitiandintheUS.
Subjecttoanincreaseinscopeandbudgetthatpermitteduseoftwoofitscornerstone
dialogicalandparticipatorymethods--CirclesofChangeandOpenSpace--,HaitiPartnersagreed
totakeonthecommunitygovernanceproject18.InspiredbyPauloFreireandhisseminalwork,
PedagogyoftheOppressed(2011,original1970)theunderlyingprinciplesoftheGoodNeighbor
projectincluded:1)villageresidentsbeingtrainedtogethertodevelopcollaborationand
dialogueskills;2)trainingcontentinitiallycomprisingconceptualandvalue-basedmaterial;and17‘T-shelters’referstoTransitionalShelters,TemporaryShelters,transitionalhouses,consistingprimarilyoftent-likematerials.Manyhavenotwithstoodpost-earthquakehurricanes.18TheCirclesofChangemethodisbasedonReflectionCirclespracticesofTouchstones(touchstones.org).OpenSpace,knownofficiallyasOpenSpaceTechnology,referstoagroupfacilitationmethod(openspaceworld.com).
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3)thetrainingmaterialsevolvingoverthecourseofthesix-monthprojecttoreflectparticipants’
collaborativelearningandthespecificsofdesigningcontext-appropriateproceduresand
mechanismsforgoverningthevillage.Assuch,residentsthemselvesdesignedtheprinciplesand
practicesforagovernancesystem,withstafffromHaitiPartnersfacilitatingtheprocess.20
TheobjectivesandmilestonesfortheGoodNeighborprojectcanbeseeninTables5.1and5.2.
ThemainoutcomeoftheprojectistheGovernancePlan,consistingofthefoundingby-lawsof
thegoverningbody‘SIDDEVAS’(DedicatedCitizensfortheDevelopmentofHabitatSanto
Village)andaCodeofConduct(therulesandregulationsthatparticipantsdeveloped
collaboratively).Figure5.5depictsthecommunitygovernancebodiesandstructure.
Table5.1:GoodNeighborProjectObjectivesNurtureacommunitycultureofrespect,inclusion,transparency,andauthenticdialogue.
Developaleadershipstructure/decisionmakingbodyinSanto.
Carryoutactionplanning.Establishcommunitygovernancepolicies(rulesandregulations).
MobilizeagroupofleaderswhocanmonitorSanto.
Carryoutcommunityeducation.
Table5.2:GoodNeighborProjectKeyMilestonesDate MilestoneEventMay7,2012 GoodNeighbortrainingsoncommunicationanddialoguebegin
June25-29,2012OpenSpacesessionsontheme:‘What’sthelong-termdreamforSantoVillageandwhataretheimmediatechallengesthatneedtobeaddressedintheshort-term?’
September13,2012
Officialestablishmentbymorethan100residentsofthegoverningbody:‘DedicatedCitizensfortheDevelopmentofHabitatSantoVillage’(SIDDEVAS)anditssub-committees
FirstelectionsoftheVillageCouncil
AdoptionofCodeofConduct(rulesandregulations)developedbyparticipants
October15,2012 GraduationceremonyforGoodNeighbortrainingparticipants
October18,2012 FirstmeetingofVillageCounciltosetprioritiesandactionplanforfirsttwo-yearterm
20InterviewwithAbelardXavier,leadfacilitatoroftheGoodNeighborproject,HaitiPartners,July,2012.
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TheGoodNeighborprojectthroughacollaborativerationalitylens
Inordertoassessboththedynamicsoftheprojectanditspotentiallonger-termimpacts,Innes
andBooher’s(2010)collaborativerationalityDIADtheoryisemployedhere.TheGoodNeighbor
projectisanalysedinlightofthreeelementsofeffectivecommunitygovernancepreviously
noted:diversity,interdependence,andauthenticdialogue.
Diversityandinterdependence
Inordertoallowfor‘robustideastodevelopandforthesystemtobuildacapacitytoadapt
overtime,’adiversityofinterests,values,perspectives,skills,andtypesandsourcesof
knowledgeamongactorsmustbeincludedinaparticipatoryprocess(InnesandBooher,2010:
36).Interdependenceimpliesthatactorsdependoneachotherinareciprocalwaywithinsuch
processes.
Membersofall155householdswereinvitedbytheGoodNeighborprojecttotakepartin22
weeklytrainingsessions.Theseparticipantsrepresentedapproximately50percentof
households,withagesrangingfrom16to60plus.Approximately60percentofthegroupwere
women.Participantswerenotpaidfortheirinvolvement.
AccordingtotheirgeographiclocationwithinSanto,participantsweregroupedfortraining
sessions,meaningtheyhadinterdependenciesofsharingwatersourcesandthecommonland
inthesharedcourtyardbehindtheirhomes.Anexaminationofprojectmeetingnotesand
interviewshighlightsthatparticipantsknewthatcollaborativeeffortsandcoalitionswere
neededinordertodealwiththeirproblems.Thisinterdependencerequiredforcollective
changeisformalizedinofficialprojectdocuments,withthestatedpurposeofSIDDEVASbeing
‘collectiveactionforthebenefitofall’andtheCodeofConductspecifyingsecurityisdependent
onresidentslookingoutforeachother.SIDDEVASmembershipconsistsofnearlyequal
numbersofmenandwomenofawiderangeofagesandincludesresidentsofadjacent
communities.SeatsontheVillageCouncilarereservedforrepresentativesoflocalgovernment,
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HfH,andan‘otherlocalorganization’.21Inreviewingmeetingnotes,itwasclearthatVillage
Councilmembersshowedanuancedunderstandingofinterdependencies,particularly
concerningdiscussionofhowtohandlearesidentbreakingrulesthroughunauthorized
constructionofnewtoilets,andconcernsaboutprecedent-setting.Negotiatingrolesand
relationshipsofpower,authority,andenforcementisclearlypresentineverydaylifeatSanto.
Inourinterview,thedirectorofHfHpointedoutthatacultureofinterdependencybetween
residentsandgovernmentindemocracybuildingtakestimetodevelop.Thiswasparticularly
relevantgiventhatwhileHfHandHaitiPartnersrepresentativestookfullpartintheGood
Neighborproject,localgovernmentdidnotparticipateinthetraining.However,GoodNeighbor
staffmembersmetonoccasionwithlocalgovernmentofficialstoprovideupdatesanddiscuss
villageissuesandrelationships.Also,localgovernmentsignedonasafullpartneroftheHabitat
SantoVillageCouncilwithseatsonboththeVillageCouncil(SIDDEVAS)anditsEthicsCommittee.
Tocreatenewideas,changeparticipants,andtransformworldviews,authenticdialoguemust
beatthecoreofcollaborativerationality(InnesandBooher,2010:97).Newinstitutions,both
formalandinformal,arecreatedthroughthecultivationoffacetofaceinteractionsthat
promotenewwaysofthinkingandtalking.Effectivedialogueemergesasparticipantslearnand
practicehowtocommunicateproductively.Thistypeofdialogueisnotmerelyconversation,
andisnotintuitiveinlargegroupsettings,butratheritmustbetrainedandrepeatedlyputinto
practice.TheimportanceofauthenticdialogueismadeexplicitintheGoodNeighborproject,
withthetermbeingusedinthefirstprojectobjective(above).
21HaitiPartnerswasinvitedbythenewgoverningbody,SIDDEVAS,tooccupytheseatof‘otherlocalorganization’forthefirstgovernanceterm.
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Figure5.5:CommunityGovernanceStructureEstablishedThroughtheGoodNeighborProject
*LocalAuthority
Source:HaitiPartners
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Authenticdialogueandcollectivelearning
ThetrainingforCirclesofChangeclearlyspecifiestheaimofcollectivelearninganddialogue,
usingselectedtextsasabasisforlearningcommunicationanddialogueskillsduringthe22-
weektrainingprocess.ThesetrainingmaterialsandthemethodofCirclesofChangeis
consistentwithInnesandBooher’sdefinitionofauthenticdialogue.Workingwithlocal
residents,HaitiPartnersworkedtobuildformalandinformalinstitutionsinagradual,deliberate,
collectivelearningprocess,withtrainingsteachingdialogueskillsthatbuiltonlearningfrom
weektoweekandcontributedtoresidentsdecidingtogetherhowtogovernthemselves.The
organizationalstructure,thecontentofby-laws,therules,themechanisms,andtheleadership
roleswereultimatelydecidedupontogether.
CollectivelearningandauthenticdialogueinteractedinanumberofwaysduringtheGood
Neighborproject.Forexample,residentsproposedtopicsduringtheOpenSpacesessions,
whichtogetherwithsmallgroupdiscussionsservedasthebasisfordesigningtheCodeof
Conduct.Theby-lawsofSIDDEVASindicateaclearvalueonlearningandeducation,statingthat
itisthedutyoftheVillageCounciltopromoteeducationandparticipatoryleadership.Afurther
examplecanbeseenduringthefirstvillageelections,whentheparticipantsappliedlearning
fromthetraininginpresentationsgiventopersuadeotherstheywerequalifiedfortheseat.
Overall,participantsclaimedthatGoodNeighbortrainingtaughtthemabouttransparency,
democraticpractice,respect,punctuality,conflictmanagement,livinginharmony,whilealso
givingthemimportantskillsforlistening,publicspeaking,advisingothers,andbuilding
consensus.
Sharedidentities,meanings,andheuristics
Bydevelopingandcultivatingsharedidentitiesandmeanings,whicharereinforcedthroughnew
andsharedheuristics,socialinnovation,systemicchangeandsystemadaptationscanoccur.
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Withinthissection,wenowturntodiscusssharedidentitiesandmeaningsthatemergedand
wereconsolidatedduringtheworkoftheGoodNeighborproject.
ThroughobservationoftheGoodNeighborprocessesandduringindividualinterviews,the
emergenceofsharedidentitiesandsharedmeaningswasapparent.Indentitiesasearthquake
survivorsandasresidentsoftheHabitatSantoVillagewhohadco-constructedtheirownhomes
weresharedamongGoodNeighborparticipants.Participantsdiscussed,debated,andlearned
howtodialoguetogetherconcerningtheirsharedvalues,aspirations,andeverydaychallenges
duringtrainingsessions.However,suchprocesseswerenoteasy.AsoneHfHstaffmember
pointedout,thiswasinpartbecause‘peopleinSantoarenotusedtolivingtogether’.Santodid
notorganicallyevolve.Rather,itisacommunityofpeoplebroughttogetheroutofdesperation.
However,itwasrevealedthroughinterviewandobservationaldatathattherearecommonly-
heldparticipantvalues,including:solidarity(theimportanceofrelationships,community
cohesion,harmony,equality,fairness,andgenerosity);education(foroneselfandone’s
children);havingavoiceindecisionmakingaboutthecommunity;meetingbasicneeds(housing,
health,water,food,livelihoods,sanitation);asenseofpersonalresponsibility;andnotleast,an
adherencetospirituality.
Foureventsinparticularstandoutinthedataasbeingpivotaltoconsolidatingsharedidentity
andmeaning—theOpenSpacesessions,theGraduationCeremony,thefirstelection,andthe
foundingoftheSIDDEVASorganization.Inbothcontentandprocess,theOpenSpacesessions
contributedtocultivatingstrongersharedidentities,meanings,andheuristicsamongresidents,
andwithHfHandHaitiPartners.ParticipantsinthevariousCirclesofChangegroupsagreedthe
themefortheOpenSpaceserieswouldbe‘What’sthelong-termdreamforSantoVillageand
whatimmediatechallengesneedtobeaddressedintheshortterm?’Agreeduponcontentfor
smallgroupdiscussionsalsodemonstrateevolvingsharedmeaning,withthemostpressing
sharedconcernsbeinglatrinesandsecurity,followedbyhealthcare,education,livelihoods,food,
water,andelectricity.Additionally,sharedidentitywasexpressedinagraduationceremony,as
manyparticipantstoldstoriesorsangsongsaboutwhatthetrainingexperiencemeanttothem.
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SharedmeaningwasalsocreatedbetweenGoodNeighborparticipantsduringelectionsandthe
creationofSIDDEVAS.ParticipantswereabletostandasVillageCouncilcandidatesandtovote
inelections.SharedidentitywasformalizedbysigningonasFoundingMembersofSIDDEVASin
theorganization’sby-laws,thesebeingcollaborativelydevelopedandrefined.Aftertheelection,
thenewlychosenheadoftheVillageCouncilandtheCountryDirectorofHabitatforHumanity
exchangedopenlettersofwelcomeandgratitudewiththeSIDDEVASsigningtomarkthe
significanceofthismomentintheVillage’shistory.
Itwasalsoapparentthattherewerenewandevolvingheuristics.Bypromotingdialogueand
communication,theparticipantspracticednewheuristicsduringtraining,andthroughspecial
eventsbetweensessions.Newheuristicswerealsointernalizedandpracticedineveryday
communitylifeoutsideofsessions.Asoneparticipantnoted:‘twopeoplewerehavingan
argumentandallIhadtodotoendtheargumentwastoremindthemwhatthey’velearnedin
theGoodNeighbortraining.’
Collaborativerationalityinpractice
InnesandBooher(2010),asnotedintheframeworkdiscussionabove,identifyconsequences
emergingfromcollaborativelyrationalprocesses:sharedandreciprocalinterests;new
relationshipsof‘collaboration’and‘trust’;singleanddoublelooplearning;and,longer-term
systemic‘adaptations’.OurresearchsuggeststhattheGoodNeighborProjectisaformof
collaborativerationalitythatisfosteringpreciselythesekindsofchangesatthemicro-levelof
communityinteractionsingovernance.
Indeed,collaborativelyrationalprocesseslikethosewithintheGoodNeighborprojecthavethe
potentialtosupportadaptationsandsystemicchangethroughthedevelopmentofshared
heuristicsamongparticipants.TheGoodNeighborGovernanceProjectpromotedasenseof
individualandcollectivecapacities,newskillsaswellasdemocracybuilding.Thesecanalllead
togreatergovernmentaccountabilityinprovidingbasicservices,whilealsoincreasingthe
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expectationsofcitizensconcerningtheirrightsandresponsibilities.Toachievesystemchanges
atthecommunitylevel,organizationaladaptationswereneeded,withbothHabitatfor
HumanityandHaitiPartnersundergoingsystemadaptations.SantowasHfH’sfirstforayinto
communitydevelopmentinits27yearsinHaiti.Likewise,HaitiPartnersforthefirsttime
adapteditsworkineducationandparticipatorydialoguetocommunitygovernance.The
potentialofHabitatSantoVillagetoprovidecommunitygovernanceisclearlydemonstratedin
thisproject.Bystrengtheningsharedmeaningandheuristicsovertime,andbuildingonthe
institutionsthatresidentscreatedinSIDDEVAS,thereisclearpotentialforlong-termsystemic
change.Morebroadlyspeaking,thecollectiveactionheuristicsemerginginHaiti(insomecases
re-emerging)requirefurtherconsolidationsothatcitizenvoicescaneffectivelyreach
governmentstructures,therebycontributingtosystemicchangeneededinHaitifromthelocal
communitytothemacrogovernmentscale.
Strengtheningcollaborativerationalityhasthepotentialtoalsocontributetothetranslationof
existingsocietalstrengthsintogovernancecapabilities.SocietyinHaitiisconsideredtobe
resilientanditspeoplehighlycapableinmanyways,butgiventheabsenceofformal
institutionstoprovidethemostbasiclevelofservices,suchstrengthsaredirectedtowards
survival.Newformsofcollaboration,suchastheonesthathaveoccurredtosomedegreeinthe
GoodNeighborGovernanceProject,canbringtogethercommunitygroups,NGOsand
government.AstheearlyfindingsfromSantosuggest,collaborativerationalityprocesseshave
thepowertostrengthenindividualandcollectivecapabilitiesforsocialresilience.
Investmentincommunityvs.statecapacity:afalsedichotomy
ThisexaminationofthelocalparticipatorygovernanceprocessunderwayinSantooffers
importantinsightintowiderunderstandingsanddebatesconcerningstatecapacityfor
governance.Characterizedas‘failed’,‘fragile’,‘predatory’,‘dysfunctional’,‘defunct’,and‘in
nearcompletecollapse’(Fatton,2002;Locher,1990;Menkhaus,2010;Brinkerhoff,2007;Heine
andThompson,2011;WorldBank,2006),thecountryhasbeengovernedbyauthoritarian,
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dictatorial,military,andoccupationregimes.Assuch,‘therehasneverbeenanexecutionofa
truesocialcontractinHaiti’(Tippenhauer,2010:505).Governmentinstitutionsarenotreliable
formostHaitians,unabletosupplybasicneeds(potablewater,sanitation,security,healthcare,
andeducation)oranysortofsocialsafetynet.Itisunsurprisingthengiventhiscontextthat
reconstructioneffortsfollowingthe2010earthquakehavemetsignificantdifficultiesinspiteof
goodintentionsandmajoreffortsonthepartofmanyorganizations,aidbodies,andlocal
actors.Analternativeformofgovernanceisrequiredtoovercomethefailuresofgovernment
andtomeettheneedforsuccessfulcollaborationwithHaiti’scomplexsocietalinstitutions.
Decentralizationhasbeentoutedasonewaytore-buildthestate(seeBornsteinetal.,2013for
otherplans).InHaiti,progresstowardsdecentralizationingovernmentfunction,authorityor
budgethasbeenlimited,althoughitisoutlinedinthe1987constitutionandinsubsequent
plans.TheGoodNeighborprojectprovidesanexampleofdecentralizedlocalgovernance
extendingbeyondthestate.Suchanapproachhasthepotentialtobeadaptedandadopted
elsewhereinHaitiasameanstosupportthebuildingofgovernancecapacitiesbothwithinand
outsideofthestate.Thedifficultyofestablishingformalinstitutionsinacontextofinformalityis
thatinformalinstitutionshavelongbeenmorereliableandworthyoftrustthanformal
institutionsofthestate.Giventhislong-termsituation,peoplearedeterredfromtrustingand
investingthemselvesinformalstateinstitutions.
Thisisnottosaythatthestateshouldnotexist.Aformalstateisessentialinorderto
institutionalizeacoherentandreliablelandownershipandrightssystem,justicesystemandthe
like.22Further,thereisfearthatHaitihasbecomea‘RepublicofNGOs.’NGOsoperatinginthe
countryoftenhavemorefundingandcapacitythantheHaitiangovernmentitself(Kristoff&
Panarelli,2010).ThereisconcernthatwithNGOsprovidingvitalservicesthat“theHaitian
governmenthadlittlechancetodevelopthehumanorinstitutionalcapacitytodeliverservices”
(Kristoff&Panarelli,2010:1).Asaconsequence,HaitiancitizensnowlooktoNGOsforprovision
ofessentialservicesratherthantothegovernment,andthatthefunnellingofaidthroughNGOs
22ThelackofacadastreandeffectivelandownershipandrightssystemrepeatedlyarisesasoneofthemainimpedimentstodevelopmentinHaiti.
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has“perpetuatedacycleoflowcapacity,corruptionandaccountabilityamongHaitian
governmentinstitutions”(Kristoff&Panarelli,2010:1).
Inlightofthisconcern,whattheexperienceofHabitatSantoVillageandotherinitiativesof
participatorygovernancesuggestisthatsucheffortscouldinformtheinstitutionaldesignand
policydevelopmentforHaiti’sgovernancedecentralization,ratherthanreplacethestateitself.
Inaddition,theseparticipatorygovernmentprogramsdirectlycontributetothebuildingof
capabilitieswithinthestate.Whengovernmentofficialsparticipateintheseprocesses,they
havethechancetoknowthelocalcommunitiesindifferentways,withthepotentialof
becomingmoreaccountabletolocalpeopleasgovernmentparticipantsthemselvesundergo
learning,andtheirgovernmentpracticescanmeaningfullyadapt.Thisisalreadyapparent,toa
limitedextent,inthecaseofSanto’sGoodNeighborproject.
ReflectionsonmethodOnthedayofourinterviewwithMarieVeronila,wewereescortedbysecuritytoherSanto
home,anexceptionalprecautiontakenbecauseofaviolentoutburstonsiteearlierthatday.
Duringthattimethereweredailyconflictsonsite,inpartbecausepeoplewerefightingforthe
covetedjobstoconstructthesecondphaseofSantohomes.Mariewasshakenbutnot
discouraged,saying:‘Weknowthatonepersoncannotholdusback.…todaywestoodin
protesttohavethatpersonleavesotheprojectcancontinue.Theprojectisgoodformany
people.’NothingwouldbringdownMarie’sspiritsthatday.Aswemet,heroldestdaughterwas
atschooltakinganexamforre-entry.Mariehadhighhopesforherdaughter’ssuccess,and
althoughshedidnotknowhowshewouldpayforschool,shewasconfidenttherewouldbea
way‘sidyevle’(ifGodwills).
Throughoutthispaper,wehavedrawnoninterviews,participatoryactivitiesandstoriestoldby
theresidentsofSantoandparticipantsintheGoodNeighborproject.Therearetwomain
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observationswemakeatthispointaboutmethod,bothasemployedinthegovernanceproject
itself,andinourstudyofit.First,languagematters;andsecond,localvoicesmustcount.
Umemotoobserves(2001:23),‘languagecarrieswithitthepowertodiscourageorencourage,
repressorrelease,legitimizeordegrade.’IssuesoflanguageareverypresentinHaitibuthave
beenmuch-neglected.TheofficiallanguagesofthecountryareHaitianCreoleandFrenchbut
mostinternationalNGOsrarelyworkinHaitianCreole.HaitianCreoleisthemothertongueof
nearlyallHaitiansandtheonlylanguageofthevastmajority(Schuller,2012).Ouranalysis
revealsthatlanguagewasabarriertocommunication,particularlyduringtheearlystagesof
constructingthecommunity.Asanexample,amajorproblemthatemergedduringtheproject
inSantowasrelatedtohouseholdlatrines.Thelatrinetrainingdocumentationhadnotbeen
translatedtoHaitianCreole,sofewresidentswouldhaveunderstoodit,whichthereby
contributedtotheirdissatisfactionwiththesystemandlackofownershipoftheproblem.
Unfortunately,thissituationisnotexceptional.Ofteninternationallybasedorganizations
functioninternallyinEnglish,French,orSpanish,communicatewithHaitianGovernmentin
French,andlackresourcesorrecognitionoftheneedtoworkinHaitianCreole.Throughoutthe
GoodNeighbourproject,HaitiPartnersconductedmeetingsandcommunicationsinHaitian
CreoleandprovidedwrittendocumentationinbothHaitianCreoleandEnglish–thelatterfor
externalandfundingpartners.
Aseparatelanguageissuewhichismoresubtle,butdeeplymeaningful,involvesthelanguageof
dependencythatisoftenprojectedonHaiti.23HabitatforHumanityoriginallyreferredto
residentsas‘beneficiaries’,awordthatimpliesthepassivereceivingofabenefit,whichis
problematicforcreatinganidentityofresidentsasfullpartnersorparticipantsintheirhousing
projects.‘Beneficiary’impliesbeing‘chosen’to‘receive’somebenefit.Thisdisempowering
languagesendsamessagethatbeneficiariesarepassiverecipientsofassistancefroma
23Paradoxically,Haiti’shistoryrevealspatternsofheroicindependenceandself-reliance,butbecauseofitsrelianceonforeignaidandremittancesinrecentdecades,policyandacademicliteratureduringthattimehastendedtorecastHaitiindependencyterms.
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benevolentorganization.DuringtheGoodNeighborprojectwhenparticipantswere
empoweredtodecideontheirowngovernancestructureandprocesses,theychosetocall
themselves‘dedicatedcitizens’,implyingactive,engagedcommitment.Residentsthen
formalizedthetermintheirnamingoftheVillageCouncilbody,‘DedicatedCitizensforthe
DevelopmentofHabitatSantoVillage’(emphasisadded).
Second,localvoicesprovideinsightintothedevelopmentofgovernancecapabilitiesthatcould
nototherwisebedocumented.BoththeGoodNeighborgovernanceprocessandourresearch
methodshavesoughttoemphasizetheimportanceofgivingvoicetothosewhoareoften
silenced.AccordingtoLedwithandSpringett(2011)‘givingvoice’entailsanopennesstoways
ofknowingthatgobeyondtheintellectual.Authorsunderlinethatself-reflexivityanddialogue
arekey,butalsothatdifferentwaysofknowingmightbeexpressedinwayssuchassong,
poetry,andstorytelling,aswasthecaseatSanto,particularlyevidencedduringparticipant
presentationsduringtheGraduationCeremony.InhisGoodCityframework,Amin(2006)talks
ofparticipativeparityasthespacethatprovidespossibilitiesfornewvoicestoemerge,and
connectsthenotionofvoicewiththe‘righttothecity’wherecitizensarepartofshapingurban
lifeandbenefittingfromit.Inasimilarvein,bothYoung(1995)andFriedmann(1992),
emphasizetheimportanceofacquiringpoliticalvoiceforthedisempoweredpoor.Young
arguesdialoguetrainingandinstitutionalinfrastructureandopportunitiesareneededfor
marginalizedpeopletobeabletomaketheirvoicesheard.Shefurtherholdsthatpoliticalvoice
canenablereasontoprevailoverpowerinpoliticaldiscussions,andwewouldarguethatsuch
reasonmaybeakintovariousrationalities,suchascollaborativeinthispaper,orthevalueand
practicalrationalitiesofFlyvbjerg(2001)andFlyvbjergetal.(2012).Youngfurtherarticulates
theneedforpoliticalvoiceinthisway:
…inadiscussionsituationinwhichdifferentpeoplewithdifferentaims,values,andinterestsseektosolvecollectiveproblemsjustly,itisnotenoughtomakeassertionsandgivereasons.Onemustalsobeheard(Young,1995:146).
Friedmann’swarningisparticularlyrelevantfortheSantogovernancecase.Heclaimsthat‘the
disempoweredpoorneedtoacquireapoliticalvoiceoftheirown’,whichisdistinctfromthatof
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NGOs.BecauseNGOs‘walkthetightrope’negotiatingrelationshipsincontestedspacebetween
civilsocietyandstate,theyarenotnecessarilyalwaysreliableaseffectiveadvocatesofthe
claimsofthevoicesoftheleastheardthattheymightmeantorepresent(Friedmann,1992:
161).ThisimpliestheneedforSIDDEVAStodevelopadistinctvoicefromHabitatforHumanity
andHaitiPartners.
Alimitationtostudyingvoiceinresearchisitstendencytoeludemeasurement.Somehave
attemptedgauging‘voiceandparticipation’,suchasRaworth’s(2012)measurementofsameas
thenumberofpeoplewholiveincountrieswhichareperceivedtonotallowfreedomof
expressionorpoliticalparticipation.Wearguethatsuchamacroquantificationisproblematic
andcannotadequatelycapturenuanceoflocalculturalcontexts,andthatsuchameasure
wouldriskbroadlymisrepresentingthevoicesthatitwouldaimtovalue.Moreinnovative
methodologiesthatnotonlylistentosilencedvoicesandmakethemevidentinresearch
representations,butalsothatcanassesstheeffectivenessofprogramsandgovernanceprojects
thataimtohearvoicesofthemostmarginalized,aresorelyneeded.Wehaveattemptedinthis
researchtohearlessheardvoicesthroughourchoicesofparticipantsfordiscussionsand
interviews,fieldworkobservations,anddocumentanalysis.Itwillbeimportantinfuturework
atSantotocontinuetoexpandopportunitiestolistentoandhearsilencedvoices.
Whiletheprocessofcommunitybuildingthroughparticipatorygovernanceisnowwell
underway,itisearlydaysintheimplementationprocesssooutcomesarenotyetfullyknown.
Ourlessonsarepreliminaryandfurtherstudieswillbeneededtoassesshowthesystem
operatesovertime,andwiththeadditionof145newfamiliesin2013.
5.6Conclusion
Inthispaperweusedacollaborativerationalitytheoreticallenstoinvestigatethecaseofthe
GoodNeighborGovernanceProjectwithinHabitatSantoVillageinHaiti.Bydrawingona
diversityofinterestsandinterdependencies,andbyfosteringauthenticdialogue,qualitative
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datafrominterviews,observations,anddocumentationsuggestthatinitialprocessesinthe
projecthavecontributedsignificantlytosettingupalocalgovernancesystemthatisseenas
legitimate,functional,democratic,andownedbyitsparticipants.Thislocalgovernancesystem
wassupportedbytheestablishmentofanNGO-managedprocessthatdrawsonFreirian
approachestodialogue,livedexperienceandlearning.Findingsrevealthattheprojecthasled
tosystemicchanges,bothwithintheinvolvedNGOsandinHabitatSantoVillage,andis
contributingtothesustainabilityofthesettlement.Whilethereareaspectstoimproveon,
thereismuchtolearnfromthestrongparticipatorygovernancefundamentalswhichare
present,particularlytheembeddedcollaborativenetworkofNGOs,localcommunitygroups,
andlocalgovernment.Theskillsandknowledgebroughttobearinthisprojectofmanaging
complexityandfacilitatingcommunicationscontributetomakingthisanimportant
demonstrationproject.Particularlynoteworthycontributionsare:1)attentiongiventohearing
localvoices;2)theemphasisondialogicapproaches;and3)transformationsofmultiplelevels,
fromindividualandcollectiveunderstandings,tonewpracticesandrelationshipsandthe
embeddingofmorefunctionalandaccountableadaptationstogovernancesystems.Alsoand
importantly,thenationalgovernmentandinternationalagencieshaveplayedarolein
supportingtheproject.
Despitethestrongearlyresultsofthisnewparticipatorygovernancestructureatoneofthefew
substantialandpermanentpost-earthquakehousingdevelopments,thesituationremainshighly
precarious.Currentresidentscontinuetolackmanybasichumanservicesandfacepressuresof
dailysurvival.TheVillagepopulationdoubledin2013,andthereremainslittlereliefinsightfor
continuedincreasinghousingdemandpressurefrommanynearbywhostilllackdecenthousing.
Amongthemanygovernance-relatedquestionsarethefollowing.WhatwilltheVillagelooklike
inone,five,andtenyears,andhowshouldVillageleadersbestcontributetoshapingits
evolution?Howwillitbepossibletorealizetheneededfacilitiesdrawnupinthemasterplan,
suchasaschoolandcommunitycenter?HowwilltheVillagefinanceoperationsmanagement,
maintenance,serviceprovision,andcapitalinvestment,giventhelacksofresourcesand
precedenceforgeneratingpropertytaxesorhomeownerassociationfees?Willgangsmovein
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andtakeoverhousesassomepeopleinthecommunityfear,andifso,whatwillbedoneabout
it?Obviousanswersarenotapparenttomanyimminentquestions,whichunderlinestheneed
totracktheevolutionofHabitatSantoVillageovertime.Researchandlearningfromthis
significantprojectcanpotentiallyprovidevaluablecontributionstoplanning,policy,and
participatorylocalgovernanceinHaitiaswellasotherpost-disastersettings.
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Chapter6:OverallConclusions
Asocietythatmaintainssomuchexclusionsimplycan’tachievedevelopment.Noway.Developmenthastoinvolveeveryone.Progressiveideashavetocomeforth.Andtherehastobespaceforparticipationbyallcitizenswho’vecourageouslybegunthedevelopmentoftheircommunitieswiththeirownmeans,howevermodest.Changewillcomewhenthepeopleareengagedrightattheheartofthings.
JosettePérard,DirectorofLambiFundHaiti,quotedinBell(2013:89)
ThatoneofthegreatesthumancatastrophesofourtimeoccurredinHaitiin2010haslargely
fallenawayfromtheworld’scollectivememory–oratleastmediaattention,astheearthquake
anniversaryisbarelyacknowledgedandlittlenewscoverageofeventsinHaitiarefeaturedin
internationalpapersonlysixyearslater.ThatHaitiisalsothesiteofoneofthegreatesthuman
catastrophesinrecordedhistoryasaformerslavestateislargelyabsentaswellfromcollective
memory.PerhapsevenmoretroublingisthatHaitirankstodayamongthebottomoftheworld
forincidenceofslaverypracticesandforitslackofpubliceducation.Sorelyneededare
planningandcommunitydevelopmentpoliciesandpracticesthatwouldcontributeto
transformingnarrativesinHaiti,therebyaddressingthemassivestructuralinequalities,
miserablelivingconditionsforvastnumbers,andtheunacceptablylackingornegativestate-
societyrelationships.
Asdiscussedthroughoutthisdissertation,theJanuary12,2010earthquakeleftthemajorityof
Haitiangovernmentinstitutionsandthousandsofschools,hospitals,andchurchesinruins.
Over1.5millionpeoplebecameimmediatelyhomelessandestimatesarethatover200,000
peopleperished.Thevastinfluxofhumanitarianaidandattentionintheimmediatedisaster
aftermathparadoxicallyprovidedaglimmerofhopethatthedisasterwouldsomehowrupture
thecycleofmassivepovertyandincreaseddependency–particularlyonimportedfood,and
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wouldpositivelyaffectthenever-endingtransitiontodemocracy,whichhasbeeninprocess
sincethefalloftheDuvaliersin1986(now30years).Now,sixyearspost-disaster,politicaland
economicconditionshaveworsened(evenifsomewouldarguethatsocialresilienceisgreater).
Haitiis‘trappedintheouterperiphery’oftheglobalcapitalistsystemandhasbecomefurther
dependentontheinternationalcommunityasaresultofpoliciesandstructuresimposedpost-
earthquake.RobertFatton,Jr.(2014)callsforreversingreconstructionstrategiesinHaiti.Haiti
deservescollectiveandscholarlyattentionandanewkindofinvestment,includingin
relationshipsthattakeintoaccountvoicesofexcludedHaitians–thevastmajority--and
examplesofarangeofprojectsandinitiatives.Inthisfinalchapter,I:1)setoutatheoryof
changeandsynthesizeoverallresultsofthisresearchincludingitslimitations;2)outlinethe
maincontributionstoknowledgeofthiswork;3)providerecommendationsbasedonlearnings;
and4)pointtofuturedirectionsforresearch,policy,andpracticeinHaitiandother
internationaldevelopmentormarginalizedcontexts.
6.1TheoryofChangeandKeyResults
Anoverallaimofthisresearchistoexposeinwhatwaysparticipatorycommunitydevelopment
experiencesarehavinganimpactoncommunitychangeandwhethertheyareopening
pathwaystotransformation.Synthesisresultsofpreviouschaptersandkeyfindingsand
learningsfromtheBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillagecasesaresetoutinthis
section.A‘theoryofchange’hasemergedfrommytheoreticalreadingsandperspective,
theprocessesoffieldwork,analyzingfindingsandinterpretingresults.Thattheoryisdepicted
inFigure6.1andillustratedinamorelinearwaywithadescription,inFigure6.2.Thistheoryof
changewasderivedthroughaninductive(alsocalled‘bottomup’or‘groundedtheory’)
approachtoknowing,inwhichtheresearcherconductsfieldworktobuildanabstractionorto
describetheissuebeingstudied(Lodicoetal.,2010).Ininductiveresearchnoestablished
theoriesneedtobetestedduringtheresearchprocess,butrather,patternsareobservedand
theoryisbuiltfromthegroundup.Inductivereasoningisbasedonlearningfromexperience.
Thecommunitycasedataandsynthesisfindingsthatapplytothetheoryofchangeare
illustratedinFigures6.3andsummarizedinFigure6.4.
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Figure6.1:The
oryofCha
nge:FromCom
mun
ityStoriestoTransform
ationa
lNarratives
193
Figure6.2:TheoryofChangeandSummaryDescription
ThisTheoryofChangewasderivedthroughaninductive(alsocalled‘bottomup’or‘grounded
theory’)approach,inwhichtheoryisbuiltfromthegroundupthroughlearningfrom
experienceinthefieldandpatternsobserved.Coreelementsaredescribedbelow.
SelectandStudyCaseCommunities.Participatorycommunitydevelopmentcaseexamplesare
selectedbasedonaninformation-orientedsamplingstrategyandtodevelopametaphoror
establishaschoolofthoughtforthedomainwhichthecasesconcern.InthecaseofBellevue-
La-Montagne,thisiseducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment.
ListentoLocalVoicesandInterpretCommunityCoreStories.Bylisteningtovoicesandstoriesoflocalpeopleandengagingcontext-specificmethods,includingparticipatoryphotography,
mappinganddialoguecircles,weinterpretedcommunitycorestories.
SynthesizeNarrativesofCommunityLivedExperience.Variousmethodsaretriangulatedand
dataareanalyzedtorevealnarrativepatterns.Datacollectionmethodsincludeinterviews,
observation,documentstudy,andparticipatorymethods.Anaimistovaluelocalknowledge
andlivedexperienceofcommunitydevelopmentprocessesandchangeunderway.
ExposeTensionPoints.Scrutinizingemergingnarrativesfromdifferentperspectivesexposed
tensionpoints,whichinvolverelationshipsofpowerparticularlysusceptibletochangebecause
ofdubiouspractices,contestableknowledge,andpotentialconflict.
IdentifyandActivateLeversofTransformation.Likecrises,tensionpointsopenpossibilitiesforchange.Certainleversshowpromisefortransformationwithrelevantcommunity
developmentprocessesunderway,andothersrepresentopportunitiesfordevelopingnew
innovativeinterventions.
BuildNewTransformationalNarratives,thenScaleandSupportInitiativesthatContributetothoseNarratives.Activatingleversoftransformationopenspathwaystonewdevelopment
trajectoriesandchangingnarratives.Resultingtransformativecommunitydevelopment
experiencescanbescaledup,scaledoutandscaleddeep.
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Figure6.3:TheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities
195
Figure6.4SummaryExplanationofTheoryofChangeAppliedtoCaseCommunities
Thediagram‘FromCommunityStoriestoTransformationalNarratives’ismeanttobereadstartingat
thebottom.
ThisresearchstudyselectedcasecommunitiesofBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillage,
whereNGOsandcommunityresidentsappliedparticipatoryapproachestoeducation-centered
communitydevelopmentandlocalself-governance,respectively.
Iinterpreted‘communitycorestoriesbylisteningtovoicesandstoriesoflocalpeopleanddesigningcontext-specificmethods,(includingparticipatoryphotography,mappinganddialoguecirclesinthecase
ofBellevue-La-Montagne),inordertodeepenunderstandingofdevelopmentissuesandpower
dynamics,withanemphasisonlocalpeople’sperspectives.InBellevue-La-Montagneacommunitycore
storywithsixaspectsemerged.HabitatSantoVillageisanewcommunitybuiltpost-earthquakewhere
thenarrativewasdominatedbystrugglesofsurvivalandbuildinganewlifeandcommunity.
Isynthesizedresultsfromvariousmethodsofdatacollection(interviews,observation,documentstudy,
participatorymethods)integrating‘outsider’and‘insider’perspectivesoncommunitydevelopment
processesandchangesunderwayandlivedexperienceofcommunityresidents.FourmainnarrativesofcommunitylivedexperiencewererevealedfortheBellevue-La-Montagnecase,andonreflection,we
foundthatthesamenarrativeswereapplicabletoHabitatSantoVillage.
Interpretingtherevealednarrativesfromdifferentperspectivesexposed‘tensionpoints’,whichinvolverelationshipsofpowerparticularlysusceptibletochangeduetotheircontestableknowledge,potential
conflict,ordubiouspractices.Tensionpointshighlighthowpowerrelationsstandinthewayof
addressingproblems.‘Memory’referstocollectivememoriesofturbulenthistories,disasters,and
nostalgiaforthedictatorshipera,aswellasabrokeneducationsystemthatperpetuatessocietal
problemsofdistrustandclassism.‘Outcomes’exposesthetensionofimprovingcommunityoutcomes
vis-à-visstagnationinindividualcircumstances.‘Culture’representsthelackofasenseofagencyevidentamongresidents;participatorycultureisemerging,butithasnotyetcrossedthethresholdinto
‘changemaker’culture.‘Relationships’amonggovernments,civilsociety,NGOsandtheinternational
communityarefraughtwithmistrust,lackofaccountabilityandinertia.
Leveragepointsareplacesincomplexsystemswheresmallshiftsinonethingcanproducelarger
changesineverything.Theyrepresentpossibilitiesfortransformativechange.Inthetwocase
communities,some‘leversoftransformation’areinearlystagesofactivationorprocessofcultivation,suchasbettereducation,placeidentityandsocialentrepreneurship;andseveralrepresentpromising
directionsforchange,throughsuchleversasnetworkbuilding,researchovertime,andstate-societytrustandaccountability.
Activatingleversoftransformationopenspathwaystonewdevelopmenttrajectoriesthatwouldchange
narratives.Thethreemediumtermprioritiesareto:1)reducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience;2)creategreatereconomicopportunitiesandbetterjobs;and3)(re)buildthesocialcontract.ThesespecificprioritieswereidentifiedinaWorldBankreportbySinghandBarton-Dock(2015),andtheyalign
withaspirationsfoundinthisresearchamongNGOsandatlocalcommunitylevel.
Communitydevelopmenteffortsthatareabletoactivateleversoftransformationcanscaleup,scaleout
andscaledeep,inordertoeffectshiftstowardbroadertransformationalnarrativesinpolicy,practice
andculture.
Participatorycommunitydevelopmentcaseexamplesselectedbasedonaninformation-oriented
samplingstrategyandtodevelopametaphororestablishaschoolofthoughtforthedomainwhichthe
casesconcern.
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Insynthesizingfindingsofthecasestudyexperiencesandlocalperspectives,threekeyresults
emerged:1)Thecommunitylevelprovidesasiteoftransformation;2)Storymethodsandgiving
voicetopeopleilluminatechangepossibilities;and3)Communitiesfacechallengesthat
threatentheirchangeefforts.Eachisfurtherdescribedbelow.
Keyresult1:Thecommunitylevelprovidesasiteoftransformation.
Aprincipalresultofthisresearchisthatthecommunitylevelisasiteoftransformationofthe
developmentparadigmoperatinginHaiti.
Thecasestudiesinthisthesisprovidetwoexamplesforhowthecommunitylevelcanprovidea
siteoftransformationforareconstructionparadigmthatwouldvaluelocalpeopleand
knowledge;emphasizeeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopment;andchangeparadigmsfor
localdecision-makingandgovernance.Theypointtotheimportance,aswell,ofschool-based
learning,socialentrepreneurshipandcommunity-basedcollectiveactionstrategies.
Theeducation-centeredandhighlycollaborativecommunitydevelopmentapproachthatHaiti
PartnershastakenatBellevue-La-MontagneisinnovativeandappropriateforHaitiandthelocal
context.Theparticipatorycommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwaytherehaveplaced
constructionofanewschoolandeducationattheheartofrebuildingefforts.Educationand
participatorypracticesareembeddedinallaspectsofthecommunitydevelopment--including
socialentrepreneurship,healthcare,environmentalstewardship,communityagriculture,site
planningandbuildingconstruction.Generally,caseeffortsinvolveparticipationofpeopleand
organizations(localandinternational)indialogicalnegotiationsthatappeartoaimtoshare
powerandbuildcapabilitiesoflocalpeople,andtocreate,change,orpreservestructuresand
institutionsconsistentwiththeinterestsoflocalpeople.Multiplemethodsandnarrative
analysis,includingcontext-specificparticipatorymethods,exposedthevalidityofthat
propositionfromthelocalparticipantpointofview.
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EarlyindicationsfromHabitatSantoVillagelikewiseshowpromise.Qualitativedatafrom
interviews,observations,anddocumentationsuggestthatinitialprocessesintheGood
Neighborparticipatorygovernanceprojecthavecontributedsignificantlytosettingupalocal
governancesystemthatisseenaslegitimate,functional,democratic,andownedbyits
participants.Thiswasenabledthroughdrawingonadiversityofinterestsand
interdependencies,andbyfosteringauthenticdialogue.Basedonresultsinthisstudy,a
hypothesisintheresearchmovingforwardisthatcollaborativecommunitydevelopmentthat
hasbuiltinmechanismsthatengenderlong-termtrust(andDIADcomponentsof:diversity,
interdependence,andauthenticdialogue)cancontributetosocialtransformation.
Relatedfindingsrevealthefollowing.
v Participantstendtovaluecommunityoverindividualwellbeing,anddespitechallengesof
everydaysurvival,peopletakealongviewandhopeforabetterfuturefortheirchildren.A
strong‘prideofplace’wasrevealedincommunitydevelopmenteffortsunderwayinboth
Bellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillage.Manyresidentsinbothcommunities
expressedthattheyaspiretobecome‘model’communitiesthatotherswouldvisitasa
destinationfromelsewhereinHaitiaswellasfromabroad.
v Peoplefeelthattheirvoiceshavebeenheardandthattheyhavecontributedtoshapingcommunitydevelopmentdecisions(furtherexplanationunderKeyResult2).
v Peopledonotexpectthestatetoactintheirinterests(suchasbyprovidingpoliceprotectionorreconstructionassistance).Theyexpectthatpositivechangecanonlycome
aboutthroughworkingtogetherwithothersinthecommunitymoreeffectivelyand,toa
lesserextent,withassistancefrominternationalorganizations.Relatedly,thelackof
accountabilityinstate-societyrelationswasmadevisible,aswastheimportanceoftrust,
newprideofcommunityresidents,aswellastensionpointsthatpotentiallythreatenthe
long-termsustainabilityofdevelopmentprojects.
Sofar,itisevidentthatcommunitytransformationisunderwayasaresultoftheparticipatory
communitydevelopmentprocesses,andglimpsesofsocialtransformationseemtobepresent,
butitisearlydaystoassessclearly.
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Keyresult2:Storymethodsandgivingvoicetopeopleilluminateschangepossibilities.
Mymethodologycombinedcasestudy,participatoryapproaches,andnarrativeanalysis.This
strategygave‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglestoovercomethemainbarriersto
realizingchange,includinghowrelationshipsofpowershapecommunitydevelopmentand
decision-makingprocesses.Theinquirycombinedbothactorandstructurallevelsofanalysis--
understandingfromwithinandfromoutside.
Participatoryresearchrecognizesthatpeoplehavetheirowncommunitybased,local
knowledgesystemsthatresearchershavenotwellorfullytapped.Wehaveseenthatengaging
participatorymethodsinHaiti’spost-disastercontextenabledhearingfromtheleastheardand
elicitinglocalknowledge,providingawindowintodynamicsofcommunitydevelopmentand
socialchange,whichistypicallyopaquetooutsiders.Byinvitingresearchparticipants’active
engagementthroughphotography,dialoguecircles,mapping,communitywalks,video,and
variousinterviewtypes,wefacilitatedself-expression,sociallearning,andsharingofstories,
views,ideas,hopes,aspirations,andfears.Themethodsthemselvesprovidedpossibilitiesfor
change,beyondthedatathattheyrevealed.Listeningtovoicesinthesewaysfacilitated
understandingofnuancedrealities‘behindthescenes’andinterpretationofcommunity‘core
stories’.
Storyalsoprovedtobeausefulandappropriatewaytocommunicatetheresearchlocally.
Storytellingtendstocutacrossculturesandclassdistinctions.Byframingtheresearchpurpose
as‘hearingandunderstandingyourandyourcommunities’stories,andlearningeffectiveways
toretellthosestories’,itseemedtobemorecomprehensible,andalsoethicallyandculturally
appropriate,thansayingexplicitlyorimplicitly,‘Iamheretostudy(orteach)you.’
Thesemethodshaveaffordeduswaysofthinkingandcollaborativetools,notablyFreirian
criticalconsciousnessanddialoguecircles,toilluminatepossibilityregardingthekindofchange
thatisnecessaryifHaitiistoalteritsdevelopmenttrajectory.
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Keyresult3:Communitiesfacechallengesthatthreatentheirchangeefforts.
Whilethereisevidencethatcommunitytransformationisinprocess,therearesubstantial
challenges.Amongthemarethefollowingfour,whichtakentogether,poseathreattothe
long-termsustainabilityofcommunitydevelopmentprojectsincludingprogresswhichhasbeen
madetodateandpossibilitiesforadvancement.Theselocalchallengesaretobeseenagainst
thebackdropofbroaderstructuralandnationalchallengesoutlinedinChapter1.
v Lackoflocalgovernmentplanningandlackofstatecapacitytoprovidebasicservices.Residentsfaceanabsenceofbasicservices,suchaswaterandsanitation,electricity,wastecollection,roadrepair,andhealthcare,andlittleprospectthatgovernmentisactingto
providethem.
v Thehighlyprecariousnatureofeverydaylifeformostpeople.Subsistencesurvivalformostpeople,chronicmalnutrition,andever-presentthreatofdisastersmeansthatplanning
forthefuturecanseemfutile.Relatedly,cultivatinga‘changemaker’cultureinlocal
communitiesischallenging.
v Lackofinstitutionalandresourcesupports.Localleaderswouldliketoincreaseinvestment
andqualityineducationandsocialentrepreneurship,butthebarrierstodoingsointermsof
missingorunsupportiveinstitutionalinfrastructureandlackofresourcesaredaunting.
v Complexrelationshipsoftrustanddependency,andthedarksideofinformality.While
Haitianpeoplearehighlyself-reliantbecausetheydonothaveastatetorelyon,
dependencyonNGOscanbeanissue.Itisnotclearifdevelopmentsunderwaywouldbe
resilientandlastinginthefaceoftheabsenceofNGOs.Also,becauseHaitilacksawell
functioninglegalsystem,peopleoftenhaveinformalsystemsforimplementingjustice.Such
complexinformalsystemshavebeennecessarytoevolvetomaintaincommunityorder,but
theycanalsocontributetoacultureoffear,suspicionandviolence.
LimitationstotheResearch
Thefollowinglimitationstotheresearcharerecognized.
v Thein-depthnatureofthisresearchhasnecessitatedthatitbelimitedtoasmallnumberofparticipatorydevelopmentcasestudies.Amassingalargernumberofcasesovertime
cancontributetoabodyofworkforlearning,sharingwithothers,andinformingtheory,
policy,practiceandresearch.
200
v Nuancesinsocialinstitutionscanbeopaquetoanoutsideresearcher.AsLaurentDubois(2012)hassaid,reconstructioneffortscanonlysucceedthroughimprovedcollaborations
withHaiti’scomplexandresilientsocialinstitutions.Asanoutsider,itisparticularly
challengingtodecipheraclearunderstandingofthemanifoldlayersofHaitiancommunities’
socialinstitutions,includingcomplexstrategiesofinterdependencethatpeoplehave
developedovertimetomanagetheirco-existenceinthevirtualabsenceofastate.
v Developingarobustandclearunderstandingofstructure/agencydynamicsischallenging.Peoplearehighlydisconnectedfromgovernmentandhavenoexpectationthatthestate
willactintheirinterestsandsoarehighlyself-reliantor'sociallyresilient'.Furthermore,the
worseningpoliticaleconomyofthecountryinthepost-earthquakeeramayimpedewhat
wouldseempromisingforsocialchangeatthecommunitylevel.Alackoftrustand
accountabilityinstate-societyrelationshipsissymptomaticofthefactthatHaitihasnever
hadatruesocialcontract.
v Socialchangeneedstimetostudy.Whilethisstudytookplaceoverseveralyearsand
incorporatessometemporalaspects,itisnotpossibletoclearlygaugesocialchangeover
thisrelativelyshortperiodoftime.Incontinuingtostudytheseandothercommunitiesover
time,itwillbeimportanttosetupeffectiveandrobustdatacollectionandstorage.My
NGOcollaboratorsinHaitihaverecentlybegunpilotingnewmobiledatacollection
technologiesandtechniquesthatwillhelpfacilitatefuturedatacollectioninthelongitudinal
researchplannedforthesecommunities,aswellaswithadditionalcommunities.
6.2ContributiontoKnowledge
Thisthesisprovidesnarrativeanalysisofpost-earthquakecommunitydevelopmentexperiences
inHaiti,alongwithportraitsofcommunityparticipants’aspirationsforchange,themain
obstaclestheyface,andstrategiesthatmaypointthewayforwardtochangetheir‘future
stories’.Thisresearchcontributesaswelltoaddressinggapsininternationaldevelopment
planning,nonprofitanddisasterliteratureswithrespectto:
1) NGOs’participatorydevelopmentworkandimplicationsforstructuralchange;
2) phronesisresearchmethodologiesappliedinadisastersetting;and
3) newapproachesforlinkingcommunitydevelopmentplanningwithsocialchange.
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NGOs’participatorydevelopmentworkandimplicationsforstructuralchange
Haitihascometobeknownasthe‘RepublicofNGOs’,withagooddealofmediaattentionto
theproliferationofinternationalNGOs.However,littleacademicattentionhasbeenpaidto
thisimportantissueanditsmyriadimplicationsfordevelopmentandstate-buildinginHaiti.
Schuller(2012)providesanimportantcontributiontostudyofNGOsinHaiti;howevermuch
morestudyiswarranted,bothtoinformpracticeandpolicyinHaiti,andtoprovideanalyseson
dynamicsbetweenlocallevelandstructuralchange.ByfocusingresearchonNGOparticipatory
developmentcollaborationsandstrategies,anddevelopingatheoryofchangethatlinks
communitystoriestotransformationalnarratives,thisthesisprovidesvaluableadditional
knowledge.
Phronesisresearchintegratingcontext-specificparticipatorymethods
Thisthesisaddressesamethodologicalandsubstantivegap.First,methodologically,orhowwe
studycommunitydevelopment,isaddressedinahighlycontext-specificmanner.Icarriedout
researchdesigniterativelybasedontestingmethods,earlyfieldworkfindings,anddeskstudies
anddesignedmethodsspecificnotonlytoHaiti,butalsotothespecificlocationsofthe
research.Inparticular,theparticipatoryresearchactivities,FowòmFotoandDyalògFoto,
integratedparticipatoryphotographyforstoryelicitation,communitytimelineandparticipatory
mappingmethods,dialogue-basedprocesses,aswellasvideo.Thefieldmethodswereadapted
iterativelybasedonfindingsandissuesthataroseduringthecourseoftheworkwith
participants.Thequestionsthatprovidedthebasisfordesignandadaptationsofparticipatory
methodswerebasedonphroneticresearch(Flyvbjerg2001,Flyvbjergetal.2012).Phronetic
researchisofgrowingacademicinterestinseveraldisciplines,includingplanningliterature,and
thisthesisprovidesacontributiontoaddressingitsquestionsthroughcontext-specific
participatorymethods(aswasdoneinSandercockandAttili,2012).Iintendthatthisthesis
provideanovelcontributiontophronesisfromapost-disaster,fragile-statecontext.
202
Communitydevelopmentplanninglinktosocialchange
Iaimaswelltoaddressagapbycontributingtoabaseofempiricalevidencetolinkcommunity
developmentplanningandsocialchangeliteratures,particularlyinafragilesetting.Moulaertet
al.(2010)providesanexcellentcontributionofcommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange
interactionsanddynamicsappliedtocaseexamplesinWesternEurope,forexample.Authors
foundthatdemonstratingthepresenceofsocialinnovationprocessesprovidedtheessential
linkagebetweencommunitydevelopmentandsocialchange.However,itisdifficultto
convincinglyarguethatsocialchangeispresentwithoutatemporalaspecttoaresearchstudy.
Mythesisfieldworkwasconductedoverseveralyears,whichprovideslimitedunderstandingof
changeovertime,butIhavedesignedtheresearchsothatitcanbecarriedoutasqualitative
longitudinalresearch(QLR)withthesameparticipantslongerterm.Thethesisprovidespartof
abaselineinvestigationfortheQLR,whichwillhavebothmethodologicalandsubstantive
contributionslongertermtoliteraturesofinternationaldevelopmentplanning,socialchange
dynamicsandphronesisresearch.
Theresearchcontributestoknowledgeonseverallevels.Itprovidesnewknowledgeabout
collaborativeplanning,institutionalframeworks,education-centeredcommunitydevelopment,
andotherstrategiesandconditionsthatfosterorhindereffortstowardlocalparticipatory
governanceandcommunityandsocialtransformation.Igivespecialattentiontotherolesof
non-governmentalorganizationsandlisteningtovoicesoflocalpeople.Thisresearch
recognizesthecommunitylevelasasiteoftransformationincontributingtosystemicchange,
anditcontributesinfourareasofknowledge:1)methods;2)theory;3)practice;and4)policy.
203
1.Methodscontribution.Ihavedesignedcontext-specificmethods,includingparticipatory
photographyandparticipatorymapping,whicharerelevantforandsensitivetoconditionsof
particularresearchsites,inordertostudyandunderstanddynamicsofcommunity
developmentandsocialchangeovertime.
Ihaveadaptedarangeofqualitativeandparticipatorymethodstoeachcommunitycontext
accordingtolocalandstructuralconditionsandtheresearchquestionsinvestigated.Idrewon
well-establishedmethods,includingvariousinterviewingtechniques,participatoryphotography,
andparticipatorymapping,whichhavebeenusedoftenininternationaldevelopmentplanning
settings.Iadaptedthemethodsbasedonlocalneeds,participants’suggestionsduringfield
work,andmyownexperienceasaparticipatoryplanningpractitioner.Additionalmethods
includeddesigningandrecordingcommunitywalks,anddialoguecirclestodivedeeperinto
topicsthatparticipantschose.Giventhecontextofpost-earthquaketrauma,difficultliving
conditionsanddeephumansufferingofmanylocalpeople,myprioritiesinmethoddesignwere
to:enablemeaningfulparticipationandvoicestobeheard;andfacilitatecollectivedialogueand
sociallearningineverydayplacesatthecommunitylevel.Theunderlyingsetofvaluesofsocial
justiceandparticipationisconsistentwithFreirianphilosophythatwouldencouragepeopleto
cultivateagencytobringaboutchangeintheircommunitiesandsociety.Withrespecttoa
broadercontributionaroundmethods,thisworkisrelevantfordesigningcontext-specific
approachesinextremeconditions,suchaswithhighlymarginalizedgroupsorinotherouter
peripherycountriesandcontexts.TheresearchisdesignedwithaQualitativeLongitudinal
Research(QLR)sensibility,sothatI,orothers,cangobacktothesamecommunitiesovertime
tocontinuetheresearchandlearnfromexperiencesoftheparticipants,theirfamilies,and
developmentprocesses.Thislongitudinalanalysiswillrevealpatternsofchange(development
orstagnation)regardingoutcomes:1)attheindividualandhouseholdlevel,inlivingconditions,
education,livelihoods,subjectivewell-beingandlivedexperience;2)atcommunitylevel,in
termsofdevelopment,socialandeconomicoutcomesincludingsocialenterprisecreation,and
localgovernanceprocessesandresults;and3)atstructurallevel,revealingwhethercommunity
changeeffortshaveinfluencedothercommunitiesapproachesorpolicychange.
204
2.Theorycontribution.Thisthesisdevelopsatheoryofchange–called‘FromCommunity
StoriestoTransformationalNarrativesforHaiti’--thatmakesvisiblerelationshipsbetween
communitydevelopmentandpathwaystotransformation.Theoryisdevelopedinductively
throughstudyofparticipatorydevelopmentprocessesunderway,includingeducation-centered
communitydevelopment,aswellaslisteningtovoicesandlivedexperienceoflocalpeople.The
workcontributestobroadertheoreticaldebatesofinternationaldevelopmentplanning,the
crucialroleofnon-governmentalorganizations,thevalueofparticipatorydevelopmentandthe
importanceofcontext-sensitivequalitativeresearchinquiry.
Idrewonquestionsofphronesisinquirytointerpretlocalpeople’svoicesandexperiencesand
tounderstandtheirstories,values,aspirationsandfears.Iappliedacriticalpraxislensin
interpretingcommunitypatterns,suchasthe‘communitycorestory’ofBellevue-La-Montagne
andtheco-designedparticipatorygovernanceatHabitatSantoVillage.Iexposednarrativesof
communitylivedexperienceandtensionpointspresent,suchasinrelationshipsofpower
throughnarrativeanalysis.Basedonfindings(andmyaspirationstocontributetoachieving
broaderprioritiesforchangeinHaiti),Iidentifiedleversoftransformationflowingfromthe
narrativesandtensionpointsthatcouldbeactivatedorstrengthenedinthecaseexperience
andincommunitiesacrossHaititoadvancetransformativechange.Thetheoretical
contributionofthisthesiswillextendovertimethroughcarryingoutaresearchagendaof
QualitativeLongitudinalResearchinthecasecommunities.Myhypothesismovingforward
towardalongertermresearchagendausingqualitativelongitudinalstudyisthefollowing:
Participatorycommunitydevelopmentthathasbuilt-inmechanismsthat(a)engenderlong-term
trustamongcivilsociety,NGOandstateactors,andthat(b)encompasselementsof
collaborativerationalitytheory(adiversityofactorsandinterdependenceamongthem,and
authenticdialogue)hasthepotentialtoaddresssystemicbarrierstotransformationinHaitiand
contributepositivelytoadvancingcommunityandsocialchange.Morebroadly,thetheoretical
contributionofthisthesistointernationaldevelopmentplanningliesinaddressinghowagency
atthelocallevelhasthepotentialtointeractwithstructurallevelchangethroughprocessesof
participatorycommunitydevelopmentplanningandgovernance.
205
3.Practicecontribution.Thedocumentationandsharingofcasesofparticipatorycommunity
development,localgovernance,andlivedexperiencesoflocalpeopleintwoHaitian
communitiesprovidelearningandscalingopportunitiesforothercommunitiesseeking
developmentpathwaystowardsocialchange,aswellasNGOsandfundingagenciesthatmay
wanttosupportthem.
Intermsofpractice,bothcasecommunitiesinthisthesisprovideexcellentopportunitiesfor
participatorycommunitydevelopmentthatcouldbescaled.RidellandMoore(2015)
distinguishbetweenthreetypesofscaling:scalingup(‘impactinglawsandpolicy’),scalingout
(‘impactinggreaternumbers’),andscalingdeep(‘impactingculturalroots’).Thisthesismakesa
contributionbyenabling‘scalingout’experienceandlearningstoothercommunitiesacross
Haitiandaroundtheworld,andby‘scalingdeep’withintheBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitat
SantoVillagecommunities.Intermsofdissemination,thearticlesinthisthesishavebeen
submittedforpublicationinacademicjournals.Toreachabroaderpractitioneraudience,I
produceda6-minutevideoaboutoneofthecasecommunities(seeChapter3andEngle,2014),
whichfocusesontheparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentandwhyandhowweengaged
participatoryphotographyasapracticeandresearchmethod.Withrespecttothethesis
contributiontoNGOs,preliminaryversionsofarticleshavebeensharedwithfundingagencies
whohaveexpressedthatitsrigor,qualitativeaspect,andfocionlivedexperienceandlong-term
socialchangewerecompelling,novelandconsistentwiththeirpriorities.Myresearch
collaborator,HaitiPartners,hasindicatedthatthisresearchishighlyvaluabletotheirwork–
bothfortheinsightsandlearningitprovidestotheminordertoimprovetheirpractice,andasa
toolforevaluationandsharinglearningswithpartnersandprospectivefunders.The
participatorymethodologies,findingsandoutcomesofthisthesiscancontributenotonlytothe
workofotherresearchersandstudents,butalsotostaffininternationalandHaitian
organizations.Notleast,directbeneficiariesoftheresearchincludemyresearchcollaborators
andparticipantsinHaiti–amongthemareHabitatforHumanityHaiti,HaitiPartners,Haitian
students,teachers,NGOs,parentsandothercommunityresidents.
206
4.Policycontribution.Myresearchresultsrevealadirectlinkagewithmedium-termpolicy
prioritiesinHaitito:1)Reducevulnerabilityandbuildresilience;2)Creategreatereconomic
opportunitiesandbetterjobs;and3)Re(build)thesocialcontract.
TheabovepolicyprioritiesaresetoutinSinghandBarton-Dock(2015)andreflectasystematic
analysisofthemacroportraitofHaitifiveyearspostearthquake.Mythesisisatagranular
communitylevelandbuildsacasethatlearningsaboutcommunitynarrativesrevealtension
pointsaswellaspossibilitiesforbroadertransformation.Theidentified‘leversof
transformation’inthisthesis,whichareeitherinprocessofactivationorproposedinthecase
communities,representopportunitiesfor‘scalingup’toconnectwithHaitiangovernments’
agendasettingandinternationaldevelopmentstrategyandpolicy,particularlyintheareasof
communitydevelopment,governanceandeducation.Thearticlesinthisthesis,
recommendationsintheconclusion,andthe13-minutevideo(SeeChapter3andEngle,2014)
arebeingsharedwithpolicymakersinsideandoutsideofHaiti,andwillbetranslatedas
requested.FromtheCanadianperspective,myresearchmaybeusefultoagenciessuchasthe
CanadianInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentreinitscommunitydevelopmentplanning,
civilsociety,education,socialandeconomicpolicy,andgovernanceprogramsinGlobalSouth
countries.AtbothpracticalandpolicylevelsinHaiti,thisthesismaybeusefultodesigningand
implementingsuccessfulstrategiesforsustainableandcollaborativecommunitydevelopment
thatprovideanimportantroleforlocalNGOs,civilsociety,andparticipatorylocalgovernance
structures.Suchstrategieswouldgive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglestoovercomethe
mainbarrierstorealizingtheiraspirationsforchange.
Insum,thisthesiscontributestomoreprogressiveinternationaldevelopmentplanning,which
placeshumanandcommunitywell-beingatthecenteroftransformationefforts.
207
6.3RecommendationsforPolicyThefollowingrecommendationsareaimedprimarilyatpolicymakersandthoseinvolvedin
resourceallocationdecisions,bothwithinHaitiandtheinternationalcommunity.
v Learnfromtheoutcomesofpost-earthquakeinternationalinterventionstructuresandstrategies.
Whiledisastersmayopenpathwaystochange,theopportunitiesmustbeseizedatalllevels
andscalesinordertobetransformativetowardnewdevelopmenttrajectories.Disasters
canalsocontributetofurthermarginalization,ashashappenedinHaitipost-earthquake,
notonlybecauseoftheprofoundhumanandenvironmentaldamageofthecatastrophes
themselves,butbecauseprocessesofreliefandrecoverycanreinforcepatternsof
imperialismandinternationalintervention,suchashasoccurredinHaiti.
v Scaleupcommunitydevelopmentexperiencestoinformpolicychange.
Atpracticalandpolicylevels,theBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillagecasescan
usefullyandcriticallyinformdesignandimplementationofimprovedstrategiesfor
participatoryandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentandlocalgovernance
planningthatprovideimportantrolesforlocalpeopleandcivilsociety,andanuancedrole
forinternationalorganizationswhichissensitivetopowerdynamics.Suchdevelopment
strategieswouldsimilarlygive‘voice’tocommunitiesintheirstrugglesforchangeand
wouldactivatekeyleversoftransformationsuchasthoseidentifiedinthiscase,including:
1)bettereducationandlearningforlife;2)placeidentity,networks,andresearch;3)social
entrepreneurshipandsocialinnovation;and4)strengtheningtrustandaccountability
amongthestate,civilsocietyandNGOs.Theseleversareinlinewiththemedium-term
prioritiesforpolicyactionproposedbytheWorldBankinits2015report,‘Haiti:TowardaNewNarrative’,whichare:1)(Re)buildingthesocialcontract;2)Creatinggreatereconomicopportunitiesandbetterjobs;and3)Reducingvulnerabilitiesandbuildingresilience.Theseworthyandimportantgoalswillneedtobevigorouslypursuedatalllevelsifsignificant
progressistobemadetowardthem.Thelocalcommunitylevelhasaparticularly
importantroletoplay.
v RenderNGOsoperatinginHaitiaccountabletolocalpeopleandthestate,andstrengthen
stateaccountabilitytopeopleandlocalcommunities.
Independentgroupsarecriticaltofosteringcivilsociety.However,thereisagapinpolicies
thataddressNGOsinwaysthatwouldmakethemmoreaccountabletoHaitians,aswellas
moretransparentandmoreeffectiveinservingthelong-terminterestsofHaiti.Whilethe
thousandsofNGOsmaybemostlywell-intentioned,manydonotworkinwaysthat
contributepositivelytolasting,systemicchange.Betterpoliciesthatarebasedonresearch
areneeded.Forexample,obliginginternationalNGOsthatoperateinHaititodemonstrate
208
theirlong-termcontributionstothecountry,suchasbyaccompanyingorsettinguplocal
affiliateorganizationswhichareHaitian-led,therebybuildingoncapabilitiesofpeopleto
increasetheirfreedomandagency,anddecreasingdependenceonexternalorganizations.Inthe‘RepublicofNGOs’,internationalorganizationsneedtotakemoredirect
responsibilitytostrengthenHaitianlocalandstateinstitutionsandtobeaccountableto
them.Andforitspart,theHaitianstatemustbepreparedtodevelopandrespectreliable
mechanismsformoreeffectiveandtransparentstate-society-NGOrelationshipsifHaitiisto
evolveatruesocialcontractbetweenstateandcitizens.
v Favorcommunitylevelchangeindevelopmentstrategies,andvaluelearningfrom
experiencesofmarginalizedHaitians,whorepresentthevastmajority,andinalong-termchangeperspective.
MostoftheavailableinternationaldevelopmentdataforHaitiareatthemacrolevel,and
revealmiseryand‘underdevelopment’anddonotprovidepathwaysforchange.Reliance
onmacronumbershasfailedtoexplainlocalrealitiesoradequatelyservedtoaddressthe
needsofmassivestructuralinequality.SocialinstitutionsinHaitihavesubstantiallyeluded
conventionalstrategiesofinternationaldevelopment.Inmuchinternationaldevelopment
discourse,thereisnowrecognitionoftheimportanceoflocally-based‘people-centered’
approaches,‘participatorydevelopment’,andenablingpeople’s‘agency’.Moremixed
methodsandqualitativestudiesarewarrantedinordertodeepenunderstandingof
processesofchangethatarepossibleatlocallevelinordertotransformHaiti’s
developmenttrajectory.Inparticular,qualitativeanalysesthatinvestigatecommunity
developmentinacontext-specificanddistinctlyhumanwayarelacking.Suchanalysesare
neededinordertorevealpatternsofsocialchangeincommunities.Applyinglongitudinal
studymethodsinspecificplaceswithfamilies,households,andcommunitiesoverthelong
termwillrevealpatternstoinformdevelopmentdecisions,strategies,andinvestments.
6.4FutureDirectionsforResearchandPractice
Thisthesisisintendedtoprovideaportraitofparticipatorycommunitydevelopment
experiencesinthefirstseveralyearsfollowingthe2010earthquake,butitisalsointendedto
providethebeginningsofalong-terminquirythatwouldcontributetolearningandchangein
Haiti,andtobroaderinternationaldevelopmentpracticesanddiscourses.Followingarefuture
directionsenvisionedthatwouldbuildonthiswork,andthatwouldsupportalignedeffortsof
otherscholarsandpractitioners.
209
1.Improveunderstandingofcommunity/structurallevelinteractionsandrelationships.TransformationinHaitiisunlikelywithoutconvergenceofsocialchangeatcommunitylevels
andstructuralchangeatnationalandinternationallevels.Investigatingdynamicsofstructure
andagencyinHaitiisalongtermproject.ItisevidentthatHaitihasbeeninanever-ending
transitiontodemocracysincethecreationoftheHaitianconstitutionin1987followingthefall
oftheDuvalierregime,andthatHaitihasbecomeincreasinglydependentoninternationalaid
andimportedfoodandhasfallenontheHumanDevelopmentIndex.However,knowledge
aboutpeople’severydaylivedexperiencesinHaitiandevidenceofcommunity-levelchange
overtimeislacking.Whilethereareanthropologicalandsocialmovementstudies(notablyby
JennieSmith,2001;MarkSchuller,2012;andBeverlyBell,2013),agapremainsinour
understandingofhowagencyatthelocallevelinteractswithstructurallevelchange,
particularlyinthepost-earthquakeera.
2.Applythetheoryofchange‘fromcommunitystoriestotransformationalnarratives’toothercontexts,withcontext-specificadaptations.Thetheoryofchangedevelopedinthisresearchcanprovideastartingpointorhypothesisfor
studyofothercommunitydevelopmentcases.Asappropriate,elementsofthetheorycouldbe
adaptedaccordingtolocalcontextsoraimsoftheresearch.Forexample,issuesbeingstudied,
typesofmethodsused,oroverallaimsoftheresearchmayinfluenceapplicabilityoftheoryof
changeelements.Thecoreaspectsofthetheory--listeningtolocalvoices,understanding
communitynarratives,exposingtensionpoints,andderivingleversoftransformation--couldbe
applicableinawidearrayofcontextsandsettingswherelocalactorsaimtobringabout
transformativechange.
3.StudylongtermchangeandoutcomesincommunitiesthroughQualitativeLongitudinalResearch.Oneimportantaimoffutureresearchistomakevisibleoverthelongtermwhether,andto
whatextent,theeducation-centeredandparticipatoryapproachestocommunitydevelopment
arecontributingtosocialtransformation.
210
Inordertocontinuelearningfrompeople’slivedexperiencesovertime,thisstudyisdesigned
toenablequalitativelongitudinalresearch.Withthisweaimtoexposedynamicsofsocial
changeovertheyearsthatwilltrackconditions,perceptions,andoutcomesofparticipants,
theirfamiliesandlocalcommunities.Withcollaborators,Ihopetocontributetoimproved
communitydevelopmentpolicy,research,andpracticeinHaitiandbroaderstructural
transformationwherecitizens’voicesareheardandcommunitiesareempoweredtorealize
theiraspirationsforchange.Anearlynextsteptowardarobustlongtermstudyisthe
preparationofadetailedbaselinereportforoneorbothcasecommunities.Abaselinereport
wouldprovideinformationfromhouseholdinterviews,andcoulddocumentdataalready
collectedofphotos,videos,narratives,andparticipant-mademaps(ofplace,oftravel,andof
organizations’importanceandeffectiveness),andofthesituationinthebasestudyyearsof
2010-2013.Thisbaselinewouldprovideastartingpointforstudyinsubsequentyearsatregular
intervalsthroughfieldwork.WithNGOpartnersandlocallytrainedpeopleinHaiti,weare
alreadypilotingadatacollectionsystemusingmobiledeviceswhichiswelladaptedforsuch
subsequentstudy.
Aqualitativelongitudinalresearchsensibilitygivescloseconsiderationtotemporalaspectsof
research,andacriticalpraxislensentailsanalyzinginteractionsoftheagencyofpeoplewith
respecttobroaderstructuresandinstitutions,aswellasfavoringparticipatorymethodswith
potentialtocontributetocriticalconsciousnessanddirectaction.Followingaresomeofthe
questionsthatsuchaperspectiveposesregardingfutureresearchatthelevelof:
participant/community;Haiti;andotherpost-disasterandouter-peripherycontexts.In
addition,relevantquestionsariserelatedtothepotentialcontributiontochangeaffordedby
(thepracticeof)participatorymethods.
• Whatwillthesecommunitieslooklikeinfivetotenyearsandlongerterm,andhowcan/will
localpeopleandparticipatoryprocessesshapetheirevolution?
• Whatagencydopeoplehavetoimprovestate-societyrelationsandmajorsystemic
challengesinHaiti,andhowisthischangingovertime?
211
• Whatlearningovertimefromthecasecommunitiesisinstructiveforothercommunitiesin
HaitiaswellasforHaitiangovernmentandinternationalagenciestoinformcommunity
developmentpolicies,practicesandfundingmechanisms?
• Howcanthisresearchbenefitthesecommunities,Haiti,andotherpost-disaster,outer-
periphery,ormarginalizedcontexts?
• Howtoexpose,aswellascontributeto,socialchangedynamicsandbettercommunity
developmentoutcomesinthelongterm?
Obviousanswersarenotapparenttomanysuchquestions,whichunderlinestheneedtotrack
theevolutionofbothBellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillageovertime.Researchand
learningfromthesesignificantprojectscanprovidevaluablecontributionstoplanning,policy,
andparticularlyparticipatoryandeducation-centeredcommunitydevelopmentand
collaboratively-designedself-governanceinHaiti,aswellasotherpost-disastersettings.
4.Scaleup,scaleout,andscaledeeppromisingparticipatorycommunitydevelopmentinitiatives.Thisthesisisscholarlywork,anditisalso,quitepractically,acalltoaction.Itisaninvitationto
policymakers,funders,andpeoplefromallwalksoflifetorecognizethecommunitylevelasa
siteoftransformationinHaiti,aswellasotherhighlymarginalizedcontexts.Thiswouldmean
scalingpromisinginitiativessuchasthecaseshereonthreelevels:1)‘scalingout’tobringsocial
innovationstomorecommunities;2)‘scalingup’toinfluencesystemicandpolicychange;and
3)‘scalingdeep’toaffectculturalnormsandpatterns,onecommunityatatime.By
highlighting,amplifying,andconnectingexamplesofcommunitydevelopmentwhichare
contributingtopositivelong-termchange,Haitiwillbeabletostepawayfromitscurrent
trajectoryandfinditspathwaytoamorehumane,inclusiveandjustsociety.
Thesecasesprovideexamplesofstrategiesthathavethepowertochangestoriesforpeople
andcommunitiesinHaitiandchangethecountry’sbroadernarratives.Education-centered
communitydevelopmentandparticipatorycommunitygovernance,asexemplifiedinthe
Bellevue-La-MontagneandHabitatSantoVillagecasesrespectively,showpromiseaspathways
212
toscale.Thereareothercaseexamplesandstrategieswhichmeritrecognitionandscalingas
well.Bydoingso,Haitihaspotentialtocreateanarrativeofsocialtransformationthatwould
changeitsdevelopmenttrajectoryandoutcomesforcommunitiesacrossthecountry,and
provideinspirationforotherouterperipherycountriesandmarginalizedsocieties.
Throughtheprocessesandresultsofthisresearch,pathwaysoftransformationhavebeen
exposed,andthereisevidencethatthecasecommunitiesarechoosingthoseways.A
metaphorfortheirpathwaytotransformationisfoundonthewindyroadthatleadsthrough
Bellevue-La-Montagnetotheschool,abeaconofhopeforwhatispossible--itisrocky,
undulatingandsteepinplaces,andwithsurprisingturnsandbreathtakingviewsalongtheway.
MaythatpathwaybecomeametaphorforsocialtransformationincommunitiesacrossHaiti.
213
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Appendix:InterviewsinHaiti,2011-2013
Icarriedoutinterviewswiththefollowingpeople,insomecasesmultipleinterviews.Interviewstylesrangedfromsemi-structuredtoopen-ended,probe,andinformal.AbelardXavier HaitiPartnersAlexMyril HaitiPartnersBenajaAntoine HaitiPartnersCindyJosef casecommunityresidentClaudeJeudy HabitatforHumanityClaudineMichel YunusSocialBusiness/GrameenCreativeLabsDarrenGill ArchitectureforHumanityDorothyPierreLouis CitéSoleilCommunitySchoolErikBadger HaitiPartnersFrancesseAntoine casecommunityresidentFrémyCesar OpenSpaceHaitiFritzDeshommes HaitiStateUniversityGregHemphill USAID,Pan-AmericanDevelopmentFundGuerlineErnest casecommunityresidentGuyMorelus CitéSoleilCommunitySchoolHansTippenhauer FondationEspoir-JeuneAyiti JacquelineSt-Vaudré casecommunityresidentJacquesLucet casecommunityresidentJasonMcGaughey JP/HROHaitiJeanSamuelAndré casecommunityresidentJohnEngle HaitiPartnersJosephatJeanBaptiste casecommunityresidentKateEvarts ArchitectureforHumanityLeslieVoltaire architect,urbanplanner/formerPresidentialcandidateMarieVeronilaAntoine casecommunityresidentMarie-AngeMeristyl casecommunityresidentMayorSantos CityofLéogâneMerlineMyrilEngle BellevueGuestHousemanagerMesilusBien-Aimé casecommunityresidentMimzDiño HabitatforHumanityMiraclePierre CitéSoleilCommunitySchoolMireilleCivil casecommunityresidentMmeBoby casecommunityresidentMmeSonson casecommunityresidentMyriamNarcisse consultantandtranslatorPatricksonBien-Aimé casecommunityresidentProphèteAntoine casecommunityresidentSabinaCarlsonRobillard FutureGenerationsHaitiSherlyneBien-Aimé casecommunityresidentStevenWerlin FONKOZETalamasJean casecommunityresidentWalnordSimilien HabitatforHumanityYolandeBien-Aimé casecommunityresident
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