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LINFIELD COLLEGE
SIDNEY RIGDON: A QUEST FOR RELIGIOUS POWER
SENIOR THESIS SUBMITED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES
IN CANDIDACY FOR THE BACHELOR DEGREE
OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES
BY
MATT DAVIES
MCMINNVILLE, OREGON
DECEMBER 2009
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There are several people whom I must thank for their invaluablehelp and support with this project.
I need to thank my family for their love and support over the years.Although we do not agree on everything, and never will, you havealways encouraged me to seek truth. Throughout my maturation, inlife, in faith, and in academics, you have proudly supported me,trusting that I would find my way. Thank you so much for your loveand support.
I would like to thank all my friends down at BYU for their friendship. You all have opened my eyes and heart and have positively changedmy life, for which I will always be indebted. I always think fondly of ourtimes in Vienna and Utah. You welcomed me into your homes,
families, and community with open arms, treating me with nothing butlove. Your testimonies are incredible and I thank you all from thebottom of my heart.
The professors at Linfield have been extremely supportive andcritical in my academic development. Without you, my research wouldhave been stuck in a conservative rut. However, you have taught methat the academic study of religion need not contradict my personalfaith. They can, in fact, compliment each other. You have developedmy thoughts and writings and because of you, I am confident that I cansucceed at any level. From the department of Religious Studies, I
would like to explicitly thank the following professors: Dr. Bill Millar, Dr.Bill Apel, Dr. Stephen Snyder, and Dr. David Massey. I would be remissif I didnt thank Dr. Peter Richardson, professor of German. Throughyour advice and support, I have developed both personally andacademically. You have been a powerful influence in my life and I amforever thankful.
Lastly, but most importantly, I need to thank my roommate, AndrewWebber. Our long walks and discussions have been the most profoundinfluences on my life. We have wrestled with the tough questions andhave struggled to find ourselves. We have attempted to define our
personal credos, matured through different religious traditions, andhave engaged texts together. Your friendship has been invaluable andI sincerely thank you.
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SIDNEY RIGDON: A QUEST FORRELIGIOUS POWER
I. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Thesis: Sidney Rigdons quest for religious power andbelonging caused him to become a forgotten andmisunderstood religious influence.
II. Rigdons EarlyLife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 3a. Rigdons upbringing on his family farm gave him a longing
for learning.b. Rigdons apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley allowed
him his first taste of religious power.c. Rigdons credo is not yet clearly refined.
III. Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the Disciples of Christ.. . . . . . 7a. Rigdons first interaction with Campbell gave him a sense
of belonging.b. As Rigdon began to develop his own credo, he began to
exercise religious power, disagreeing with Campbell onseveral issues.
IV. Conversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 16a. A brief survey on the founding of Mormonism and
Joseph Smith.b. Rigdons conversion was directly caused by the Book of
Mormon.c. Rigdons renowned rhetoric gave him early power in the
LDS church.
V. Influence on Latter-DaySaints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27a. Rigdon served as Smiths spokesman.b. As compiler of the Doctrine and Covenants , Rigdon
exercised vast power over the importance of doctrines.c. Rigdon continued to gain and exercise religious power.
VI. Post-1844 Theology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 41a. After Smiths assassination, Rigdon attempted to lead
Church, quickly being silenced by Brigham Young.b. Rigdon founded his own church, the Church of Jesus Christ
of the Children of Zion, but this church quickly failed afterRigdons death.
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VII.Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 49
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Sidney Rigdon: A Quest for Religious
Power
Introduction
The story of the origin of the Mormon Church is one that is
vaguely familiar to many Americans, yet may be riddled with myths,
inconsistencies, and misinformation. Joseph Smith, widely
acknowledged by American historians as one of the most influential
Americans in the nineteenth century, received revelations from God
commanding him to found Jesus true church on earth, one that was
lost during the early centuries of Christianity. 1 Joseph Smith did not
found the most successful American religion solely by his own doing,
however. He could not have been successful without a powerful
supporting cast, one of whom was Sidney Rigdon.
Rigdon is unfamiliar to many both outside and inside the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (hereafter referred to as the LDS
Church). Beginning his religious career with Alexander Campbell in the
Restoration Movement, Rigdon converted to Mormonism in its early
stages, quickly became Smiths right-hand man, a trusted counselor, a
proven preacher, and a man rich with religious experience. Church
historical records from both the Campbellite movement, known today
as the Disciples of Christ, and the LDS church portray Rigdon
negatively, necessitating that one sift through the biases in order to
determine the influence Rigdon had upon these religions. His
movement through several religious traditions stemmed from a quest
1 Smith is listed in the Britannica Guide to the 100 Most Influential Americans . (Robinson Publishing, 2008.)
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for religious power and belonging. Although he began as a Baptist
preacher, Rigdon found his place in the Mormon Church, shaping
doctrines and preaching the Gospel of this new religion. He positioned
himself to thrive in leadership roles, aiming to be influential in religious
traditions and well regarded by all, both inside and outside thosetraditions. Using rhetoric and charisma, he obtained unique power and
privileges in the LDS Church. Rigdon shaped and created LDS doctrine
until Joseph Smiths untimely death in 1844, when he made a claim for
the Church presidency. Sidney Rigdons quest for religious power and
belonging caused him to become a forgotten and misunderstood
religious influence.
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Sidney Rigdons Early Life
Rigdons Upbringing on his Family Farm
Sidney Rigdon was born in 1793 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
to Baptist parents. Rigdons grandparents were Quakers and
suspected Tories during the American Revolution, causing his parents
to convert to the Baptist church, specifically a Calvinist church,
because of the churchs democratic and patriotic values. 2 Rigdon grew
up on his fathers farm in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, yet rejected
the farming life. In fact, much strife existed between Rigdon and his
father William because of Rigdons desire to read and become
educated. He borrowed many books from neighbors, interested
specifically in history and the Bible. 3 Reading by a small fire at night,
Rigdon educated himself; after reading the Bible and studying history,
he began to interpret the history of the world since New Testament
times in terms of Biblical prophecy, which would later prove beneficial
to Joseph Smith, who believed in modern day revelation and prophecy. 4
William Rigdon died in 1810, when Rigdon was only 17, leaving Sidney
to care for the farm with his mother. They sold the farm 8 years later
and Rigdon decided to become a Baptist preacher.
Rigdons Apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley
2 Richard S. Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon: A Portrait of ReligiousExcess (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 6.
3F. Mark McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness: Sidney
Rigdon, Religious Reformer, 1793-1876 (Lawrence, Kansas: Coronade Press,1972), 14.
4Ibid.
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Despite Rigdons upbringing in the Baptist church, he claimed
after his conversion to Mormonism that he had had no religious
experience there. Rigdon was officially baptized as a Baptist at the
age of 24, after fulfilling the rigorous Calvinistic requirements. ABaptist conversion had to demonstrate
. . . an exercise of miraculous power on the part of God, whichthe sinner could neither so control as to bring himself under itsinfluence, nor resist when he was subjected to it. . . . Theexperience had to stand the scrutiny of a validation committeeand a subsequent confirming vote by the congregation . . . forfull membership in the society. 5
The next year, in 1819, Rigdon received his ministerial license and
began his preaching career. A ministerial license differed from an
ordination. A licensed preacher acted much like an apprentice,
studying under an ordained minister, yet was unable to perform the
sacraments such as the Eucharist and baptism. 6 Moving from
Pennsylvania to Ohio in the same year, Rigdon attained his ordination,
giving him the opportunity to become a pastor for his own
congregation. He worked under the authority of Adamson Bentley, a
founder of the Mahoning Baptist Association. 7 It is interesting to notice
the timing of when events took place in Ohio, because it shows
Rigdons first experience with religious power. According to Rigdon
biographer Richard Van Wagoner, Rigdon moved to Western Reserve,
Ohio, in early 1819 and three months later married Phebe Brook, the
daughter of a Baptist preacher. Their wedding took place on June 12,
5Ibid., 7.
6Ibid., 10.
7 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 18.
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1820, leading one to believe that Rigdon arrived in late February or
early March. He lived with Bentley, a brother-in-law to Phebe, since his
move to Ohio and began his preaching career as a circuit rider. The
Mahoning Baptist Association was officially founded and recognized on
August 30, 1820, about 17 months after Rigdons arrival.8
In fact,Rigdon was asked to write the Corresponding Letter along with
Bentley and Rigdons cousin, Baptist preacher Charles Rigdon; this
letter allowed the different congregations across the states to
communicate doctrine and church news. 9 Because of Bentleys
influence and inclusion of Rigdon, Rigdon recognized the power that
accompanies the founding of a denomination or religious association,
beginning his quest for religious power and belonging.
Rigdons Credo is Not Yet Clearly Defined
The dogma of the Mahoning Baptist Association allowed Rigdon
to begin to more clearly define his personal credo. Although he was
raised in the Baptist church, Rigdon only moderately accepted the
Baptist theology. Like many, he simply accepted what was preached
without actively questioning or shaping his personal theology. His son
later claimed that Rigdon knew the Bible as well as his spelling book,
and, as a child, was always engaged in studying rather than hobbies or
leisure. 10 His apprenticeship not only allowed him to define his beliefs,8Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 18.
9Ibid.
10 John Wickliff Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of theMormon Church, Times: A Souvenir Newspaper Devoted to the FriendshipSesqui-Centennial (July 25-31, 1965),
http://sidneyrigdon.com/RigHist/RigHist2.htm#johnwr (accessed September28, 2009).
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but also allowed him to develop a system through which one may find
truth. He believed that one should constantly search for truth, not
blindly accepting any doctrine based solely on the preachers personal
doctrine or the churchs dogma. Searching the Scriptures and studying
the doctrines of other religions and denominations was important forones personal edification.
Rigdon adopted his credo from several sources. The Mahoning
Baptists, whom he had helped found, followed five essential principles:
baptism by immersion, separation of church and state, conversion
experience, individual responsibility for sins, and congregational
church government. 11 Rigdons travels as a circuit rider also led him
to visit the Shakers, an early American religion founded by Mother Ann
Lee, who claimed herself to be the female incarnate of God. 12 Rigdons
constant quest for truth would eventually cause divisive rifts between
him and his religious communities.
11McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 18-19. These
five principles resound clearly with the modern LDS church, possibly easingRigdons conversion to Mormonism doctrinally.
12
It is highly likely that he adopted some of their doctrines, namely theiremphasis in the gifts of the Spirit and modern day revelations.
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Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the
Disciples of Christ
Rigdons First Interaction with Campbell
Alexander Campbell, the founder of the Disciples of Christ, gave
Rigdon his second taste of religious belonging and power. 13 In 1821
Rigdon and Bentley read a published debate by Campbell about infant
baptism, leading them to seek out Campbell in order to better
ascertain his theology and doctrines. 14 Although the official LDS
historian in the early twentieth century and Rigdons son ignore this
chapter of Rigdons life, his time with Campbell is worth investigating.
Campbell had a profound influence both on Rigdon and on the
American religious frontier in the nineteenth century.
Campbell met Rigdon and Bentley in July of 1821 while preaching
in southern Ohio and Kentucky. 15 Speaking extensively about
everything from
Adam . . . to the final judgment, 16 Campbell attracted the two with
his clear doctrines and extensive knowledge of the Bible. Campbell
was equally impressed with Rigdons rhetoric and charisma, urging him
13 Campbell was also an influential voice inside the Restorationmovement, a movement aimed at restoring the modern church to the originalfirst or second century style and dogma, ridding the modern church of creedsand doctrines created through councils in the later centuries.
14 This famed 1820 debate, commonly known as the Campbell-Walker
debate, thrust Campbell onto the religious scene as a prominent religiousvoice and theologian.
15 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 23.
16Ibid.
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Rigdon began his pastorship in Pittsburgh in early 1822 at the
urging of Campbell. Campbell believed that Rigdon could not only
grow the church and preach the Gospel, but could also advance
personally, refining his orator skills and developing his credo.20
Hischurch quickly became one of the most respectable churches in the
city, gaining new members quickly and propelling Rigdon into fame. 21
Rigdons son claimed that he became the most eloquent preacher in
the city, with fame and fortune within grasp. 22
During a rising reputation, Rigdon began to test his religious
power and influence, causing rifts and factions inside his congregation
and the Baptist church. Several sources simply claim that Rigdon
began to disagree with the doctrines that the Baptist church held and,
after prayer and searching the Scriptures, began to teach his own
theology. The 20 th century Mormon historian John Jaques claimed in his
own words that after awhile he [Rigdon] was greatly perplexed with
the idea that the doctrines taught by the church he was connected
with were not altogether in accordance with Scripture. 23 Rigdon
biographer Mark McKiernan maintains that Rigdon was simply acting as
20McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 22. Rigdon has
much to owe Campbell for the development of his theology, but the study of Alexander Campbells theology and doctrine does not find a place inside thisstudy. Campbell and Walter Scott, another influential voice inside theRestoration movement, undoubtedly influenced Rigdons credo and religiousbeliefs. See Royal Humbert, A Compend of Alexander Campbells Theology orHiram Van Kirk, A History of the Theology of the Disciples of Christ for ananalysis of Campbells and Scotts theology.21
John Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I, Improvement Era III , no. 2-9 (December 1899 July 1900),http://sidneyrigdon.com/RigHist/RigHist1.htm#1899 (accessed September 28,2009).22
Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the History of Early Mormonism. 23 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
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a spokesman for Campbells theology, and the Baptist church, out of
contempt for Campbell, began to create factions in Rigdons church in
order to discredit both Campbell and Rigdon. He cites explicitly
Campbells and Rigdons rejection of the Old Testament in favor of a
more literal interpretation of the New Testament.24
Another purported cause, advocated by Richard Van Wagoner,
deserves a closer look. Van Wagoner quotes the Pittsburgh churchs
official writings, claiming that Rigdons doctrine of baptismal
regeneration led to his excommunication. 25 He claims that John
Winter, a member of Rigdons congregation, organized a small
opposition group to challenge Rigdon. The following are the teachings
in which Winter claimed Rigdon erred in teaching: 1) Christians are no
longer under obligation to a moral law; 2) the Jewish dispensation
made the Jews children of hell; 3) a change of heart merely consists of
a change of views and baptism; 4) there is no such thing as religious
experience; 5) faith is simply crediting the testimony of evangelists;
and 6) it is wrong to pray the Lords prayer. 26 Some of these
accusations were probably created by a disillusioned and bitter Winter,
angry that members of the congregation chose to follow Rigdon
instead of remaining in the Baptist church.
The first teaching, of which Winter was critical, was a doctrine
that Campbell was accused of teaching, and because of Rigdons
closeness with Campbell, it is a logical conclusion that Rigdon would
24McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 22.
25Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 29.
26Ibid., 31.
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have been accused of the same. 27 The third and fourth teachings are
extremely similar, coming from the paradigm of a strict Baptist church.
Their position held that a change of heart, coming in the form of
conversion, should affect the entire person, including a change in
lifestyle along with a change in paradigm. The fourth teaching camedirectly from Rigdons own personal experience, as Rigdon claimed
that he fabricated his religious experience in the Baptist church in
order to be baptized. Granted, he wrote that while he was in the
Mormon Church and had already been disowned and discredited by the
Baptist church. Still, if Winters claims can be trusted, it shows that
Rigdon truly did make up that experience, choosing to join with the
Baptists mainly for religious power and belonging. Nothing could be
found by this author about the second or sixth claims by Winter in
regard to Rigdons or Campbells theology.
No matter the cause, Rigdon resigned from the Baptist church in
1824, choosing to remain aligned with Alexander Campbell. The
Baptists declared that he was excommunicated. However, Rigdon did
not return to preaching for Campbells new religious movement, known
then as the Campbellites and now as the Disciples of Christ,
immediately after Pittsburgh. Struggling to support his wife and three
children, Rigdon began work as a tanner in Pittsburgh. Very little is
known about Rigdon during this time. I presume that he continued to
follow and communicate with Campbell. In 1825 Campbell published a
series of lectures titled A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things,
toward which Rigdon immediately gravitated, believing in the ancient
27 Campbell was accused of being an Antinomianist, someone who
believes that members of a certain religion are not under any legal or moralobligation.
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creeds and orders under which the first and second century church
operated. 28 Owing to the fact that Rigdon still had followers from his
Baptist congregation, he probably continued to operate as a circuit
rider, traveling to various members houses and exercising his
renowned rhetorical skills.In 1826, Rigdon gave a funeral eulogy in Mentor, Ohio, for a
respected Baptist preacher. He so impressed the congregation that
they offered him the pastorship, allowing him to preach Campbells
and his doctrines. 29 If Rigdon was renowned before, he became even
more so while in Mentor. Preaching baptism for the remission of sins,
gifts of the Holy Spirit, and a restoration of the Ancient Order, he
thrived, becoming famous and desired in churches. Rejecting creeds
and rituals, Rigdon used the Bible alone for doctrines. His success
caused some citizens to produce slanderous reports about him, yet
Rigdon continued to preach, emphasizing the literal fulfillment of
prophecy, the gathering of Israel in the last days, the second coming of
Jesus, and the forthcoming millennial reign of Jesus on earth. 30 He
strengthened his association with Campbell and Walter Scott, starting
revivals across the Western Reserve, a territory in northeastern Ohio.
A Campbellite historian said that Rigdons preaching was the great
religious awakening in Mentor. 31
During his years in Mentor, Rigdon was bold enough to abandon
some of the Baptists and Campbells teachings and actively pursue his28Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 40.
29McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 25.
30Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
31
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 26. Emphasisadded.
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own. Becoming confident in his theology and fame across Ohio, he
first became irritated that he received little credit for the origin of the
Campbellite movement. Although recognized as an important
spokesman and preacher, Rigdon wrote in 1843 that he was as much
the originator as Campbell.32
Despite the fact Rigdon wrote thatchallenging statement thirteen years after leaving the Campbellites, it
accurately demonstrates his mindset. He wanted recognition not
merely as an influential preacher, but also as an originator and
founder. The deciding factor took place in late 1827 or early 1828,
when Campbell chose Walter Scott over Rigdon as traveling evangelist
for the movement. 33 Forcing Rigdon to remain in his Mentor
congregation instead of traveling across Ohio, Campbell made a crucial
mistake. As a result, Rigdon decided to exercise his own religious
power.
He began to develop his own theology distinct from Campbells.
He challenged some of Campbells reasonings and apologies before
developing doctrines contradictory to the Campbellites. One of the
major differences manifested itself after an 1829 debate between
Campbell and Robert Owen, a proponent of a commune style
community for believers. Owen was a Scottish reformer who sought to
end poverty through family commonwealths. 34 Campbell opposed
this belief, challenging Owen to an eight day, sixteen-session debate.
Campbell was so persuasive in his debate that Owen surrendered the
last three days of the debate, leaving Campbell to preach in his
32Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 43.
33Ibid.
34 Ibid., 50.
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stead. 35 Rigdon, however, supported the idea of a commune society,
drawing from Acts 2:44-45, from which Rigdon inferred a commune
within the early church. In February of 1830, he convinced two
farmers to implement a common-stock community, gaining more than
100 families by October.36
Becoming bold due to the acceptance of this doctrine, Rigdon openly challenged Campbell from the pulpit,
outlining differences in eschatology, church creeds, and gifts of the
Spirit, including prophecy and speaking in tongues. 37 This angered
Campbell, openly challenging him, in turn, at meetings and becoming
an aggressive persecutor of Rigdons beliefs. 38 Therefore, in the fall
of 1830, Rigdon decided to disassociate his congregation from
Campbell. As a culmination of frustration from a lack of recognition,
respect, and power, Rigdon began to search for his next religious
move, a move that would further his quest for religious power.
Conversion
A Brief Survey on the Founding of Mormonism and Joseph
Smith
Joseph Smith was born on December 23, 1805, in Vermont, but
his family soon moved to New Hampshire. In 1816, the Smith family
35Ibid.
36Ibid.
37McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 27.
38 Ibid., 28.
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moved to Palmyra, New York, where the Mormon faith began. Smiths
first religious vision occurred at the young age of fourteen, when he
prayed aloud for the first time and received a vision of God and Jesus
appearing to him. 39 In the minds of Mormons today, the events of
that morning marked the beginning of the restoration of the Gospeland the commencement of a new dispensation. The vision is called the
First Vision because it began a series of revelations. 40 Smith was
praying to God concerning the truth of the various Christian
denominations. Not knowing which was true, he took the advice found
in James 1:5, instructing the believer to ask God for wisdom when
lacking it. Three years later, in 1823, the angel Moroni visited him,
giving him the location of gold plates, on which the Book of Mormon
was written. On the night of September 21, Moroni visited three times,
telling Smith about gold plates, giving an account of the former
inhabitants of this continent and the source from whence they sprang.
. . . There were [also] two stones in silver bows . . . called the Urim
and Thummim . . . and the possession and use of these stones was
what constituted seers in ancient or former times and that God had
prepared them for the purpose of translating that book. 41 These
former inhabitants were a lost tribe of Israel, led to America
immediately before the Babylonian exile. Jesus visited this Jewish tribe
after His resurrection and subsequent 40 days on earth; Jesus
preached the Gospel to them and baptized them. After being revealed
the location of these tablets, Smith went to obtain them, yet was39 Fawn Brodie, No Man Knows my History, 2 nd ed. (New York: Vintage
Books, 1971), 22.40
Richard Lyman Bushman, Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 39.
41Ibid., 44.
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turned away because of greed. 42 He returned annually for four years,
finally obtaining the plates on September 21, 1827. 43
He tried to keep the existence of these plates a secret,
presumably because of the expected negative reactions from
neighbors and the intrinsic monetary value.44
However, Smith neededhelp with the translation. These gold plates were written in an ancient
Egyptian language, only able to be translated with the seer stones.
Martin Harris, a respected farmer in Palmyra, assisted Smith with the
translations. With a curtain dividing Smith and Harris, Smith dictated
the translated plates to Harris, who acted as scribe. Harris never saw
the gold plates for himself. The translation began in April 1828, and by
mid June, 116 pages had been transcribed. 45 These pages were lost or
stolen, however, when Harris brought them home for his wife to
examine. Fawn Brodie contends that Harris wife stole them, in order
to test the authenticity Smiths translations. If this be a divine
communication, the same being who revealed it to you can easily
replace it. 46 Smith was instructed by God not to retranslate the 11642
It is widely speculated among many Mormon scholars that Smithengaged in treasure hunts with his father, searching for hidden gold andtreasure around the region. When Smith first saw the plates, it is presumedthat he thought solely about the monetary value or worth of the plates. Godrecognized this greed and, wanting Smith to have a pure heart, denied himaccess to the plates until a time when he was pure in heart. Both the secularFawn Brodie and the LDS Richard Bushman write about Smiths treasurehunting past.43
Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 40. For a more detailed account of the time between the revelation and the obtainment of the plates, seeBushman, Joseph Smith: A Rough Stone Rolling, 41-52.44
The fear was perhaps fueled by negative perceptions by Smithsneighbors concerning their treasure hunting. Revelations and communicationwith the Divine were common during this time, with many people, both clergyand lay, claiming these communications. For the most extensive research,see D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View .
45 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 66.
46Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 54.
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pages, but instead to continue on with the rest of the plates. Oliver
Cowdery, a friend of the Smith family, replaced Harris as translator.
The translation process with Cowdery never mentioned a dividing
curtain. Rather, Smith
. . . would put the seer stone into a hat, and put his face in thehat, drawing it closely around his face to exclude the light; and inthe darkness the spiritual light would shine. A piece of something resembling parchment would appear, and on thatappeared the writing. One character at a time would appear,and under it was the interpretation in English. Brother Josephwould read off the English to Oliver Cowdery who was hisprinciple scribe, and when it was written down and repeated toBrother Joseph to see if it was correct, then it would disappear,and another character with the interpretation would appear.
Thus the Book of Mormon was translated by the gift and power of
God, and not by any power of man.47
Richard Bushman, a former BYU professor and practicing Mormon,
maintains that the plates were covered next to Smith during the
process. 48 Although none of the scribes was ever shown the plates
during the translation process, eleven witness later claimed to view the
plates.49
Their testimonies are published at the beginning of the Book
of Mormon . Oliver Cowdery and Marin Harris were two of the first
three to view the plates as a reward for their obedience in the
translation. The translation was finished by June 11, 1829, when Smith
received a copyright for the Book of Mormon .50 The entire Book of
Mormon was published on March 26, 1830, and the Church of Christ, as
it was formerly known, was officially organized on April 6, 1830. 51
47Ibid., 61.
48Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 71-72.
49 Three of the witnesses were family members: Joseph Smith Sr. andSmiths brothers Hyrum and Samuel.
50Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 80.
51 Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 82, 87.
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Rigdons Conversion
While Rigdon was contemplating his next move after his decision
to formerly split from Campbell, he was visited in the fall of 1830 byParley Pratt, a former Campbellite and recent Mormon convert. Pratt,
on a mission to the Indians in Missouri, brought the Book of Mormon for
Rigdon to read, urging him to read it and pray if it were a revelation
from God. 52 Rigdon had most likely already heard of Smith and the
Book of Mormon through local newspapers. 53 However, Rigdon was not
familiar with the circumstances surrounding its revelation to Smith.
His first reaction was skepticism. He ordered Pratt and his companions
to neither argue nor debate with him concerning the book, instead
agreeing to read it on his own, insisting he would come to his own
conclusion.
Rigdon read and studied the Book of Mormon for several days,
intent on determining its accuracy and truth. He openly told Pratt, I
have one Bible which I claim to have some knowledge [of] and which I
believe to be a revelation of God. As to this book I have some doubts
but you can leave it with me when you go away and I will read it. 54
This skepticism about a new revelation most likely originated from
Alexander Campbell, who believed that revelations ended with the
apostolic age of the first apostles. He argued, . . . [N]o new
revelation, not a single idea has, in answer to prayer, been52
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.53
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 55.54
Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Early MormonChurch.
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communicated to any man since the apostolic age has passed away.
The testimony is complete. 55 Rigdon also inquired intently about
Joseph Smith as a prophet of God. Doubt most likely took place in his
mind after hearing that Smith was hardly educated and very young.
The answers must have been satisfying, for Rigdon later said about hisown conversion to the Church,
55Humbert, Alexander Campbells Theology, 90. This passage was
written in 1833, three years after Rigdon left. Campbell most likely wrote itto combat the Mormon faith, yet believed it before Rigdons conversion.
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I saw the different orders of professing Christians passing beforemy eyes, with their hearts, exposed to view, and they were ascorrupt as corruption itself. That society to which I belonged [theReformed Baptists] also passed before my eyes, and to myastonishment it was as corrupt as the others. Last of all . . .the Book of Mormon passed before my eyes . . . and it was aspure as an angel; and this was a testimony of God; that the Bookof Mormon, was a Divine Revelation. 56
This vision convinced Rigdon and he was baptized shortly thereafter.
In fact, Rigdon immediately became an LDS preacher, leading his
current congregation in Mentor into the Mormon faith. This naturally
caused more division between Rigdon and the local Protestant
denominations and churches, leading to rumors in 1834 about the
plagarization of a manuscript by Solomon Spaulding. 57 Rigdon
persevered, however, preaching the new Gospel of Mormonism in Ohio.
Rigdons Early Power in the LDS Church
Sidney Rigdon traveled to Palmyra, New York, in December 1830
to visit Joseph Smith, beginning Rigdons career as Smiths spokesman.
While there, Smith had a revelation concerning Rigdon: I say unto my
servant Sidney, I have looked upon thee and thy works . . . and
prepared thee for a greater work. Thou art blessed, for thou shalt do
great things. . . . [T]hou shalt write for him [Joseph Smith] . . . and
56Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 61.
57Solomon Spaulding was a Presbyterian minister who purportedly wrote
a manuscript concerning aboriginal America and the origins of the NativeAmericans. The Spaulding Theory states that Rigdon copied a manuscriptfrom Spaulding concerning the Jewish origins of American Indians. Thetheory claims that Rigdon then gave the manuscript and story to JosephSmith, who published it under his own name; thus the Book of Mormon andthe LDS church were fraudulent. This theory has since been overwhelmingly
debunked, used only by extreme anti-Mormons or Christian apologistsignorant of historical fact.
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thou shalt preach my Gospel. 58 Rigdon must have been rejuvenated
and motivated through these words, believing that he had finally found
his religious belonging. God called him to preach this new Gospel,
working directly with the Prophet. At this time, Smith was working on
a new translation of the Bible, with Oliver Cowdery again assisting asscribe. Yet this new revelation passed that responsibility on to Rigdon;
a few days after meeting the Prophet, Rigdon was deemed worthy
enough to act as scribe in the eyes of both God and Prophet Smith.
The very next month, January 1831, Rigdon began traveling with
Smith, acting as preacher, spokesman, and counselor. It was around
this time that Rigdon, according to LDS scholar Richard Bushman,
worked himself deep into Brother Josephs affections, and had more
influence over him than any other man living. 59 Smith enjoyed having
Rigdon as a powerful advisor. Rigdon was twelve years Smiths senior
and Smith gleaned from Rigdons wisdom and various religious
experiences.
At the urging of Rigdon, followed by a revelation from God, Smith
decided to move from Palmyra to Western Reserve, Ohio, where the
converts in Kirtland and Mentor could benefit from his presence. 60
This move greatly benefited Rigdon, as well. By moving the Church to
Ohio, Rigdon was able to operate and preach in his homeland, the
place in which he felt most comfortable. His congregation still followed
and revered him, giving Rigdon confidence to display his rhetorical
abilities. Smith had been lacking the crucial element of an influential58 Doctrine and Covenants 35:3-6, 17-23.59Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 124.
60
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 45; Doctrineand Covenants 37.
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preacher. However, Smith believed in Rigdon, realizing that he had
finally found the preacher he had desperately needed. Rigdon, in
return, found a new faith grateful for his rhetoric and skill. Smith relied
on Rigdon, giving Rigdon the sense of belonging and power he felt he
deserved. Rigdon gladly accepted the role of Smiths counselor, arecognition that Campbell had withheld from him. He quickly became
as synonymous with Mormonism as Smith.
Drawing on his previous missions with Campbell, Smith sent
Rigdon in March of 1831, along with two others, to the Shakers. 61
Smith received a revelation instructing Rigdon to consecrate and
dedicate land for the new Zion, where the literal gathering of Israel
would take place. Incorporated with this was the writing of an epistle
describing Zion, which would go out to all the congregations of the
Church. 62 This served as the second time Rigdon helped draft a broad-
reaching religious letter, preceded by the letter he wrote with
Adamson Bentley to the churches associated with the Mahoning
Baptist Association.
Due to Rigdons and Smiths other activities, the translation of
the New Testament was put on hold. There were missions to other
states, the quest to find Zion, and the move to Ohio. It was also during
this time that Joseph Smith had numerous revelations. In 1831, he
received three times as many revelations as the previous ten years. 63
Perhaps God was affirming to Smith that it was time to advance the
church. Most were orders to the missionaries, with whom Rigdon
worked. In January 1832, Smith received another revelation
61 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.62
Ibid. 63 Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 117.
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commanding them to continue the translation until it was finished. 64
They finished on February 2, 1833, after preaching trips and mob
attacks. In fact, both Rigdon and Smith were attacked by a mob on
March 25, 1832; they were dragged out of their houses, tarred, and
feathered. Mormon sources, including Jaques, the official LDS historianin the early twentieth century, and Richard Bushman, blame
Campbellite preacher Symonds Ryder (or Simonds Rider) for the mob
and attack. 65 Fawn Brodie ignores the identity of the attacker in her
biography of Joseph Smith. It is wholly likely that the Campbellites
would have attacked Smith and Rigdon. Rigdon had drawn a
congregation away from Alexander Campbell and had a growing
reputation in the Western Reserve. Bushman also claims that Ryder
was a former Mormon who became disillusioned with Smith and the
Church. 66 The attack never stopped, or even slowed, the work of Smith
and Rigdon. Smith was in church the next day, preaching and
baptizing.67
Soon after, Smith and Rigdon moved to Independence,
Missouri. 68
Despite Rigdons growing reputation, he tried to test his power
inside the LDS Church too early, earning him a strong rebuttal from
Smith. While Rigdon and Smith were in Independence, identified by
this time as the location of Zion and the place where Jesus would
64 Doctrine and Covenants 73.65Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I; Bushman, Rough
Stone Rolling , 178. There is some speculation that Rigdon suffered seriousmental trauma during this attack, causing severe depression and bipolarity.66
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 178.67
Ibid., 179.68
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.
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return, Rigdons family was homeless, moving from house to house to
stay with friends. Part of Rigdons theology was the firm belief that
ministers and preachers ought not be paid for their services, relying
instead on God and the generosity of the congregations. When Rigdon
had preached in Mentor, Ohio, he was asked how much he wouldcharge the congregation for his preaching services. He had replied,
Nothing, the Apostles asked nothing for their preaching and I am not
agoing [sic] to charge anything. 69 As a result, the congregation had
decided to buy Rigdons family a farm and build a house on the land. 70
However, before the house could be finished, Rigdon had converted to
Mormonism and the house was never finished. Rigdon and his family
operated several years without a home, living with friends and
neighbors. When his daughter fell ill in May of 1832, Rigdon became
furious that his family did not have a home where they could care for
her. After several months of uncertainty, Rigdon came into a prayer
meeting agitated, stating that The keys of the kingdom are rent from
the Church, and there shall not be a prayer put up in this house this
day. 71 He threatened that these keys would not be returned to the
Church until they built his family a house. 72 Smith responded by
denouncing Rigdon, accusing him of having lied in the Lord,
assembling a council to try him. 73 The dissatisfaction with Rigdon must
69Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church.
70Ibid.
71Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 126.
72 The keys of the kingdom are, according to former LDS ApostleBruce McConkie, the right of presidency, directing, controlling, [and]governing power. The keys of the kingdom are the power, right, andauthority to preside over the kingdom of God on earth . . . and to direct allits affairs. See his book, Mormon Doctrine .
73 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 126.
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not have lasted long, because the Church not only built him a house,
but also ordained Rigdon as Smiths most trusted counselor.
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manager in April 1834, overseeing the arrangement of the covenants
and revelations into the new Doctrine and Covenants . The idea behind
the Book of Commandments was the desire to publish a compilation of
Smiths revelations. Yet the Doctrine and Covenants became a
systematic presentation of Church doctrine.79
The First Presidencyand Cowdery were tasked with correcting the revelations, leading to
controversies about the contents. 80 The editing was not readily
apparent to Church members, yet the First Presidency, charged by God
to determine all theological matters for the Church, approved of these
changes.
Some of the changes were due to scribal and printing errors, but
some of the changes angered the Apostles, members of the Quorum of
the Twelve responsible only to the First Presidency. One of the
witnesses to the Book of Mormon , David Whitmer, claimed that Some
of the revelations in the Book of Commandments had to be changed
because the heads of the church had gone too far, and had done
things in which they had already gone ahead of some of the former
revelations. 81 Another apostle described the Doctrine and Covenants
as telestial compared to the celestial Book of Commandments .82
Whitmer credits, or blames in his mind, Rigdon for most of the
changes:
Some of the revelations as they are now in the Book of Doctrineand Covenants have been changed and added to. Some of thechanges being of the greatest importance as the meaning isentirely changed on some very important matters; as if the Lord
79Ibid.
80Ibid.
81Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 162. Emphasis is original.
82 Ibid. Telestial was coined by Joseph Smith to describe carnalityand worldliness. See McConkie, Mormon Doctrine .
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had changed his mind a few years after he gave therevelations . . . through the influence of Sidney Rigdon,Brother Joseph was led on and on into receiving revelationsevery year, to establish offices and doctrines which are not evenmentioned in the teachings of Christ in the written word. In afew years they had gone away ahead of the written word, so thatthey had to change these revelations. 83
Nevertheless, the new Doctrine and Covenants was unanimously
approved by the Church membership on August 17, 1835. Smith was
absent from this meeting, leaving Rigdon and Cowdery to act in his
place. It is interesting to note that during the compilation process,
Alexander Campbell also published The Christian System , a summary
of the Disciples of Christ theology and beliefs, publishing it sevenmonths before the approval of the Doctrine and Covenants .84 It is
likely that Rigdon and Smith were aware of Campbells publication,
leading them to quickly compile and print their own doctrines.
The Doctrine and Covenants , when published in 1835, appeared
and was organized differently from the present edition. The first seven
revelations were organized by importance and prevalence, rather than
chronologically, which roughly organizes them today. After a Lords
Preface, church governance was placed as the second section, a
revelation given in April 1830. 85 The third and fourth sections dealt
with the priesthood, with the third section revealed only months before
publication.86
The fifth section contained the minutes of the first high83
Ibid., 162-163. Van Wagoner cites Whitmers speech in 1887 for thisquote; the speech was given almost 50 years after Whitmer wasexcommunicated from the Church.
84Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 283.
85 Doctrine and Covenants 20. This revelation moves through the
doctrines of creation, fall, atonement, baptism, repentance, justification, andsanctification. It then begins to describe church structure, including the
duties of elders, priests, teachers, deacons, and members.86
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council of the Church, taking place in Kirtland, Ohio, on February 17,
1834. 87 Section six was a revelation giving Smith the meaning of the
parable of the weeds, found in Matthew 13. The final section pulled
out of chronological order is currently Section 88, known as the Olive
Leaf revelation.88
Along with the creation of the School of Prophets, commanded in
the Olive Leaf revelation, came seven theological lectures on the
doctrine of the Church of the Latter Day Saints. They are now simply
known as the Lectures on Faith and are not included in the current
Doctrine and Covenants , removed in 1921 because they were not
direct revelations to Smith. Rigdon gave these lectures most likely
around May of 1834, when Rigdon served as a trustee and conductor
of the School of Prophets, in order to explain, develop, and defend LDS
doctrine. 89
Doctrine and Covenants 107. It describes the Melchizedek andAaronic priesthoods; all male members of the Church are ordained into theAaronic priesthood, whereas the Melchizedek priesthood is reserved for theFirst Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve, and the Seventy, holding thekeys to the Church and able to receive revelations and mysteries fromheaven.
Doctrine and Covenants 84. This claims that the New Jerusalem will bebuilt in Missouri, that men can gain eternal life through the priesthood, andthat elders ought not be paid for their services.87
Doctrine and Covenants 102. Three of the verses were added to thissection when it was being readied for publishing, dealing with the role andpowers of the high council.
88It deals with many issues, including resurrection through redemption,
obedience to Gods law, sanctification, signs of the end times, and the chargeto create of a School of Prophets.
89 Lecture First dealt with the importance of faith. Lecture Secondexplained the existence of God, tracing the chronology of the world fromAdam to Abraham using Genesis and revealed LDS sacred texts. This lectureeven states the years in which the patriarchs from Adam to Abraham died.Lecture Third states that in order for a rational person to exercise faith inGod, they must believe He exists, must have a correct idea of his characterand attributes, and a knowledge that the believer is operating within Godswill. Lecture Fourth expounds on the previous lecture. Lecture Sixth explainswhich knowledge people must possess in order to obtain salvation. Lecture
Seventh explains the effects of faith. These lectures are found in everyDoctrines and Covenants published before 1921.
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Lecture Fifth will be expounded upon, due to its importance
and the clear evidence of Rigdons impact on LDS doctrine. This
lecture speaks about the Godhead and the relationship between God
the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit. This lecture states that
both the Father and the Son created and have supreme power over allthings. The Son has a body like man, was begotten of God, and was
ordained as Savior before the creation of the world. When He came to
earth, he maintained a sinless life, following perfectly Gods law and
commands. The Holy Spirit constitutes the mind of God, an entity that
bears record of the Father and the Son. In that sense, they are three-
in-one, exhibiting together great and matchless power over all
things. 90 The Father and Son share the same mind, wisdom, glory,
power, and fullness. The Holy Spirit is endowed on all believers, in
order that the faithful may become joint heirs with Jesus. This would
include them becoming deified, possessing the same mind as Jesus
and becoming one with Him, as He is one with the Father and Spirit.
Absent from this lecture is the belief that God the Father has a body of
flesh and bone like Jesus, as stated in Doctrine and Covenants 130.
Verse 22 states, The Father has a body of flesh and bones as tangible
as mans; the Son also. There are three possibilities for this absence.
Since this section was revealed in 1843, it is likely that Smith simply
had yet to clearly define the Churchs doctrine on the Fathers physical
attributes when the lecture was presented. If he had already explained
this belief, Rigdon possibly chose to ignore it while delivering these
lectures, in order for the Godhead to sound more orthodox. It is also
likely, however, that Rigdon did not believe in this doctrine and,
90 Found in every Doctrine and Covenants until 1921.
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therefore, did not include it in the lectures. Nothing that Rigdon
preached while with the Campbellites hinted at a belief that God the
Father has a physical body. Smith gave Rigdon tremendous authority
to explain and define Church doctrine without much oversight.
Regardless of the fact that Smith may have expounded on this doctrineseveral years later, Rigdon was placed in a unique and powerful
position.
Rigdon Continued to Gain and Exercise Religious Power
After exercising enormous power with the compilation and
printing of the Doctrine and Covenants , Rigdon continued his duties as
First Counselor to Joseph Smith. In 1836 he dedicated the first temple,
located in Kirtland, Ohio. He began taking Hebrew lessons with Smith
and in March was elected as chairman pro tem of the conference to
sign licenses, acting as chairman whenever Smith was absent.91
The
term license is not used in the Church today, but LDS scholar D.
Michael Quinn claims that these were apostolic licenses, signifying
and proveing [sic] that he [the male recipient] is an Apostle of Jesus
Christ an Elder of this Church. 92 He preached at the funeral service of
Smiths grandmother and gave a lecture about Christianity in Salem,
Massachusetts. In early January 1837, Rigdon was the chairman at the
Kirtland Safety Society, which dealt with establishing the Kirtland Bank
in order to help the Church rid herself of debt. 93 The bank failed
91 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.92 D. Michael Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power (Salt
Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 12.
93Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 329-330.
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miserably, with Smith disowning it in August of the same year. John
Rigdon claimed that his father was opposed to the bank since its
creation, but that Smith convinced him to sign the bills as president of
the bank. 94 As a result of the banks failure, several prominent
members of the Church apostatized, including Parley Pratt, whoconverted Rigdon, and F.G. William, Smiths Second Counselor. 95
On September 3, 1837, Rigdon was reconfirmed as First
Counselor to Smith, ensuring that he would continue to work closely
with Smith. 96 He preached extensively throughout the year,
accompanying Smith to Indiana, Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio. Smith and
Rigdon began to write a Church history to combat what they believed
to be misperceptions and lies that were circulating in the Midwest.
Part of this was an attempt to maintain their power from disgruntled
members inside the Church. Owing to distrust by some of the leaders
in the Missouri branch of the Church, Smith was forced to
excommunicate Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and half of the
Quorum of the Twelve. 97 They were charged with accusing the
Prophet of dishonesty and immorality; not attending Church meetings;
using tea, coffee, and tobacco; failing to account for $2,000 in Church
funds; and selling their personal property in Jackson [County, Missouri]
against Smiths orders. 98 By 1838, Of the eleven witnesses to the
Book of Mormon only Josephs father and brothers were left in the
94Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church.
95Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 332. Pratt returned to the Church
months later, however, and died in full membership.96
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.97 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 84.
98 Ibid.
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church. 99 This was the only serious schism against Smiths power and
Rigdon stood by Smiths side, vigorously defending him against all
accusations through speeches and sermons, including a fiery July 4 th
speech against the Missourian citizens, which began a quasi-war
between the Church and the state of Missouri.Rigdon remained in good grace with Smith, being appointed as
delegate to Washington D.C., in order to present crimes and
constitutional violations that occurred against the Mormons while in
Missouri. 100 Rigdon, Smith, and two others traveled to Washington
D.C., but Rigdon was not able to accompany them into the meeting
with President Martin Van Buren because of health reasons. 101 In 1841,
the Church began to develop and inhabit Nauvoo, Illinois. Rigdon was
elected to the city council and named trustee of the University of the
City of Nauvoo. 102
On January 19, 1841, Rigdon was confirmed as First Counselor
for the third time, reaffirming Smiths confidence in Rigdon. More
notably, however, is the title given to Rigdon on June 1 by Smith. He
ordained Rigdon prophet, seer, and revelator, a title very similar to
Smiths. This monumental title was overshadowed by a conflict
between Smith and Rigdon one year later. In 1842, Rigdon accused
Smith of seducing his daughter, with the goal of making her one of his
plural wives. During a period of two and a half years, starting in April
of 1841, Smith had married thirty women, ten of whom were already
99Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 217.
100Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon III.
101Ibid.
102 Ibid.
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married. 103 Smith desired to make Nancy Rigdon one of his several
wives. He dictated a letter to her, which later came into Rigdons
possession. Rigdon, understandably furious with Smith, immediately
confronted Smith. Rigdon was uninformed about the doctrine of plural
marriage and, once informed, was immediately appalled by it. Hisbrother-in-law reported, Smith attempted to deny it at first, and face
her [Nancy] down with the lie; but she told the facts with so much
earnestness, and the fact of a letter being present
. . . on the same subject, the day after the attempt made on her
virtue. . . . [H]e then and there acknowledged that every word of
Miss Rigdons testimony was true. 104 Smith attempted to explain it
away, claiming that he had simply been testing her virtue. This began
a split between Rigdon and Smith. A newspaper article came out
defending the moral character of Smith, signed by every leader of the
Mormon Church besides Rigdon, George Robinson, who was Rigdons
brother-in-law, and Orson Pratt, brother of the formerly
excommunicated Parley Pratt. 105
Rigdon and Smith maintained distant from each other and hardly
trusted one other after this confrontation. Rigdon no longer believed
that all the words of Joseph Smith were the exact duplicates of the
Almighty, but he kept his faith in the Church. 106 Smith became
paranoid about a kidnapping attempt and accused Rigdon of
supporting John C. Bennett, an apostate and anti-Mormon activist. 107 103Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 437.
104 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 118-119.105Ibid., 119. Orson Pratts wife was also propositioned by Smith to
become a plural wife.106
Ibid., 121.107
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Bennett had sent a letter addressed to Rigdon and Orson Pratt,
explaining that he wanted to have Smith arrested for alleged crimes
committed in Missouri. Pratt, but not Rigdon, immediately gave the
letter to Smith; consequently, Smith accused Rigdon of trying to hide
the letter from him.108
On March 27, 1843, Smith sent a scathing letterto Rigdon:
Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 510.
108Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.
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It is with sensations of deep regret and poignant grief that Idictate a few lines to you this morning. . . . I have tried tosmother my feelings and not let you know that I thought youwere secretly and underhandedly doing all you could to takeadvantage of and injure meI am, sir, honest, when I say that Ibelieve and am laboring under the fullest convictions that youare actually practicing deception and wickedness against me andthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . . . seeking to
destroy me and this people. . . . I do not write this with theintention of insulting you, or of bearing down upon you or with adesire to take advantage of you, or with the intention of layingone straw in your way detrimental to your character or influence.. . . I now notify you that unless something should take place torestore my mind to its former confidence in you . . . must, as aconscientious man, publish my withdrawal of my fellowship fromyou to the Church 109
Rigdon immediately responded with a letter expressing shock at the
accusations placed against him. Smith did not believe his denials,
however, and aimed to have him excommunicated from the Church.
On April 6, Rigdon was nevertheless confirmed for a fourth time as
First Counselor to Smith by unanimous vote, 110 but Smith was never
happy with this outcome. He promised peace within the First
Presidency, but peace did not last long. On August 13, Smith publicly
accused Rigdon of attempting to betray and give [him] up to the
Missourians. 111 Smith attempted to remove Rigdon as First Counselor
and brought the case before the Church membership during the
October conference. Rigdon defended himself, using his powerful
rhetoric and a letter from the Governor of Illinois claiming that Rigdon
was innocent from all conspiracy charges. 112 Several members also
spoke on behalf of Rigdon, who was acquitted of all charges and
109 Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith (SaltLake City: Deseret Books, 1984), 555-556.
110Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.
111Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 320.
112Ibid., 321.
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reinstated as First Counselor. 113 Hyrum Smith, Josephs brother,
preached for mercy on Rigdons behalf, as well. Joseph Smith rose,
however, and said, I have thrown him off my shoulders, and you have
again put him on me; you may carry him, but I will not. 114
After Rigdon had accused Smith of seducing his daughter, Smithnever fully trusted Rigdon again with religious matters. Rigdon was
not going to let his quest for power overtake the protection of his
family. Rigdon had already garnered enough approval and satisfaction
among the leadership, however, that his reputation and religious
power were protected. Rigdon was still sustained as First Counselor
against Smiths wishes. Despite the distrust, Smith chose Rigdon as
his Vice-President when Smith ran for President of the United States in
1844, perhaps in an attempt to appease Rigdon. Rigdon had been
elected city attorney of Nauvoo the year before, served on Nauvoo city
council, and was well respected among non-Mormons. Establishing the
Mormon Reform Party, the leadership of the Church embarked on the
campaign trail and Rigdon traveled to Pittsburgh to establish
residency, in order to be eligible as vice-president. 115 Despite being a
candidate for President, Smith was arrested on June 25 on a treason
charge against the state of Illinois. There also were indictments out for
his arrest on the charges of false swearing and polygamy. 116 Van
Wagoner claims that Smith was arrested for destroying a printing press
that printed inflammatory material against him regarding plural
113 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying In the Wilderness , 124.114
Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.115Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 336. A misconception existed during
this time that the President and Vice-President could not hail from the samestate, but the Constitution never mentions this.
116 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.
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Post-1844 Theology
Rigdon Attempted to Lead the Church
Rigdon was in Pittsburgh for the presidential campaign when
Joseph Smith was murdered, arriving the same day as Smiths death.
The Quorum of the Twelve was spread across Boston, Philadelphia,
New York state, Michigan, and Cincinnati, campaigning for Smith and
Rigdon and preaching the Gospel. 121 Rigdon arrived back in Nauvoo on
August 3, more than a month after Smith died. 122 He tried to call
together a meeting to determine the guardian of the church on August
8, before all the members of the Quorum could be present. The
Quorum had a majority, however, with nine of the twelve members
were present in Nauvoo by evening of the August 5. 123
The battle for succession was between four people: William
Marks, the Nauvoo stake president, Sidney Rigdon, Brigham Young, the
president of the Quorum of the Twelve, and Joseph Smith III, eleven
years old and Smiths eldest son. Marks was opposed to the doctrine
of plural marriage, claiming that Smith told him just weeks before his
death that unless plural marriage was abandoned, it would prove our
destruction and overthrow. 124 Smiths wife, Emma, also believed that
Smith was beginning to abandon his doctrine on plural marriage,
stating that Smith commanded her to destroy the revelation in 1843, a
121 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.122
Ibid.123
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 338.
124Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy , 148.
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year before Smith died. 125 Even Brigham Young in 1866 declared that
Smith had been worn out with the doctrine. 126 Marks was supported
by Smiths wife, who was also vehemently opposed to plural
marriage. 127 Marks, however, decided to throw his support behind
Rigdon for two reasons. Marks did not want the power for himself, and,more importantly, Rigdon was also opposed to plural marriage.
On August 7, Young and Rigdon presented their cases in front of
a general council, consisting of all the present church leadership.
Rigdon claimed that while in Pittsburgh he had received a vision. This
vision, taking place the day Smith died, instructed Rigdon to return to
Nauvoo to ensure the Church was properly run. 128 Smith had already
endowed Rigdon with the title prophet, seer and revelator. Rigdon
declared, I have been consecrated a spokesman to Joseph, and I was
commanded to speak for him. . . . I propose to be a guardian to the
people; in this I have discharged my duty and done what God has
commanded me, and the people can please themselves whether they
accept me or not. 129 Rigdon realized that Smith was dead, but wanted
to continue to speak on Smiths behalf from the grave. He believed
that, despite the recent controversies and disagreements between him
and the Prophet, he was in line for the Presidency of the Church,
having served as Smiths First Counselor for the vast majority of the
Churchs existence.
125Ibid., 147
126Ibid.
127Ibid., 233.
128Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VI.
129Ibid.
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Brigham Young then stood and argued on behalf of leadership by
the Quorum of the Twelve. He directly attacked Rigdon, stating, Here
is President Rigdon, who was counselor to Joseph. I ask, where are
Joseph and Hyrum? They are gone behind the vail [sic]; and if Elder
Rigdon wants to act as his counselor; he must go beyond the vail [sic]where he is. . . . [I]f the people want President Rigdon to lead them
they may have him; but I say unto you that the Quorum of the Twelve
have the keys of the kingdom of God in all the world. 130 Rigdon relied
on rhetoric and Young used politics to further his cause. According to
Rigdon biographer F. Mark McKiernan,
Young made every effort to remind the Saints that Smith hadrejected Rigdon in 1843 and had no intention that Rigdon shouldsucceed him as leader of the Church. Young also took greatpains to create the image among the masses of the Church thathe was the Prophets chosen successor. He borrowed Smithsfavorite hours Joe Duncan and rose through the streets of Nauvoo on the Prophets well known mount to show the entirepopulation that he had replaced the martyr. 131
Youngs political ploys worked, winning over the general assembly and
making the Quorum of the Twelve the governing body of the Church.
Young also alienated Emma Smith, Josephs wife, and five children,
fearful that Joseph III would take over the church. Despite the fact
Joseph III was only eleven at the time, several members of the Church
believed that he was chosen for succession. Emma was alienated from
the Church almost immediately after Smiths death. 132 Joseph III
eventually founded the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter
Day Saints, consisting mostly of members who did not immigrate to
130 Ibid.131McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 128.
132 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 554.
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Utah with Young in 1846-47. The RLDS Church was officially organized
in 1860.
Young, in a genius political move, announced to the assembly,
after defeating Rigdons quest for leadership, Rigdon is . . . one
with us we want such men as Brother Rigdon. He has been sentaway to build a Kingdom; let him keep the instruction and calling, let
him raise up a kingdom in Pittsburgh and we will lift up his hand. 133
This was patronizing to Rigdon, demoting him to a preacher in
Pittsburgh and stripping him of his leadership position, almost giving
Young complete victory in the quest to succeed Joseph Smith. The
Quorum of the Twelve assumed leadership, with Young as the
President of the Quorum. Rigdon could not accept his demoted role or
the abomination of plural marriage. 134 He had been the First Counselor
to the Prophet, a seer and revelator, preacher, missionary, presided
over meetings and councils in Smiths absence, Vice-Presidential
candidate, and a key architect in the quest to build Zion and the New
Jerusalem in America. Rigdon felt like Smith had finally recognized his
religious power, his role as both originator and preacher. Yet Young
forced Rigdon out of the Church because of their disagreement over
plural marriage. On September 8, 1844, Rigdon was officially
excommunicated from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.
In Youngs final move to solidify victory, the High Council, immediately
after Rigdons excommunication, voted to excommunicate all of his
followers inside the Church. 135
133Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 341.
134Ibid., 352.
135 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VII.
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If Smith had been contemplating the revocation of plural
marriage, it is plausible that he would have supported William Marks or
Rigdon as his replacement, two trusted members who were opposed to
the doctrine. Rigdon would have been the logical choice, serving
beside Smith for fourteen years and often standing in his stead duringSmiths absences. This, however, would have most likely been as a
placeholder for Joseph Smith III, as Smith spoke often about patriarchal
blessings and ordinations. Smith gave his son a secret blessing,
endowed on January 17, 1844. He blessed Smith III, declaring, he
shall be my successor to the Presidency of the High Priesthood: a Seer,
and a Revelator, and a Prophet, unto the Church; which appointment
belongeth to him by blessing, and also by right. 136 Nevertheless,
Smith never publically named a clear successor. D. Michael Quinn, an
LDS scholar and BYU professor before his 1993 excommunication,
claims that Smith blessed, ordained, or designated six individuals as
successors and laid a foundation for the succession claims of seven
others, including the entire Quorum of Twelve Apostles. 137 Of all these
possible successors, only Brigham Young succeeded in his succession
claim, retaining all but four members of the entire Mormon hierarchy at
Smiths death. 138
136Jessee, The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith , 566.
137Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy , 241.
138Ibid., 243. The hierarchy numbered slightly fewer than 100, including
the Twelve Apostles, the First Council of the Seventy, the First Presidency(consisting of two counselors alongside the President and Prophet of theChurch), the Presiding Patriarch (Smiths brother, Hyrum, at the time theirdeath), and the Presiding Bishopric. Doctrine and Covenants 124:123-143
lists several members, many of whom possibly served in a hierarchicalcapacity. See also Quinn, 40-77.
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Rigdon Founded the Church of Jesus Christ of the Children
of Zion
Rigdon was effectively silenced from the LDS Church through the
political maneuverings of Brigham Young. He left Nauvoo forPittsburgh, the origins of his religious power. Rigdons son stated, . .
. [T]he Quorum of the 12 placed the leadership of the church on
Brigham Young. This hurt Fathers feelings. He claimed he was the
man for the leadership. He said he had done more to establish the
church than any man in it, outside the prophet. 139 Interestingly, he
added that the Church did not make a mistake by giving the leadership
to Young because Rigdon had no executive experience, was broken
down with sickness and could not have taken charge of the church at
that time. 140 Rigdons own son, baptized into the Church in 1898, did
not believe that Rigdon should have led the Church.
Rigdon began his own new church, assembling his own Quorum
of the Twelve and establishing a Pittsburgh newspaper entitled The
Latter Day Saints Messenger and Advocate , aiming to attack the LDS
leadership and expose the doctrine of plural marriage. 141 He would
reestablish the pure Mormon Church, with an emphasis in revelation
and the Ancient Order and with a firm rejection of plural marriage. He
even went as far as calling Joseph Smith a fallen prophet during
Smiths later years. This allowed Rigdon to reject some of Smiths
doctrines but maintain the validity and sacrality of The Book of
139Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church.
140Ibid.
141Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 367, 369.
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Mormon and the Doctrine and Covenants .142 On the fifteenth
anniversary of the Mormon Church, Rigdon re-established the Church
of Christ, the original name of the LDS Church, being ordained as first
president of this kingdom and church, and . . . as prophet, seer,
revelator and translator, to this church and kingdom of Christ of thelast days. 143 This allowed Rigdon to further his claim that God called
him to lead the Church on earth. Rigdon only had about 150 followers,
however, and his sect never grew. 144
Not much has been written about Rigdon after 1846. His church
never expanded, leaving Rigdon ultimately without power and
belonging. He moved to Friendship, New York, where he spent the
remainder of his days. In 1863, Brigham Young asked Rigdon to come
to Utah in order for Young to take care of him, but Rigdon refused. 145
Throughout his days Rigdon maintained that the Book of Mormon was
true, that the end of time was near, and that Joseph Smith was truly a
prophet of God. Sidney Rigdon died on July 14, 1876, a man without
religious power, belonging, or respect. Without his leadership, the
Church of Christ completely disbanded by 1884.
142 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 135.143
Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 377.144
McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 142.
145 Ibid., 143.
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Conclusion
Rigdons quest for religious power took him from the Mahoning
Baptist Association, under the tutelage of Adamson Bentley, to the
Campbellite movement, becoming an unrecognized founder under
Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, and finally to the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, where he served for almost fourteen
years as Joseph Smiths First Counselor and trusted confidant. He was
excommunicated from the Baptist association for preaching liberal, i.e.
non-official, doctrines not befitting the Baptist creeds. He officially
joined Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, but left because of the
lack of recognition and power they gave him. He felt particularly
scorned when Scott was chosen as the official traveling preacher
instead of himself. When one of his former disciples and recent
Mormon convert came to visit, Rigdon recognized another opportunity
for belonging and power. The LDS doctrines found in the Book of
Mormon were similar enough to what he was preaching and Joseph
Smith needed a powerful and influential preacher. He immediately
found belonging and power with Smith, prophet, seer, and revelator of
God.
Rigdon was able to quickly exercise the religious power he so
desperately craved; he was immediately sent as a missionary and was
officially named in a revelation from God as spokesman for Joseph
Smith. Smith trusted Rigdon, listening to his council and advice.
Rigdon stood by Smiths side as he rid the Church of dissenters and
apostates. Non-Mormons recognized him as almost equal to Smith and
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the LDS leadership expressed trust in him. Rigdon was content with
being Smiths right-hand man, speaking for the Prophet and standing
in his place during any absence. However, Smith quickly distrusted
him when Rigdon expressed disbelief and shock over the doctrine of
plural marriage and after the failed attempt of Smith to receiveRigdons daughter as a plural wife. He still firmly believed in Mormon
doctrine and the divine origins of the Book of Mormon but, in an
attempt to protect his daughter, began losing his leadership. When
Joseph Smith was assassinated, Rigdon viewed it as an opportunity to
assume leadership and return the Church to its original roots, ridding
the Church of plural marriage and retaining the Ancient Order. He
made an impassioned speech claiming leadership for the Church, but
Brigham Young discredited him, using his controversies and disputes
with Smith against him. This led to Rigdon being excommunicated yet
again from his religious community.
The excommunication from the Mormon Church devastated
Rigdon and he was never able to fully recuperate. He spent the next
several years attacking the LDS Church, trying futilely to reestablish
himself inside the Church. He lost his fame, reputation, and success.
He diminished into obscurity, refusing to speak about Mormonism or
Joseph Smith. Rigdons obituary in the Friendship Register read,
Since his excision from the ruling body of the church, at Nauvoo,he has been living in our village, in the main very quiet, repellingrather than courting the curiosity which his prominence in one of the most extraordinary social phenomena of times, drew uponhim. He has often been interviewed by those intent uponclearing up some of the mysteries and delusions that attendedthe origin of Mormonism, but invariably without success. Onthese occasions he would defend the Mormon account of theorigin [of] the Book of Mormon, and also the chief doctrines of the early Mormon church. . . . [I]n his prime he took an active
part in the theological controversies that raged so fiercely in this
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and western states and was then and always familiar with theBible . . . and his whole conduct held naturally to the inferencethat his religious ambitions were buried at the time he wassuperseded by Young, or perhaps at the time when thepolygamous doctrines of Joseph Smith were promulgated. 146
His last vain attempt to establish religious power failed miserably,
never garnering more than a decent size congregation.
Despite the many contributions to both the Disciples of Christ
and the Latter Day Saints, Rigdon has been condemned by both faiths,
painting him as a religious apostate and fanatic. Their histories are
riddled with negative biases, diminishing his accomplishments or
crediting them to others. In his quest for religious power, SidneyRigdon became a misunderstood and forgotten man.
146 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 449-450.
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