Definitions
• Global (Trait) Self-Esteem is the way we generally feel about or evaluate ourselves.
• State Self-Esteem is how we feel about or evaluate ourselves at a given point in time.
• Self-Evaluations are how we feel about or evaluate specific dimensions of self (e.g., appearance, intelligence, social skills, etc.)
Measures of Self-Esteem
• Rosenberg (1965)– 10 item self-report measure of global
self-esteem.– most commonly used measure.
• Heatherton & Polivy (1991)– State self-esteem scale– Sensitive to experimental
manipulations and clinical treatments
Origins of Self-Esteem
A. Cognitive views– “Add ‘em up” model– “Add ‘em up” and weight by
importance model
These models both predict global self-esteem
– Appearance is the most predictive factor (Harter, 2003)
Self-Evaluation as a Function of Self-Esteem
Brown (1993)Attribute HSE LSEAthletic 5.6 4.8Attractive 5.2 4.4Capable 6.2 5.6Smart 5.7 5.0Incompetent 1.5 2.2Phony 1.5 2.0Uncoordinated 1.6 2.3Unpopular 1.9 2.7Scale: 1(not at all true of me) to 7(very true of me).All SE differences significant, p < .05.
A Cognitive-Developmental
Perspective (Harter, 2003)Cognitive ability to integrate self-
evaluations into a global representation of self does not develop until middle childhood (8 yrs old).
Therefore, children do not have global self-esteem until this point.
Harter, continuedAge Self-Representation Self-Evaluation
2-4 Concrete, observable, compartmentalized
Unrealistically +
5-7 Able to group similar attributes together, but all or none thinking
Typically +
(except with abusive parents)
8-11 Higher-order generalizations (key for global self-esteem), able to integrate + and - attributes
+ and -, more accurate
12-14 Further abstraction of trait labels, but difficulty integrating seemingly contradictory characteristics
Unstable
15-16 Recognition of inconsistencies, increased introspection
Vacillating
17+ Deal with inconsistencies, recognition that it’s normal
More balanced, stable
Affective Models
• Self-Esteem based on feelings of:– Belonging– Mastery– These come from early childhood
experiences
Attachment
A close emotional relationship among two persons characterized by:
• proximity- strive to be near one another
• selectivity- not just anybody will do
Attachment Theory
Based on interaction with caregivers, infants develop an “internal working model” of self as good and worthy of love or bad and unworthy of love.
This may be the basis for self-esteem.
Individual Differences in Attachment Style
Strange situations test reveals:• Secure• Insecure
– Anxious/Ambivalent– Avoidant
Attachment and Self-Esteem
• Attachment in infancy predicts self-esteem in preschool and kindergarten (Cassidy, 1990).
• Childhood parental attachment is correlated with adult romantic attachment (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
• Adult romantic attachment is correlated with adult self-esteem (Bylsma et al., 1997).
Does infant attachment predict adult SE?
Comparison of Cognitive and Affective Models
• Cognitive has more empirical support– But this may be because it is easier to
test and existing measures were developed by cognitive theorists.
• Cognitive has problems with directionality
• Affective fits better with evidence that global self-esteem is stable
Consequences of Self-Esteem
Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness or healthier lifestyles?
Baumeister et al. (2003).
Consequences of Self-Esteem
Problems with self-esteem research:• Directionality• Heterogeneity• Self-report
Consequences of Self-Esteem
Performance:• SE and school performance are correlated, but
no causal relationship.• SE has little impact on work performance.
Aggression:• Not related to SE (but is related to
narcissism).
Consequences of Self-Esteem
Happiness• Strongly related to SE.• LSE related to depression.
Health:• Smoking, alcohol use, drug use, early sexual
activity, and teen pregnancy are unrelated to SE.
• LSE is a risk factor for eating disorders.
Consequences of Self-Esteem
Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness or healthier lifestyles?
Answers: No, No, Probably, Sporadically.
Baumeister et al. (2003).
Functions of Self-Esteem
• Self-Esteem as an Interpersonal Monitor (Leary et al., 1995)
• Self-Esteem as an Anxiety Buffer (Greenberg et al., 1997)
Sociometer Model
• SE is an interpersonal monitor– Evolutionary adaptation
• Inclusion causes (state) SE to increase; exclusion causes (state) SE to decrease.
Leary et al. (1995)
Studies 1 & 2: Feelings of inclusion vs. exclusion were strongly correlated with feelings of self-worth.
Leary et al. (1995)
Studies 1 & 2: Feelings of inclusion vs. exclusion were strongly correlated with feelings of self-worth.
Studies 3 & 4: Inclusion feedback led to more positive feelings than exclusion feedback.
Leary et al. (1995)
Studies 1 & 2: Feelings of inclusion vs. exclusion were strongly correlated with feelings of self-worth.
Studies 3 & 4: Inclusion feedback led to more positive feelings than exclusion feedback.
Study 5: Feelings of inclusion were strongly correlated with global self-esteem (r = .55)
Evolutionary Adaptations
Desire for Self-Preservation (shared with other animals)
Cognitive Abilities (unique to humans)
Annihilation anxiety Awareness of the inevitability of death
POTENTIAL TERROR
Terror is controlled by:
• Immersion in a cultural worldview “a shared conception of reality that imbues life with meaning, order, and permanence and the promise of safety and death transcendence to those who meet the prescribed standards of value”
• “The belief that one is living up to those standards of value (self-esteem).”
Basic Implications
• Self-esteem buffers anxiety• The cultural worldview must be
defended when threatened
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