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Tourism and
Militarism in Hawaii
and the Philippines
Vernadette Vicua Gonzalez
paradisesecurinG
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next Wave
New DirectioNs iN womeNs stuDies
A series edited by Inderpal Grewal,
Caren Kaplan, and Robyn Wiegman
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203 Du nivsi Pss
is sv
Pin in ni as ia n ai- a
Dsin b Ha Hns
Ts in Wian b Tsn nain ss, n.
Liba Cnss Caain-in-Pubiain Daa
nzaz, Vna Viua, 973
uin aais : uis an iiais in Haaii an
Piiins / Vna Viua nzaz.as . ( av)
nus bibiaia ns an in.
ISBN 978-0-8223-5355-3 ( : a. a)
ISBN 978-0-8223-5370-6 (b. : a. a)
. TuisHaaii. 2. TuisPiiins.
3. MiiaisHaaii. 4. MiiaisPiiins.
. Ti. . is: av.
G55.U6G625 203
338.4795992320300097
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contentS
AckNowledGmeNtS v
Introduction Military-touriSM PartnerShiPS
in haWaii and the PhiliPPineS 1
Chapter One ManifeSt deStinationS and the Work
of troPical fictionS 21
Chapter Two Scenic highWayS, MaSculinity,Modernity, and Mobility 49
Chapter Three neoliberation and u.S.-PhiliPPineS
circuitS of Sacrifice and gratitude 83
Chapter Four reMeMbering Pearl harbor,
reinforcing vigilance 115
Chapter Five the Machine in the garden:
helicoPter airMobilitieS, aerial fieldS of viSion,
and Surrogate troPicS 147
Chapter Six Playing Soldier and going native
in Subic freePortS Jungle tour 181
Conclusion inSecuritieS, touriSM, and terror 215
NoteS 225
BIBlIoGrAphy 253
INdex 271
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acknoWledgMentS
This book represents a deade o researh that was, rom the
binnin, su b inua nsi n-
tors and olleaues, the unstintin enouraement o amily
an ins, an i unin a vai sus. T
enouraement, steadast ommitment to this projet, and
warm ompanionship I have reeived have made the labor
o this book truly ollaborative. Durin my raduate studies
at Uc Berkeley, I had the wonderul ortune o havin as myinua uis Js Dav ava, Eain Ki, an Can
Kaplan. Their patiene and inisive questions pushed my dis-
sain in an ni n iin n a i as .
I owe Caren Kaplan speial thanks or reommendin this
manusript to Duke niversity Press. She has been a model
o riorous sholarship and eminist teahin whose mentor-
si as ninu insi. M s iin u i -
aua suns Ka Y, J O, vn L, anMii un vi iiqu, isain, an na
iai. Ea abains i issa a an Rbn
Maai Riuz av insi qusins in is b
and introdued me to the kind o sholarly work that I like
in. Mii un, in aiin in iab in-
ua su, as s nab an ain ins
as an i vn as au
nz as si in u. H ninus sv as a u-sn, an nsi as a au is unsuass.
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Acknowledgments
s nu-a siin a . Lan nivsi, Maa
Kn-ass as sauns ains, assisin juni au i
undin and intelletual ommunity ormation. In Hawaii, whih has
been home or the last seven years, I have been most ortunate in the
iia an inua insis a av b nuu anunsettled my thinkin in the best o ways. My olleaues in the Ameri-
an Studies department are the best ones I ould ask or. In partiular,
Mari Yoshihara, Theo Gonzalves, Robert Perkinson, and David E. Stan-
na as a insia sa. Ti u an
warmth helped me throuh various staes o this projet. I espeially
an Davi E. anna in u i aiv as iv i
to do researh and write. I thank Mari Yoshihara and the raduate stu-
ns u jin an-iin s ns n bsa. av as a ivi in i aua suns
av au s u: M Ws, na Kai, Miu La,
. C , Eiza an, Ki C, Yu Jun L, Ru Ca,
an ana aaani. s u in in sn.
M iin ui as an bsi v as, an u
i an as bav i a u v
rouh early drats: Ty Kawika Tenan, Katharina Heyer, Rod Labrador,
Lisa Faan sa, an an ani MDua. sia ana i aazin n is b b b in s an
as, sia in s, n sus i an i
was espeially preious: Pensri Ho, or askin the riht questions even
n is s un, an , vn in s is, u
always mak th tim; Hokulani ikau or sharin insihts that sharnd
my thinkin, and bein a wonderul riend with whom to share hild-
a, ssi, , an ains abu s uss; an Jnna Ea,
bin su a nus au an in i ba, a-in i inib anin ai, an ain bs a
a v. Wiin u as nv bn s u un i i u,
susainin su, unisin iiqu, an in s a an
a. an sa b ab a is b.
a un au (an una) av as s n-
us an inisiv sugsins us a b sn. a
vn a b ab an b na. an Punzaan saa
and Cynthia Enloe, I owe you dinner and drinks, at the very least, or
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Acknowledgments
u au, nuain, an iia invnins in is b u
vaius sas. u ias a is b b
in v a, an aia i u u ns v
the entire proess. Thanks also oes to Sarita See, or sharin detailed
ns n anusi an bin a suiv au aa,an Vin Raa, s nuain s n
n s.
Over the ourse o writin this book, Ive relied upon the expertise
an assisan an . a au ainisaiv assis-
ans in i, av as a u buauai az
aaia an av, n a, bn sa uan bins an
rinds: Jahlzah Eskw, Joy Shridan, Sandy Enoki, and sially Lori
nn Mina. Ji Kaazu Mas as bn ibaian sasa , an a aiua inb sa assisan abv
an bn a u. as an Wa Cu, uas
n Mania nivsis ian Hisia Cin; sa a
Haaiian an Pai in a Uh Mnas Hain Liba; an
Maia Ena Caiza, as Piiin in.
T sa is b as an ninna ni
States to Hawaii and the Philippines, and I am deeply indebted to the
ollowin people who have supported my researh, extended their hos-pitality, and made doin my job truly a privilee: Osar Campomanes
an Kiia Kuua sis a n Mania ain in a visiin
sa an ain i a ; a Dvis; En anaa,
a i Knnn Ra ; F. ini Js an Tsia
Js; Dan a an E a; Cnia Fanin; Laua Lns;
Ruth Hsu; Kath Sands; Karen Kosasa; Bill Chapman; Dennis Oawa;
Dan Riuz; an su iasu. u ai vsin a-
ter 3 appeared as Tourin Military Masulinities: .S.-Philippines Cir-uis ai an aiu in Ci an aaan inMilitarized
Currents: Toward a Decolonized Future in Asia and the Pacifc (200), an
u i an nivsi Minnsa Pss, su iasu,
an Ki Lujan Caa inuin an ai vsin in
a vu.
T sa unin is b as a vai sus:
the Ford Foundation, in the orm o a predissertation ellowship; and
aulty researh rants rom St. Lawrene niversity and the niver-
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Acknowledgments
si Haaii a Mna Rsa Cuni. u i an Ha
MArthur or all his help and support with shepherdin rant applia-
ins u Rsa Cuni.
T Kn Wiss, sa as bn s nuain
and sympatheti o editors, I owe speial thanks. He took this projetun is in an i uiin. as an nu
a a Du nivsi Pss, sia Ja s an Cisin Da-
lin, or their patiene, support, and amazin proessionalism; Heather
Hns, v sin; an Jssia Ran, ui is
b u as sas. Yu av a ss s as
i an is aain!
Fina, ai an ins an n s vin a
av bn u in a is i. M aiu s u sia Jan an i nsn, s suiv an vin in-as, an
ans, Vivian an Ens nzaz, av n
a vn n i iv is. T av sn s u i
-sv in ain ai s u i. Tan u
viin i a ius su an a in. F
au, nz, as n u i is b, an as bn
s ain an unsanin in, is a n b
is th on wll writ tothr. You hav bn th bst o a omanions.Tan u bin unsanin i u vn i s is a s
i. a, n an na a u a, a iia
sn. u s bi sis. Tis ns Evan, sis
aun an aas ins a is u ian an absu
inisnsab in i. Yu v an su av a is a ssib.
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Introduction
Military-touriSM
PartnerShiPS in haWaiiand the PhiliPPineS
Joe is an identity that is almost automatially attributed to
un i n a ain a in Piiins, ass
n a ian sis. T insisn ai
H, J!in i ss, a as, a bai
a sa aa a a inuua uniain,
vs a n is .. iia uain in isansa sabis J as a ua u. Js is iiaizs
his status as a visitor: his praties o leisure (and by exten-
sion, those o ivilians) were seured by the labor o his mili-
a us. s sbi an aia vin is
..-Piiin ana abains, J as uis an s-
dier embodies the masulinized mobilities o Amerian- style
modernity. His is the ambassadorship o military protetion
inin i asuab sian ssibiiis sabii an sui.
Js in, us, is unvn: in as assiv
iia insaains ina ansa, is
in a bas nis bin an sn
sexual trade and erosion o loal sovereinties ostered by his
presene. In Mindanao, where the .S. military has waed a
nu-n aiain aain aains Musis, J i
b as a savi vi as a vin in. M niniia nuns i J a bnin. in u n
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2
IntroductIon
Visaan isan s, anis aina uu an i-
an issina s a inan uua infuns, as insua
aiis iia uain vn as as is ini subj.
Althouh Joe was only an oasional presene in my town, the nited
Stats had an ovrsizd t on vryday li in th Cold War Philiins.s Maia La babis, ins an a a as, iz a
othr with storis o nular annihilation, and, o ours, dard ah othr
asina i an a ba i quisi H,
J! Dsi is assiains i a an iiaizain, ia as in-
vaiab u in s snais. T us, ia as saa
iba W Wa i b na Duas Mau,
is is un. M aius an ins abu is ab-
sa ia in b aia ass a aassn b sasi aivs, ssns au in u an s (b
ounded by Amerian missionaries), and a antasy lie ostered by tele-
vision and the movies. I rew up thinkin about the nited States as a
bnvn an nus sn, uaian aun.
Fin ai iain ai n u b C Wa iia-
in an us u b a sanan Piiin n, ai
v ni as an s in usa Y in 984. si
auas uua isin, n sns asn i-pressions ame rom the new experiene o travelin or leisure and not
s ai biains. M s in as a uis in
ni as as a visi Duas Mau Mia in ,
Viinia, s as sis a s. M a, a
World War II bu, brouht the whole amily to the rotunda where Ma-
u aa Jas bui. Tis i as a iia a
in a s b an Fiiins, bu as a nain
ais is in sia saus. si av a ai sinin n Maus 950 Cs ia iusin, as i sa, W
av aiv. T a as suvni n a ai
ia bu as a i-ass ian isu ai a as siu-
tanously an at o idntiation with militarizd U.S.-Philiin rlations.
n an as, is b is an ain nuin i
is an ins abu ni as a na an
f b u J. H as i a si assiv sa
vin .. iia a ai u in sia an Pai sin un ninn nu, a i in u in Piiins
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3
IntroductIon
had suh positive assoiations with the nited States? What alhemy
transorms the terror o imperial violene and Amerian postwar ou-
ain unsanins ian su, ibain, an
bnvoln? How ar allian and lov nurturd aainst and alonsid
a an ai a an anin? Wi ni asas sas an iis, s ans, ui sis, -
loitd rsours, indud dndnis, dislad oulations, and ru-
u uus, i as n s i i n-asin aa is n
reputation and with minimal inonveniene to the vast majority o its
iizns nsins.1 , vin ass .. invnins
have been absorbed into an alternative narrative o Amerian benevo-
n: n-iva Jaan as bn ans b viu nua annii-
ain, uain, an nsuin in a aiv a; aua Vina Wa is a aiua as an ni vi ai-
ais; an sia Pai Eni Cain ais u nib-
a ias Wasinn, D.C., in in i ab s as
si is Pai Cnu.
ains an in an i is susain iai, -
nomi, and military intervention in Asia and the Pai, Securing Para-
dise hihlihts imainative and aetive interventions as loi o power.
Js ub subjivi as uis an si sus s anauaiz an vn bsu ssaiz as vin. s a uis
insistin on a reister o human onnetion and empathyhe invited
siai, a an inain in, bunin bua
ass is issin. n binnin i J an iniains an
ins vs, asiz n aunii s aa-
ns, bu i anuau. Ta subjiv auizs u as i-
ably and onvininly as oial oliis sugsts that rathr than workin
in siin, i uua nanns i in-ainsis . n s, is b is ins in un-
sanin is ins n as as as nsiusnss bu as
ssnia ns a aisn sa. Ti ansissin juvni ii-
zns sis aa asu, v, an iniain in nas
an in abain i ain, a, an ainain.
Securing Paradise s ainsi bn uis an ii-
tarism in Hawaii and the Philippines, the historial and present-day
is ni as. Wi sis s a ian ii-tary installations today, Hawaii and th Philiins rrsnt th rst and
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4
IntroductIon
most sustaind mrian military ouations in sia and th Pai: thy
ain inins ian inain in in. Tis b in-
as s an us .. iia in s sis a
oundational to tourist itinraris and imainations, as wll as how th d-
sis an nis n uis a na ian iiainan in sia an Pai. n i ins, i-
an iiais is an bvius sn, bu uisi is suuin
ias an ais bii an nsuinis the an
to militarisms laims to seurity. The two ores work toether to pro-
u n suus in an ains n a a
uiniz in va i an a uia ais an abis
.. iiais in in. s an ian si an a sunbain
uis, J is uns b u a ni i -nia subjs asi bu inviab a s. His asuiniz biiis
sib ivis iia vnan an si a siin
an Fiiins in naas is a ss, ain u a ai-
ia an nuin ainsi aain.
s bs i sugss, b ain uis an iiais iin
sa anai ns, s uia i uua nsiuins an
nnis. Tis is a aiua un j a in i u-
iss n as savi vin nis, an ain-n .. iia iis in av a fibii in bs
is inss aba. Tuis an iiais a a invn
in va an an--an uins an is a an
ba i, bin a--a anains svs an a
. n sibin a iiaizain in nua a, Dnna
Haraway oints to th inidntal intrhanability o tourism and mili-
tarisms tehnoloies o ultimate mobility and peret exhane. Yet
this overlap between militarism and tourism is better haraterized asa sai an sbii nvn. is b n ans n inin-
a a nis n s na i . n sia
an Pai, nsiu s inan aaauss b
i ni as ns is a, an i nvn uus,
histories, and endered lois sugest a more mutually onstitutive re-
ainsi. Securing Paradise as isin suis in uis an
militarism beause it orerounds how tourism and militarisms mutual
work rodus th ossibilitis or mrian historial and ontmorarydominan in th rion. Th sam lois that rationaliz th unvn o-
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5
IntroductIon
nomi and ultural landsapes resultin rom unreulated tourism also
justiy the ontinuin presene o the Amerian military in the Pai:
jobs, stability, protetion, and orein exhane. As Cynthia Enloe su-
ss, Miiais an uis . . . a b in, bun as aus
an . Miiais an uis, an as sv a ,iusa sis bua an sis su .. i-
nain in in: nsa ani an vain i-
uits and modes o administrative ontrol, ideoloial rameworks, and
trritorial ouations that ar art o an mrian rojt o domination.
In the title o this book, the onept o securing is meant to invoke
multiple and intersetin ideas that are at play: the eonomi seurity
is b uiss qui an an iiaiss inusin an -
in aia; a iiaiz nin naina sui a ain in-nsi uin W. uss ba a aains ; iis
av sui inv b uis nis aains nain-sas;
invv in uaanin an assuin us an ain-
sis bn as, insiuins, an sas; an a ain in
us aquisiin, a i av isia an sn-a s-
nan i a ainsis ni as i Haaii
an Piiins. s su, suin is n n a jb isiinin
a iia bu as an aivn in an i an u asus nsu ais su as uis. T C Wa a
naturalized the massive buildup o the military-industrial omplex and,
jus as ian, bu isinins bn iia an iviian
i an iis, aiua in ni as. T iia a-
s vnais an sui a aaiz .. in
ni an iia i uin C Wa i sa-
ss i bin js uis an iiais in ian
aas ins. s a vna sa a as ban uin C Wa, in b uis uiuuais an is ua
messae o eonomi uplit personied liberalization with a human
a, snin aus iis ia b suanaina nin -
anizations suh as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund,
whih xloitd and rodud noolonial onomis whil vntriloquiz-
in snia iis.
Even as tourism appears as the soter olonial apparatus, as I dis-
uss in th rst hatr, its xtrativ lois and damain istmoloisa n ss a an in iiais us in a. Tuiss
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6
IntroductIon
anabii ivin vaus nsu uu ass bs
a i an ia C Wa abassa.1 su, u anaisi
ans suua ajusns an iain a iniz
svi inus, iaiv niins an abis aiia
n a sv W O, a i asin s a-ins u suiv an ui an vn.
n, sis iiais s bs n i as saua n-
su ais an iis uis in isaaan,
as I disuss in my hapter on heliopter tours. Folded and woven into
abi nsu uis ais, iniabii iiais
nsu uu aiais aufas i as b
a a--a a sui. Tuisi is is nsu -
an un biisabiss a ain iia, iia,and ultural order that normalizes the presene o the military, priori-
tizes its needs, and deends its entral role in denin national seu-
i.11 n is aiuains i iiais, uis is an jus a
onsumer pratie: its most enablin onditionsthat o mobility and
modernityare uaranteed by, at the very least, a raialized and en-
idea sui.
Ts ui snss securingus as ai n is
that struture militarism and tourism. Invokin the ideas o domesti,sna, an naina sa, an sabii uaan b asuin ab
and sarie, seurin takes the orm o uardianship and assumes a
heroi modern state as the protetor o weak and eminized territories
and peoples. Asymmetrial imperial relations amon the nited States,
sia, and th Pai rodu and rly on an invitation to onqust as th
neessary oil or the implied masuline thrust (disovery, paiation,
ibain, vn) ni as.1 iiais an u-
is n sin nins niz an an (siawomen) as passively there or the takin. This sexualized metaphor
a nn MCin as a n-iss n -
sib aa ba innaina ains, aius abu
iabii an, naua sus, an ; i as sns
s ais a sa u in a-i s.1 F insan, -
bus iiaiz s an ain inus is b a iainab
u anasis iiz i inin svin ns
mn in uniorm and oauthorizd by th losidd ratrnal allians o o-uin an ui sas.1 Security, n, is a in asuiniz
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7
IntroductIon
resue and protetion that is belied by the realities o state- santioned
vin aains n: nau sui na siuanus
b an in nvns iiais an uis is ain a vs
an nia bn asuin as sa an u b
un ns bis an iniz ans.1Wi us uua abs uis an iiais a
most starkly illuminated by this systematized state- level endered vio-
lene, the so-alled leitimate and sel-leitimizin orms o tourism
an iiais a n sa iia an aai nnain
are the objets o this study. These tolerated and even desired military-
uis assbas, jus as u as i iii sibins, na
more onventional amilial and state romanes that ritially reinore
aiaiz an n ains W O. Ts -ans un au iias ana si in
th transnational itinraris o war mmorialization to th insistnt radio-
aiv binnss Wsn sua uis az as i nuns
biinis in Pai.1 s iia s iiuis, uis
as su as visiin isi bas vn sunbain n ba
ar always alrady rratd throuh dsirs to idntiy with masulinitis
that hav bn mobilizd in th srvi o xtratrritorial domination.17 In
sia an Pai, s iiuiss a a n ains a avn ia bin bjs iia si.
In artiulatin securingto paradise, I want to emphasize the enera-
tive role played by masulinized and militarized desires or seurity in
Amerias broader imperial projet. Paradise is not a eneri or stati
termit speially reers to an idea o passivity and penetrability en-
n b iiais as an aibi inain, as Ea ai an
s av s ab nsa.1 T un n an aia-
ized tropis reerened by ontemporary tourist usaes o paradiseiss, assiv, isan sas i bas in b a s, bu
waters, warm sun, and welomin, sensual yet innoent nativeshave
their roots in European antasies o the New World.1 Drivin olonial
desire was the idea o a premodern and pristine paradisea virin ter-
rain ri or onomi xloitation and or masulin drams o disovry
an ain. n iia is uis in Cuba an Haaii,
Cisin i sugss a ni as aais as a aia-
iz iia bn an inns ss sia an ni -laboration and onfits ovr owr and land. In othr words, aradis is
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8
IntroductIon
b n ans nauai is nju u iainaiv ab, susain
b su ni aaauss as anain an uis inusis an
iaiz siis nn, su u a an
ai vin is su, an ninua ns b
iv .1Lain aais in nus ian uisi an iiaisi
sins n sia an Pai as visib anuvs .. i-
iais a av un sa i in in, aiua in
as nu. Fusin n nnia sas Haaii an
Piiins, an i na s in ian iiaizain sia
an Pai, Securing Paradise s an anasis uiss an ii-
aiss aiuains in in b ainin jin nab
overlappin projets o olonialism, developmentalism, and neoliberal-is. us neocolonial as an uba n nn a ba
i an ia iia as, bu as a a au niais
has bn rartiulatd, mutd, and unmoord throuh disourss o no-
ibais, snis, sniais an aniis, as
as niz nuin an aaiv sugs Fiiin an aiv
Haaiian s un vasain s .. invnins
in sia an Pai. sa in is j is a usa abann
naaiv ian iia is an si jin ins sui an aais a uis an iiais auiz.
linked geograPhieS and hiStorieS of ParadiSe
Lss an as a v ni as, P P
Revolution ushered out the Maros ditatorship. My amily wathed on
visin as, a aa, uns usans Fiiins
streets to protest the irreular and raudulent results o a snap eletion.
L b i assassina sna nin quin, J.,an ba b Cai Cu, vuin n
vin uni na sussu usin Mas i. a
inib ia a Mass usan ais ss, n
o the most arrestin moments o the revolution materialized when the
Maross wr rantd sa assa and sortd rom Malaaan Pala
by our Amerian heliopters. They were taken to the .S. Air Fores
Ca i as, jus i- is n Mania. Minus a, a
952 .. n Fbua 25, 986, ai sain drh annun, TMaroses have fed the ountry. The heliopters, their fiht to Clark,
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9
IntroductIon
an bass aiia saus iuina a bi bu -
ul momenthow .S. politial and military mahinations had played
an usiz in si as Piiins. Fu,
Maroses esape routeto the Amerian base in the Philippines, then
to Guam en route to Hawaiimapped out the tropial artoraphy oian si, sin ian iiais an nis
uis ina a-fun as in sa iuis.
n sia an Pai, Haaii an Piiins a iva i-
an tropis. As sites o antastial imainins and military oupations,
a unas nsins bn ia an is s, ian
ubian ias an .. sas iia isia , an
vuisi an vin anasis uis an si. n nas
s ian iiais an uis a is s in , su as baun sis in Eu, .. uains an
with sia and th Pai ar sially about th ontrol and ouation
an. Ta, au Jaan as as ninn uiss in
in, i is uia ian sain Oinais a Pau
Lns as a ian Paiis a as ia a is
in, i an b iain, an i an an su b su.
Ra sa in s nia uss an iia bass as as
th romisd markts and rsours o sia ar th staks o ast and on-inu ian inss in aa. u i is n a uniqu ..
invention, this mutual deployment o tourism and militarism has been
ana sussu b ni as, i ninus navia
th omlx lobal/loal dialtis o jt mass tourism and U.S. xotiism
j in Pai ansi ian iia iainain, u-
ain, an .. insa ansis a u sia ai-
ans an naiv ans suin aais.
T ni as as n s n nia ass isn in Haaii an Piiins. Hv, is as in a-
ninna i av nuin n s sis iai as i-
niz is an subj is asuiniz s sui.
In ontrast to th Philiins, hld undr Sanish olonial administration
sin ninn nuis, Haaii as a svin
in a as unin sugs inna uniain an as
htin o external attempts on its autonomy. Massive population de-
ins in Haaii in aiva Euan s in i-700s produed onditions or exploitation, dispossession, and ultural
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10
IntroductIon
aaain. T aiva ian Cavinis issinais in 820 a-
a sin Kin Haaiis iia aun an
ultural intrity, riminalizin Hawaiian ultural ratis and imosin
Wsn n ns si bavi. s an nsin is
a asnin uua a, s i aina aiv Haai-ians i an u isaiv anuvs a a in
an nsi in Haaii b inu, i s una-
ins aiv iia an ni s-inain.1
W Euan is a ai, an ian ni ia,
in tandem with the risin Amerian military, would sueed. nder the
v a -n ia ia, i-anin s un
a reonnaissane mission in 873 that onrmed Hawaiis desirability as
a naval port. Threatened by the resurent nationalism o the monarhyan Haaiian , an anain ia (s
issina sns) an .. av aba viua s
na b in in sin 887 an Cnsiuin. Tis
as si b visin an na iina 875 Ri-
proity Treaty, whih had allowed or the tari-ree importation o suar
ni as. T iia is an .. iiain
what was essentially a land rant to Pearl Harborparalleled the politi-
a is a i ins ai svs vn as vinis aiv n ba. Musin iia inss an
musle o the nited States, and tyin it to their apitalist interests, the
in ia s svs as n n ubian u, in
nas a (an unan) sss Kin Davi Kaaua. Tis
manuvr was not a historial aidnt; rathr, it was th ulmination o d-
as ian nin Pai a sa an is sai ass
as sia, aiua Cina. uin ian asnan in
is iia va ass Pai an sia, Haaii sv as i-an iias s in Pai, i u av un i-
liations or th lon-trm sovrinty o both Hawaii and th Philiins.
While Hawaii strugled aainst the ambitions o its missionary-
anain ia an sins .. av, Piiins a
sa n is n a vuin aains is anis nizs. T
Cai Cu a an n j nvin ininus
s i anis nia u a isin una an
ss i ua ais an nu, ain a an-nin in aji anss ua uain as nn.
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11
IntroductIon
a 800s, nsins a a biin in in anis n:
b isssss an abus anss asss an an ua naiv
elite, an armed antiolonial revolution had beun. Eyein the deline
o the Spanish empire, and ueled by its own expansionist desires, the
ni as a a aains ains a-fun nia uss.Yellow journalism and jinoisti politikin suessully deployed anxi-
eties about Amerian manhood to prime a national publi toward mili-
a invnin in Cuba. T 898 aa n Maine in Cubas
Havana Hab ini a v. n a, ni as a
a aains ain an sn invain ais Cuba, Pu Ri, an
Piiins. Eiv ain nuis ani- anis bin b
Fiiin, Cuban, an Pu Rian s, .. invnin in s -
iis nsu ninuain i, abi un a in an n ainisain.
By the time the Spanish-Amerian War broke out, the penultimate
blow aainst Hawaiian sovereinty had already been struk. The 893
v Qun Liiuaani b a aiin ian businss in-
vss as su b ai su an ian asi
jus as Oau ian inss. T uba
a sa a Haaii, i a bn su s-
in and resistin the at o war aainst its internationally reonizedsvin. s s ni as ain nava us in
Pai, Haaiis iia usunss in Pai a a bas-
sador John Hay alld a slndid littl war ovrrod any linrin thial
ubs abu iai v.
One Hawaii and the Philippines were pulled into the orbit o the
ni as, i n as ba innn. Havin
an i isain anis i, ni as ban
is iia uain Piiin isans, u isa Fiiin vuinais a a i innn ain
i n siiis. T si av Piiins ius-
a un ian nains iia savv an ba abiins
as as a u b an nuin ius uniaais. bi-
a, invain ian f in Mania a inu Boston,
si a a bn insuna in v Haaiis n-
a jus v as b. Wn Piiin-ian Wa b
u, i as vi aibi sv nsiuina vqusin Haaiis saus vis--vis ni as. Dsi n-
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12
IntroductIon
siab s aiv Haaiian sis b v
an annain, s a ni as ban siiis aains
ain, a bas v Haaiis annain susn
when the nited States annexed the islands without a popular reeren-
u. niab i u iia iia an -ia as ni as in in, Haaii an Pi-
iins u sa in as as a ian ain isans:
Haaii vi ian sis u an a
n suis a u b a a aain aiain in
Piiins, an Piiins u sn Fiiin ab an-
ain n Haaii, u inin iia an-
ain n as vnin ins in isans.
n is inns iv a i, iia as n n -nial apparatus at work, althouh perhaps it wielded the most deisive
. Tuis as a uua aaaus insi an biiz a
iiaiz si Haaii an Piiins. Diin iia
nun as inviab in iviiz i babai-
ans , avus nas is i nin
an inusiaiz Ws.1 Wi s av naaivs an u-
riht raist ortrayals to th mor nostali romantiization o untouhd
an unisv n i, as a i uin so th world as bakward and in nd o ulit srvd to justiy th military
j a u sn su s iis as nia uss. n-
, si an a uis n n an
the same, illuminatin how the routes o travel were mapped out and
shared by military and ivilian alike. Amerian travelers oten doubled
as a iia nnaissan. s isuss in a , a avs
and embedded journalists oten souted just ahead o or alonside the
iia, iin abu avnu bin s na in inans. Ti a av naaivs an nia ins sab-
is ia an visua s a a ia ssssins
ni as as an b ai: is a uis az, n,
shared the inlination or ownership and ontrol that dened military
iinais. T asuin iia suvs an avs, i
tehnoloized mobilities, and their will to penetrate land they viewed
as iv an in n bin ai iuina s
tourism and militarism relied on a belie o the proound overnabilityo the tropis. The 898 annexation o Hawaii, or example, reyled
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13
IntroductIon
the military arument o protetin .S. interests and applied it to the
broader reion throuh the deployment o these amiliar endered and
aiaiz s. Qun Liiuaani u a ubi ains an i-
ai sug aains an ian ss a a as a ai-
an qun, a ia, an a ssssia n sbs aiv Haaiian s inaabii s-u.
Wi bas a in Cnss v nia saus Pi-
ippines, Hawaii was urther absorbed into .S. iruits, and both sites
were rapidly militarized. Investin in the development o Pearl Harbor
an Haaiian ans, ni as ban sabis a Pai
military arrison, initiatin the rst step toward the reions militariza-
in. n an i nin buai Piiin-ian
Wa, Piiins isans siia iiaiz u an u-iv a nsa usans as an sabis ai an
naval bases.4 As the infuene o the nited States rew in the reion,
i invs avi in is Pai iia aisn, avin a in-
reased military and ivilian travel in these seured territories. In the
as bn W Was an , ni as i nubs
o military personnel stationed in Hawaii, and it urther expanded its
territorial and personnel presene in the Philippines.4 This oupation
Haaii u in a a iia i a ua isans ithousands o youn, unattahd mn ndin rst and rrationJos
sss. Jus as ni as vi Haaii an Pii-
pines as eminized territories needin disipline and protetion, so too
did its soldiers expet erotiized relations with the people they disi-
in an . Fin n av naaivs, ii-
a nis aiia ua/sua anua an visua ia i-
a aais u sis is isan us u: i
n a iu sai a a av bu, sis iuain arly twntith-ntury hula tours on th ontinnt, and, latr, oular
H s s in is ui snn. Ts a ii-
a n, as ass uiss, bu a aiua suaiz visin
o the tropis-as-paradise into the Amerian national onsiousness. In
Hawaii and the Philippines, militarism jump-started the rst tourist
establishments on the islands: aterin to military and olonial person-
n, zns s an ain u, iin anasisi n
aas aiis i.Ov us Haaiis Tiia Ea (898959), an ..
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14
IntroductIon
ainisain Piiins (898946), s ainsi b-
n uis an iiais as sabis. Wi us -
nialism did not always run smoothly, and there were ontraditions o
vision and poliy between the military and the settled white elite oli-
a in Haaii an av iviian s a f Pi-iins, i sa a iiais bni uains
is as uia a. Eanin siin is u-
i snssb in i an b nain i nia ans
to inlude women, overnment administrators, missionaries, medial
workers, teahers, enineers, and businesspeople, the olonial projet
un a sa , in, uain, an ni js
and onstitutd th tourists o this arly riod.51 Th military surd th
saty o th ivilians as thy undrtook ths itinraris o ulit, ollabo-ain s a uain an nia u. Liis,
.. iia un s isuss an aniss uis
iia isia vin an ai iia uain
in the islands. For example, the military took on projets suh as road
buiin abiia is ubi ains, anin iss n-
suiv niais an bii is n is buai an
un. Evn as inasin iiaiz, Haaii an
Philippines were manaed in a more benevolent ashion, refetin Pssiv Ea iis a, as as a na bi in b
the innoene o .S. imperial motivations and its benin and modern
ban niais.
Hv, u ininin ia an iia sis
iain iia basins ian-n sui in
in, i as n uni a W Wa an subsqun C Wa
a ass uis as a ba n a i iiais. Fa
i b a an abiius Jaan an is visin an sian -prosperity sphere that exluded Western infuene, and spurred by the
Jaans aa n Pa Hab in 94, ni as n in
a a a aains a in iia . T a in -
in is ui nans an ns, aniain a-nas
suh as Pearl Harbor, Nankin, Midway, Bataan, Correidor, Okinawa,
Hisia, an aasai i is vin an snina
a. Haaii (as si s in aa n .. si) an
Philippines (whih hosted a series o spetaular and siniant losses an viis aains Jaans iia) sn via ns
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16
IntroductIon
ins, is isv sa b iiaiz ais a. Du-
in C Wa, unis i aisis us uin an
ai an su b sais sis, s Pai isans
is a n av invas. Tuis in aiua as a
a isa bns aiais an a uin CWa a, a vi isiina ains n uin
a aani iiin an as C Wa. T
imaes produed by tourism had siniant rhetorial infuene when
oupled with the sentimentality o Pearl Harbor, or instane, when
Haaii aain sa. n n nsins in sia
an Pai, Haaii Jas Mins iainain as a aa-
is in C Wa s, as as Piiins, ns -
niz nain-sa n b. T Piiins, in un, ninu b .. iias i bn b, bnin .. ii-
tary xnditurs, as wll as stablishin its own fdlin visitor industry.
The body o reulatory knowlede produed by tourism in Hawaii and
Piiins isav nia an W Wa uains
an C Wa iia invnins an isi anaivs
aiv nizain vns in s an sis in in.
In everyday terms, both .S. military personnel and tourists are a
aiia si in b Haaii an Piiins, an a vau th kinds o surity thy ostnsibly symboliz as wll as or th ways thir
uua bain s i a a uisi nis
an ina iiaizain. Ta, .. Pai F in Pa Hab,
s as nava an, sans ua v a Kn as
sib as n anain si uis, i as u jus
v 520 n Haaiis n. Liis, ni as
20072009 a ns invsn in is nia us ava
$6.5 billion per year, ontributin to 08 perent o the eonomy.The Philippine eonomy, meanwhile, has historially strugled, postin
s an a sian ans, an a i ss a GNp
ba i a Haaiis. Tuis, n u as anaa -
vin nis, as ag in Piiins, si s n
a un an n ainisains a bsin Piiins as
a tourist onomy.61 Comarabl Southast sian onomis suh as Vit-
nam ost ratr visitor numbrs, yt th Philiins still touts tourism as
n is ni savis. T .. iia sn in Piiinsontinues throuh Visitin Fores Areements despite its oial 992
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17
IntroductIon
i Ca i as an ubi a ava Faii,
as iia bass in in. Ca a Dan
Dns sns in Haaii (as as n Mi Easn ais su as
Israel and Eypt), oial .S. military aid to the Philippines is modest
($500 iin 2002 202), i nsius a sinian iiainvsn in Eas sia an Pai. Evn i ans in iia
i a a a fibii s, ni as ninus
vs in u a sin iia bass: ua is s
n si in iia buiu a iss av assiv
aiains a an ina ains. Wi Cina assin Jaans
surprisinly robust military spendin (or its deense ores) in 2006,
and with North Koreas emerene as a partiularly troublin seurity
issu ni as, sia an Pai av ain aas ni as i.
Ta, in aia, an .. inss ain asns
suh lose protetion: the reion is a siniant omponent o Ameri-
an onomi halth. Today, sia-Pai Eonomi (Apec) onomis a-
un 60 n .. s. iia-inusia a
has run ramant is anothr rason: sin 2000, th lobal budt or mili-
a snin as inas 49 n, an ua n a bn
s-9/ iiaizain. n as as, .. iiabu as a is nas is, nsiuin bn 4050
n ba iia snin, ain $663 biin annu in
2009. The Pai Command, whih onstitutes one-th o total .S.
iia sn, nsisn is ni ian -
in, as i sa a inasin ba bu ni as
is nssa sabii is nia via in. M s-
ially, Asia and the Pai represent key tourist eonomies that rely
n ins .. a svis. Tuis is a ia -nomi enine or the reion, as well as the dominant ateway throuh
i in is iain an uns. Wi sia an Pai
na 8.4 n ni uns uis, a n
sana-bas uis n a a. Hv, iv,
Asia and the Pai brouht in international tourism reeipts totalin
$469 biin in 20, an in ninus as a isin sa
ba uis, i a j a 4.9 n in a sugis
n, u iusain ian uis as a vn-a sa sas in sia an Pai. Wiin in, Apecs
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18
IntroductIon
b nis av bn u us uis as an insun
dvloin ountris du to its otntial or nratin jobs and inom.6
In partnership with the inreasin visibility o tourism eonomies and
uus in s-9/ a, in as as bn inasin iia-
iz, u in fib as a sn ninuin su-rity hallns o th rion in an ra o rsistnt onfit that rquirs
a sa sisn nan.
the archiveS of ParadiSe Secured
un sa is j in a as a uis in i ii-
tarized and touriized (or lak o a more eleant term) spaes rom
2000 to 20. While also an ethnoraphy o the everyday neotiations
bn uiss an ss an i aiains naina an in-naina ains, in is inqui a ins in siis,
in as a, iiiz in is an nis
uis an iiais. a anin uua aias an a-
is a a u iin insins iiais an u-
is. T aiv is janin aiina ia
s, su as nvs, , uibs, an av naaivs; visua
s, su as as an ; nsu inasuus, su
as buildins, hihways, and military bass; and to soial xrins, suhas us, nsains, an invisas au s
siuua s an anins u, susain, an nsu
in as iiais an uis va.1
The soioultural artiats and praties examined in this book are
na. Y i is is n a isia ain iiais-
uis assbas in Haaii an Piiins, i s an
si isia ns na in nvn ains
militarism and tourism. The oranization o the book rouhly ollows.. a js in sia an Pai a a suu .. iia-
tourism praties: paired hapters disuss dierent sites and praties
a a iai i Piiin-ian Wa, W Wa , an
Vina Wa. Ciia juasin a an ain, a-
s aba un si isis, as, an aaauss a
in the onstrution o military and touristi reimes, and how they are
fib an uab v i an sa. Tis sin sia/uua
s is b n ans nsiv, bu i s iusa ba an abain bn iiais an uis.
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19
IntroductIon
Securing Paradise bins i a iia a susainin n
an aiaiz ins iiais an uis iin a isi-
al ontext o Amerian olonial domination. Chapter refets on the
ia as a si iia snain as as a ain
where eminist ounterheemoni theorizations about the relationshipbn uis an iiais an a a. Osin asuin
nia ins avin junaiss uin Piiin-ian
War with the ritial eminist tions o Filipina and Native Hawaiian
women durin the late Cold War era, I hihliht the invention o the
is b an is navnin b a. Ca 2 i-
is as nnins bn a nia as ssiv is-
sion to the Cold Wars prorams o development and modernization by
ainin ian a buiin in Piiins uin aitwntith ntury and in Hawaii durin th lat twntith ntury as thy
sa nia an iia s bii, n, an suvian.
Both xamls that I ous on hrKnnon Road in th northrn rion
Piiins, bui a ass nia i sain a-
ui, an n h-3 nsa, i nns iia bass
throuh th Koolau Mountains on Oahuillustrat how th sni hih-
a is a n ua aaaus a as asuiniz is
bii an visuai (a is, as vin an sin) in inizui iis.
Continuin the exploration o other built texts and the strutures o
eelin they produe, the next two hapters ous on military bases as
ia sas uis an iiais ina. n a 3, i
Ci san, aaan ias, an Ca
and Subi Bases in the Philippines in a iruit o military tourism that
ns n an vvin nin ian ibain v us
a nu. n i ua inanains as uis sinains WWa is an sia ni zns, s sis a squa si-
tioned within Cold War and postCold War ollaborations between the
nains, aniain n ana aians an ainsis a
n is ian bnvn an ibain. Ca 4 a-
ines how the orms o tourism enerated by the SS Arizona Memorial
and its auxiliary sites produe an insistent narrative o innoene and
sai a is uia ninu iia uain Haaii.
nin i is iia/uis a anss an na-ina sui, a visi Arizona an is an sis ais u a
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20
IntroductIon
disaaran o histori U.S. military dsins on Hawaii. Std in nos-
ai isuss asuin i suin an sai, s ubi
sas sis inaia an innaina iia aaai in
s W Wa i susnin isis v, s-
ain, isnanisn, an aia vin.n bs as as, a in nis -
biiz uin Vina Wa an ins subjiviis an iai-
nains nab a. Ts as iusa inasin
slippery translations o military skills and tehnoloies to tourism and
ba aain. Ca 5 ains ubiquius i us a a
one o the most popular ways to take in the island landsape o Kauai.
iain in in bn iia vin an uis asus,
these heliopter tours enable reenatments o disovery narratives oniniz, ininiz ains i in an ana nin
masuline trauma o Vietnam. In ontrast with the modern tehnoloy
is, a 6 uss n an ininus si s as s
militarized and then subsequently repakaed or tourists at the Subi
Fs jun s. Masuiniz nins siin an uin
a in in is aiua u, as uiss a si an sis a
naiv, sin i n as in i ininus asuiniis a
ui in iuis iiais an uis.My onlusion examines both the everyday and spetaular reali-
is a su iiais an uis inia nv in
Haaii an Piiins, usin n assbas uua i
in the reion ater 9/. While the landsape o the postCold War era,
inasin ibaizain in un infun ansna-
ina aia, an vn ba a n a aa a a
s sa ivs s in sia an Pai, b Haaii
an Piiins ninu av ian s in nsiuin ian ini an . T Piiinsas s sns
Bushs war aainst trror in th ost-9/ ra, ontinus to unoially host
ian san Haaiias as nava bas in
Paisan ua v is in as buas aains ani-
is an sab ain u sas. Ta, Haaii an Pi-
iins ninu, i vain s suss, svs
as ia aaiss an i a i ans su aais in
as inasin insu .
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noteS
introduction
This bk uses mdern Haaiian rhgraphy, hich uses diacrii-
cal marks r Haaiian-lanuae erms: he kina () marks a lal
sp and he kahak is a macrn indicain a ln vel sund. I d
not italicize Hawaiian words, as they are not oreign to Hawaii. When
quin direcly rm surces, hever, I have preserved he spellin
riinal surces r hisrical accuracy.
1. Lyns,American Pacifcism, 8.
2. Gerhard, Americas Pacic Cenury?3. I brr he phrase rm Isaac,American Tropics, cnras he cn-
san pull American imperial desire aains a hisriraphical ill
amnesia.
4. Williams,Marxism and Literature, and Berer, Ways o Seeing.
5. On he diferenial mbiliies ha make up empire, see Ballanyne
and Burn,Moving Subjects.
6. Haraay, The Cybr Manies, 168.
7. Enle,Maneuvers, 68.
8. Enle, Globalization and Militarism.
9. Liberalizain ih a Human Face, Wrld Turism Organizain,
.rld-urism.rg/liberalizain/menu.hm (accessed May 9,
2004). The ebsie pins u ha his prram lls he UN Mil-
lennium Develpmen Gals as ell as he Glbal Cde Ehics n
air rade and pvery alleviain he nied ains Wrld Tur-
ism Oranizain (UNwto). On he uneven ecnmic relains s-
ered beeen cunries ha send uriss, and hse less-develped
ecnmies r hm urism is a prescripin, see Kincaid, A Small
Place; ash, Turism as a Frm Imperialism; Mrh and
Mun, Tourism and Sustainability; and Brin, The Pliical Ecnmy Turism in he Third Wrld.
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226
Notes to iNtroDuctioN
10. Endy, Cold War Holidays; Klein, Cold War Orientalism.
11. See Jhnsn, The Sorrows o Empire, 2324. See als Bacevich, The New American
Militarism, and Girux, War n Terrr.
12. McClinck, Imperial Leather, 26.
13. Ibid., 2126.
14. See, e.., Enle, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases; Enle, Maneuvers; Surdevan, Letthe Good Times Roll; Mn, Sex among Allies; Sakai, On Rmanic Lve and Mili-
ary Vilence; Bars, Wars Dirty Secret; Tanaka and Brnmiller,Japans Com-
ort Women; and Shibusaa,Americas Geisha Ally.
15. On the romantic overtones o security, within a discussion o the political-libidinal
ecnmies ha rame .S.-Philippine relains, see Tadiar, Fantasy-Production.
16. G. Whie, Remembering Guadalcanal; Whie and Lindsrm, The Pacifc The-
ater; Teaia, bikinis and her s/pacic n/ceans.
17. I brr he erm militourism rm Teaia, Miliarism, Turism and he aive.
18. Said, Orientalism, and Culture and Imperialism; Manderson and Jolly, Sites of Desire,
Economies o Pleasure.
19. See Srachans enealy paradise in Paradise and Plantation; and Chens ex-
plrain nainalism and urism in Take Me to My Paradise.
20. Skis The Purposes o Paradise is a deailed sudy urism plicy and imaina-
ive per in Cuba and Haaii.
21. Merrills Negotiating Paradise examines .S. urism in Lain America as a mde
culural and cnsumer expansin alnside diplmacy.
22. See, in cnras my cus n his heemnic rmain, Haua, Our Sea
Islands.
23. The gegraphical speciciy his prjec aends he call r a criical re-gionalism in Wilson, Towards an Asia/Pacic Cultural Studies. While the para-
dises invked in his bk are limied r he ms par Haaii and he Phil-
ippines r reasns ime and experise, American rpics in he Asia and he
Pacicsuch as Guam, Okinaa, Vienam, he Marshall Islands, and American
Samaand hse uside he reinsuch as Puer Ric and Cubaare als
key lcains he glbal American uris-miliary cmplex. See als Tripp,
Cnenius Divide, r a specic sudy he Krean demiliarized zne.
24. Shigematsu and Camacho, Introduction, xviii. I use the term Native Hawaiian,
r Kanaka Mali reer peple indienus Haaii. Where reerrin aive Haaiians (r her indienus peple), I use he erm aive ih an
uppercase disinuish indienus peple rm indienus hins such as
naive plans r animals. I als use naive ih a lercase n as an adjecive
r nun reer a eneral ppulain rm an area h are n necessarily in-
dienus ha area.
25. be cnused ih he recenly inauuraed Philippine Presiden Benin
yny Aquin III. iny, his aher, as an uspken criic he Marcs
reime.
26. See Diller and Scdi, Back to the Front, hich lks a he urism ar bu
cenralizes Eurpean Wrld War II sies as is bjecs inquiry.
27. Lyns,American Pacifcism.
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227
Notes to iNtroDuctioN
28. Wilsn, Reimagining the American Pacifc, xi.
29. On population decline in Hawaii, see Stannard, Before the Horror. For an early his-
ry Haaii he 1887 Reciprciy Treay, see Osri, Dismembering Lhui.
30. Merry, Colonizing Hawaii; Silva,Aloha Betrayed.
31. The 1848 Mhele leally ransrmed he Haaiian sysem land enure rm is
radiinal cmmunal usae a privae prpery sysem, piin aive Haai-ians, h ere unamiliar ih privae prpery, aains savvy real esae devel-
pers. Asian planain rkers, h ere impred as labr, ere n alled
n land. See Kameeleihia, Native Land and Foreign Desires.
32. These recnnaissance missins had sared as early as 1840. See Ken, Hawaii,
5354.
33. .S. Senar Alber J. Beveridge, Address he Senae, Cngressinal Recrd,
Senae, 56h Cnress, 1s sessin, January 9, 1900, 70412.
34. On early Spanish colonial cultures, particularly the complex dynamics o Catholic
cnversin and ranslain in he Philippines, see Raael, Contracting Colonialism.
35. An ecnmically and gegraphically versreched Spanish empire had been
undergoing a long, slow slide since the sixteenth century, punctuated by big losses
to a revolutionary South America and Central America in the early 1820s. See also
Ile, Pasyon and Revolution.
36. Hansn, Fighting or American Manhood.
37. Silva,Aloha Betrayed.
38. Many hisrians his perid suges ha Spain, in rder n lse ace Fili-
pino insurgentswho were starting to make inroads in their revolutionary war
handed he islands ver a mre perul enemy. Prez Jr., The War o 1898,
ulines his ae r Cuba.39. Silbey,A War o Frontier and Empire, 27.
40. The Senae passed he elands Resluin in lieu a reay, hich had he
same resul. See Ken, Hawaii, 67. On he muliaceed mehds aive Haai-
ian resisance, see Silva,Aloha Betrayed.
41. Jacbsn, Barbarian Virtues.
42. Pra, Imperial Eyes.
43. See rry, The Tourist Gaze.
44. Silva,Aloha Betrayed.
45. Jhnsn, The Sorrows o Empire, 44. On Oahu, Fr Shaer, Fr Ruer, Fr Arm-srng, Fr DeRussy, Fr Kamehameha, Fr Weaver, and Scheld Barracks
ere cnsruced sn hereaer, as par a visin surrund he island ih
a rin seel. See Kajihir, The Miliarizin Haaii, 172.
46. Linn, Guardians o Empire.
47. Feeney, Alha and Allegiance, 221. See als Kajihir, The Miliarizing
Haaii.
48. On he sex indusry and Haaii miliarizain, see Bailey and Farber, The First
Strange Place.
49. Ibid., 40. On hula urs and is exic icngraphy, see Adria Imada, Aloha
America.
50. The early sex indusry ha serviced he miliary in Haaii acually impred
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228
Notes to iNtroDuctioN
msly hie men serve he hie sldiers h served in he miliary due
he arnins rm elie, aive Haaiian, and Asian seler cmmuniies. See
Bailey and Farber, The First Strange Place.
51. On public healh campains in he Philippines, see W. Andersn, Colonial Patholo-
gies. On he clnial riins cnemprary Filipin/a nursin, see Chy, Empire
o Care. See als Edmund, Leprosy and Empire.52. See G, Inrducin.
53. Trask, in Selers Clr and Immiran Heemny, races he dubled cl-
nizain aive Haaiians: rs a he hands Eurpean and American busi-
ness cncerns, hen by Asian selers. See als Cper and Das, Land and Power
in Hawaii, hich ulines he rise he Demcraic Pary in Haaii as led by he
labr-suppred Japanese selers.
54. See Gldsne n he cnribuin American Express ravelers checks lb-
alizain and demcraizain inMaking the World Sae or Tourism. See als L-
ren, On Holiday, and Yan,Airborne Dreams, hich races he culural hisry
Pan American Airlines and is early assisance he .S. miliary. Yan idenies
he eminized rpics Haaii and he labr Japanese-speakin Asian Ameri-
can men as fih aendans as key elemens in he csmplian rainin
Japanese uriss.
55. Kim, Ends o Empire. See als Endy, Cold War Holidays, and Klein, Cold War Orien-
talism.
56. Saranilli, Seein Cnques.
57. Lyns,American Pacifcism, 152.
58. Crai Gima, in Haaii Sixh in Federal Spendin, Star Bulletin, July 23, 2009,
racks 2008 ederal spendin in Haaii, hich cmprises msly miliary unds,as jus behind urism and real esae a $15 billin.
59. Ken, Hawaii, 180.
60. Hsek, Liviz, and Resnick, How Much Does Military Spending Add to Hawaiis
Economy? The dispariy in numbers depends n heher he unds purchasing
per is calculaed in he indirec jbs, gds, and services prduced by he
iniial ederal unds. The al percenage ederal unds spen n deense in
Haaii has decreased rm 46.2 percen in 1990 38.5 percen in 2000, bu he
al amun bh deense and nndeense spendin has increased. In 2009
ederal deense spending cnribued $12.2 billin hile 2010 visir expendi-ures cnribued $10 billin.
61. Verikis, Philippines Susainable Grh Benes Turism, Travel Daily News
ebsie, June 27, 2007. Is ider ecnmic impac is recased a 9.9 per-
cen in 2012: see Wrld Travel and Turism Cuncil, Travel and Turism Ec-
nomic Impact 2012: Philippines, 3, www.wttc.org.site_media/uploads/downloads
/philippines2012.pd (accessed December 11, 2012).
62. Durin Presiden Glria Macapaal-Arrys rs hree years, her cunerinsur-
gency sraegy received 1,500 percen mre .S. miliary assisance as had he
previus adminisrain (r a al $246 millin). See Marina Walker Gue-
vara, Susainin an nppular Reime, The Cener r Public Ineriy, May 31
2007, .publicinegriy.rg/2007/05/31/5763/susaining-unppular-regime
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33/33
Notes to chapter 1
(accessed December 11, 2012). Fr 2012 numbers, see Manuel Mga, .S.
Triples Miliary Aid Philippines in 2012, Reuers, May 12, 2012.
63. See, e.., Clinn, Americas Pacic Cenury, r he secreary saes declara-
in Asia as he principal area r .S. pliics in he reseeable uure.
64. Export gure is rom Carter, United States Commits to Strengthening Asia-Pacic
Trade, America-Engaging he Wrld, June 17, 2010, nezealand.usembassy.gv/us_pacic_rade.hml (accessed December 11, 2012). In an ineresin ne, he
nied Saes Pacic Cmmand nes ha he Asia/Pacic rein eihs in ih
a hppin 35 percen share .S. raderh $548 billin (cmpared 19
percen ih he Eurpean nin, 20 percen ih Canada, and 18 percen ih
Lain America). Is updaed ebsie nes mre generally ha he 36 nains
ha cmprise he Asia-Pacic rein are hme mre han 50% he rlds
population, three thousand diferent languages, several o the worlds largest mili-
aries, and ve nains allied ih he .S. hruh muual deense reaies. T
he hree lares ecnmies are lcaed in he Asia-Pacic aln ih en he
ureen smalles, .pacm.mil (accessed June 20, 2010).
65. Caldicott, The New Nuclear Danger; Hartung, How Much Are You Making on the War,
Daddy?
66. Jhnsn, The Sorrows o Empire, 5565; Chen, Hisry and he Hyperper.
Daa n he amun miliary spendin are rm Skns e al., Miliary Expen-
diure.
67. See he nied Saes Pacic Cmmand ebsie, .pacm.mil.
68. Wrld Travel and Turism Cuncil, The Revie 2011, .c.r/sie_media
/uplads/dnlads/WTTC_Revie_2011.pd (accessed July 25, 2011); Wrld
Turism Oranizain, Asia Rse Aain as a Fas Grin Rein, Wrld Tur-ism Organizain, .un.rg/reginal/suh_asia/es/asgring.hm
(accessed May 8, 2007).
69. Taleb Riai, Depuy Secreary-General UNwto, as qued in Wrld Turism
Oranizain, Asia Rse Aain as a Fas Grin Rein.
70. Transrmin .S. Army Pacic, 4.
71. Fr examples hese sciculural rms, see Gillem, America Town, and Luz,
Homeront.
1. ManifeSt deStinationS
1. Clird, Routes, 39.
2. Said, The World, the Text, and the Critic.
3. Rsca, State o War, 67. Thruhu he res his chaper, ciains his rk
are ihin parenheses.
4. See Elaine Scarrys The Body in Pain n rure, ar, and lanuae.
5. Sharpe,Allegories o Empire, 21.
6. Weeks and Mecnis, The Armed Forces o the USA in the Asia-Pacifc Region, 17.
7. Ibid., 2627. The Asia-Pacic allies ere seen as impran, even huh Eurpe
as he cus primary ensins durin his ime. I cninues be a criical re-
in r he buildup nuclear eapns, develpmen ar scenaris, and hs-
in esraeic miliary sies. See als Smih, Shiin Terrain.
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