SCANNING AND TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
AN INTRODUCTION
Stanley L. Flegler John W. Heckman, Jr. Karen L. Klomparens
Center for Electron Optics Michigan State University
W. H. FREEMAN AND COMPANY NEW YORK
CONTENTS Preface vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 ELECTRON SOURCES AND ELECTRON LENSES 13
Electron Sources 13
Electron Lenses 19
3 VACUUM SYSTEMS 23
Vacuum Pumps Commonly Used in EM Labs 26
Methods of Measuring Vacuums 35
Vacuum Systems Used in Electron Microscopy 38
4 THE TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE 43
Theory of Operation 44
Real Images 46
Virtual Images 47
Depth of Field and Depth of Focus 48
Anatomy of a Transmission Electron Microscope 49
Medium- and High-Voltage Transmission Electron Microscopy 63
5 THE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE 65
Theory of Operation 67
Specimen-Beam Interactions 71
Machine Variables 82
Ultrahigh-Resolution SEMS 89
Environmental SEMS 89
v
vi CONTENTS
Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopes 90
Scanning Tunneling and Atomic Force Microscopy 93
6 SPECIMEN PREPARATION FOR TEM 97
Negative Staining of Small Particulates 98
Ultrathin Sectioning of Larger Samples 100
Vacuum Evaporators and Evaporation Techniques 126
Shadowcasting and Replica Techniques 132
Cytological Techniques 142
Preparation of Nonbiological Materials 148
7 SPECIMEN PREPARATION FOR SEM 151
Mounting 152
Coating for Conductivity 153
Special Methods for Various Sample Types 158
Biological Sample Preparation 159
Alternative Methods for Biological Samples 162
SEM Histochemistry for Biological Samples 167
8 X-RAY ANALYSIS 173
X-ray Production and Naming 174
Measuring the Energy and Wavelength of X Rays 177
Construction of the EDS Detector 178
Construction of the EDS X-Ray Analyzer 180
Outputs 182
Spectrum Accumulation and Interpretation 182
Optimizing the Detection of X Rays 185
Artifacts 187
Quantitative Analysis 191
Sample Preparation 196
9 ELECTRON MICROGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES 201
Silver Graphic Process 202
Photographic Printing 205
Transmission Electron Micrography 208
Scanning Electron Micrography 213
The Electronic Darkroom 215
Micrograph Presentation and Publication 217
Index 221
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