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Data collection for
Quantitative
Chapter 6
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Overview of the chapter
Types of sources- secondary and primary
Measurement and scaling
Dierences between measurement andscaling
Concepts, indicator and variable
Level of measurement scales
Types of scale
Goodness of measurement instrument
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Data collection
One of te important activities in teresearc process
Data can be collected in many waysand using various types of metods
Data can be classi!ed into"uantitative and "ualitative
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Data collection method
#ources of data can be secondary orprimary
Metods for collecting "uantitativedata can be in te form ofsurvey$"uestionnaire or e-survey
%n terms of setting, data can becollected eiter in a natural settingor lab setting
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Where quantitative data comesfrom
Primary Sources:
#urveysContent analysisObservation studies&rcival studiesOter'
Secondary Sources:
O(cial statistics )surveys and oter material*&rcived academic surveysOter arcived datasets
& lot of secondary datasets are now available on te weband access is free for tose in academic environments+
You can rowse some data at: Data &rcive www!data"archive!ac!u#$
.conomic and #ocial Data www!esds!ac!u#$
O(ce for /ational #tatistics www!statistics!%ov!u#$
http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/http://www.esds.ac.uk/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/http://www.esds.ac.uk/http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/7/24/2019 Research Method - Data Collection
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Primary sources
Data can be collected by ac"uiring !rstandinformation from te respondents
%s analysis conducted by te investigator)s* orinstitution tat collected te data+
0or instance, sending mail survey to respondentsor interviewing te respondents
%t can be collected also from observation+ 0orobservation, te data is documented in a form and
it can be in te form of non participatoryobservation or participatory observation+Observation is mainly used in "ualitative approac
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Oservation
1esearcer will indicate te area tat seor e would li2e to observe
Ta2e note important points related to te
area tat e or se observed 1esearcer can decide weter to involve
wit te participant or not to participate
0or "uantitative researcer, observation isone of te ways to gain initialunderstanding about te area to be studied
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Questionnaire
&lso 2nown as survey
%t provides a "uantitative or numericdescription of te trends, attitudes,opinions or perceptions of apopulation by studying a sample oftat population
&n instrument of measurement
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&nterview
3uantitative data can also beac"uired from interview for instance,wen as2ing participants about teirages, income level
%nterview can be categorised asstructured, semi structured and
unstructured
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Secondary sources
%s any furter analysis of an e4istingdataset tat produces results orconclusions oter tan tose produced as a
result of te !rst report on te in"uiry+Often carried out by dierent people tantose tat collected te data+
%nformation are obtained from articles,
researc report and etc 3uantitative data can be ac"uired from
database developed by a company
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Quantitative data
Data are used to classify groups+
.4amples5 numbers, "uantity,prevalence, incidence+
6ariables can be classi!ed aspysical )population, infrastructure*,social )poverty, slums*, spatial )landuse, pro4imity* etc!
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Quantitative data ' e(ample
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)easurement
Measurement encompasses scales and scalingused in measuring concept as well as reliabilityand validity of te measures used
Measurement in "uantitative researc sould
ful!ll7+ 6alidity - &re you measuring wat you tin2 you are measuring8
9+ Ob:ectivity - researcers stand outside te penomena tey study+Data collected are free from bias+
;+ 1eliability- if someting was measured again using te same
instrument, would it produce te same or nearly te same results8
+ ?recision= @ow muc trustable, ow con!dent is te result+
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)easurement
%s about ow variables in teframewor2 is measured
Operationalising te variables
Developing scale
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Scalin%
#caling is construction of instrumentsfor measuring abstract constructs+
eg using Li2ert scale to measureperception of te respondent on Mpostgraduate programme
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John W. Creswell
Educational Research:
Planning, Conducting, andEvaluating Quantitative and
6.16
*in#in% Data Collectionto +ariales and Questions
Flow of Activities Example
%dentify te variable
Operationally de!ne te variable
Locate data )measures,observations, documentswit "uestions and scales*
Collect data oninstruments yieldingnumeric scores
#elf-e(cacy for learning fromoters
Level of con!dence tat anindividual can learn sometingby being taugt by oters
7; items on a self-e(cacyattitudinal scale from Aergin
)7BB*
#cores of eac item rangedfrom -7 wit 7 beingEcompletely con!dentF
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John W. Creswell
Educational Research:
Planning, Conducting, andEvaluating Quantitative and
6.17
&nformation to Collect:,ypes of Data )easures
&n instrument is a tool formeasuring, observing, ordocumenting "uantitative data+
Types of instruments ?erformance measures )e+g+, test
performance*
&ttitudinal measures )measures feelingstoward educational topics*
Aeavioral measures )observations ofbeavior*
0actual measures )documents, records*
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John W. Creswell
Educational Research:
Planning, Conducting, andEvaluating Quantitative and
6.18
*ocatin% or Developin% an
&nstrument for Data Collection Loo2 in publised :ournal articles 1un an .1%C searc and a descriptor for te
instrument you want in an online searc to see iftere are articles tat contain instruments Cec2 Tests in Print Cec2 Mental Measurements Yearbookpublised
by te Auros Center at te niversity of/ebras2a, Lincoln, /. )ttpunl+edu$Auros* Develop your own instrument
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John W. Creswell
Educational Research:
Planning, Conducting, andEvaluating Quantitative and
6.19
Criteria for Choosin% a -ood&nstrument
@ave autors developed te instrumentrecently8
%s te instrument widely cited by oter autors8
&re reviews available for te instrument8
Does te procedure for recording data !t teresearc "uestions$ypoteses in your study8
Does te instrument contain accepted scales ofmeasurement8
%s tere information about te reliability andvalidity of scores from past uses of teinstrument8
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+ariales
Quantitative .nalysis involves the studyof variales!
+ariales are attriutes that vary acrosscases/ and$or within a case over time!
0or e(ample/ %ender/ a%e/ happiness/political association/ occupation/
numer of students on a course1
,he process of %oin% from a concept toa variale involves operationalisation ofthe research question!
When variales are produced in surveys
they are often the product of 2closedquestions3!
Closed questions are questions in whichpossile answers are %iven and therespondent selects from these: all ofthe questions in last"wee#3s survey
were closed as you did not have theoption to write your own answers!
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.spects of Measurement Validityin Social4esearch
What is a Concept in sociolo%icalresearch 5
Concept :
! Mental Constructs/ or ima%es/ developed tosymoli7e ideas/ persons/ thin%s/ or
events! 8symolic interaction9
! .n Organized principle used to di;erentiatethose classes of phenomena with common
characteristics from other classes of
phenomena!
Are we measuring what we intend to measure ?
O , Are we measuring the !orre!t Con!e"t ?
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Conceptuali7ation
%n Deductive research, conceptualiHation elps to translateportions of an abstract teory into speci!c variables tat can
be used in testable ypoteses+ %n Inductive research, conceptualiHation is an important partof te process used to ma2e sense of related observations+
Conceptualizationis te processofspecifying wat we mean by a term+ ) &clear, verbal speci!cation of your variable
)concept* so tat oters 2now wat it isand can place cognitive borders around it+
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Conceptuali7ationContinued1
&fwe ypotesiHed tat lowersocialstatusin college students directly
correlatestoan increase in deviantehavior, ten wat e4actly isDeviant Behavior8 )Te conceptual D6 weare measuring*
-Deviant Aeavior as Causing pysical arm,
Tal2ing out loud in class, nderage Drin2ing,
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Concepts in 4esearch
ConIicts in Measurement 6alidity
7+ &ll concepts are )ulti"Dimensional What do we mean by social status?
Lets do a study to see if tere is a Directrelationsip between Social Statusof parents andDeviant Behaviorin college students+
Social Status
Power Privilege Prestige
Indicators
O E I G R E A B R
Income Possessions, Fasion, !eet, Self"Report,#ewelr$, etc%
Process of
Conceptualization
.ndOperati
on"ali7atio
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Operationali7ation
%n #ocial 1esearc, tere are
Operations of )easurement!Operation: &procedurefor identifying or indicatingte value of cases on a variable+ )%nstructions*
Operationali7ation:Teprocessof specifying teoperations tat will indicate te value of cases on avariable
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*ets say we were to Operationali7e thee;ects of ASendin% 0lowers and -et wellcardsB to a Patient/ as a method of
A&ncreasin% ealth!B
Shorter hospital stays=OperationaliHedas EDays spent in the hospitalF
ormal heart rates and loodpressures= OperationaliHed in EBeats
per minuteF and EDiastolic and systolicpressuresF+
&ncreased morale= OperationaliHed byas2ing patients a series of "uestions
How will we measure Increasing
Healthof Patients ?
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*evels of )easurement
,he *evel of )easurementis te matematicalprecision wit wic te values of a variable canbe e4pressed+
Te /ominal )name* level of measurement, wicis ualitative, as no matematical interpretation5
Te !uantitativelevels of measurementJOrdinal,%nterval, and 1atioJare progressively more precise
matematically+
When we #now a variale3s level of measurement/ wecan etter understand how cases vary on that variale
and so understand more fully what we havemeasured!
#ominal
Ordinal
$nter%al
atio
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&ndicators and Dimensions
K &ndicators are Observations eCoose to1epresent as a 6ariable of a Concepteis to #tudy+ Going to religiousplace suc as mos"ue may be
cosen as an %ndicator of 1eligiosity+
K Dimensionsare 0acets or &spects
of
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EC.F,&OEL.6.L# O0 M..M./T C&/T A.D.T.1M%/.D W&,OF,CO/#%D.1%/G GO,T@. CO/C.?T
&/D T@. M..)ConceptualiHation andOperationaliHation*
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&nstrument$)easurement
%nstrument development
adapted or adopted
adapted - ac"uired instrument frompublication ):ournal, boo2 and so on* on topicrelated to te study+
adopted = is based on te establisedinstrument witout canging te originalcontent+
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*evel of )easurement Scales
#cales in measurement
a*/ominal #cale
b*Ordinal #calec* %nterval #cale
d*1ation #cale
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ominal
Scale
%s one tat allows teresearcer to assignsub:ects to certaincategories or group+
Categories individuals orob:ects into mutuallye4clusive and collectively
e4austive groups+ Gives some basic,
categorical, grossinformation+
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Ordinal
Scale
%s not only categories tevariables in suc a way as todenote dierences among te
various categories, it alsoran2-orders te categories insome meaningful way+
it any variable for wic
te categories are to beordered according to somepreference, te ordinal scalewould be used+
@elps te researcer todetermine te percentage ofrespondents wo considerinteraction wit oters to bemost important, tose wo
consider using a number of
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&nterval
Scale
&llows us to perform certainaritmetical operations on tedata collected from terespondents+
/ot only groups individualsaccording to certaincategories and taps te orderof tese groups, it also
measures te magnitude ofte dierences in tepreferences among teindividual+
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4atio
Scale
/ot only measures temagnitude of te dierencesbetween points on te scalebut also taps te proportions
in te dierences+ %s te most powerful of te
four scales because it as auni"ue Hero origin and
subsumes all te properties ofte oter tree scales+
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,ype of scales
/umerical rating scale = measuringfrom poor to e4cellent =ow wouldyou rate your supervisor from to
78
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,hurstone
4atin% the Potential Scale &temsNudges rate te items on 77-point scale
7 agreement indicates very low
amount of te attribute 77 agreeing indicates very ig
amount of te attribute
encourage :udges to use entire range ofscale, assigning some statements toeac of te 77 values = sort tem into77 piles+
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,hurstone Scales:)ethod of >qual".ppearin% &ntervals
De
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,hurstone
Computin% the Scale Score+alues for >ach &tem 0ind median and SDor inter-"uartile
range &rrange in table
#ort by median
itin items wit same median, sort by#D or inter-"uartile range
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,hurstone
Select the 0inal Scale &tems 7 )or 9 or ;* item)s* for eac possible
scale score value
?refer items wit low variability among:udges
.nd up wit 7-; items
%tems and scale score values are sownon te ne4t slide+
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?eople wit &%D# deserve wat teygot+ )7*
&%D# is good because it elps controlte population+ )9*
&%D# will never appen to me+ );*
% canPt get &%D# if %Pm in amonogamous relationsip+ )*
Aecause &%D# is preventable, wesould focus our resources onprevention instead of curing )>*
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?eople wit &%D# are li2e my parents)Q*
%f you ave &%D#, you can still lead anormal life )*
&%D# doesnPt ave a preference,
anyone can get it )B* &%D# is a disease tat anyone can
get if tey are not careful )B*
&ids aects us all )7* ?eople wit &%D# sould be treated:ust li2e everybody else+ )77*
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,hurstone
.dminister the 0inal Scale 1andomiHe te order of te items
0or eac item, respondent cooses
&gree or Disagree 0or eac item te scale score is te
median from te :udgesR ratings
Total #core mean scale score for itemson wic te respondent agreed+
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,hurstone
Turstone scales are rarely usedtese days
Tey are :ust too muc trouble tocreate+
Li2ert scales were developed inresponse to tis di(culty
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-uttman Scalin%
Devaluatin% the Potential &tems 0or eac item, :udges are as2ed if
someone ig in te attribute wouldagree wit te statement = Ses or /o+
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-uttman
Conduct a Scalo%ram .nalysis ofHud%es3 4esponses use special software to do tis
if successful, it will create an ordered listof items suc tat
agreeing wit te !rst item indicates youave at least a little of te measured
attribute agreeing wit te second indicates you aveat least a little more of te attribute
etc+
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-uttman
Te scalogram analysis also computes ascale score value for eac statement+
#ee te e4ample in TrocimRs %nternet
document Guttman#caling )reproducedon te ne4t slide*+
%t is assumed tat anybody wo wouldagree wit te ntitem would also agree
wit all preceding items+Te order of te items may be
scrambled prior to administering te
scale+
% believe tat tis country sould allow in
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htmhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htmhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htmhttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgutt.htm7/24/2019 Research Method - Data Collection
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% believe tat tis country sould allow inmore immigrants+
% would be comfortable wit new
immigrants moving into my community+ %t would be !ne wit me if new immigrants
moved onto my bloc2+
% would be comfortable if a new immigrantmoved ne4t door to me+
% would be comfortable if my cild dated anew immigrant+
% would permit a cild of mine to marry animmigrant+
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-uttman
&dminister te 0inal #cale 1espondents are as2ed to cec2 items
wit wic tey agree
1espondentRs score sum of te scalescore values for cec2ed responses+
Li2e Turstone scales, Guttman
scales are not often used tese days+
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*i#ert Scales
De
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*i#ert
%nstead of a dicotomous response scale)agree or disagree*, use a multi-pointresponse scale li2e tis
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*i#ert
>valuatin% the Potential &tems Get :udges to evaluate eac item on a >-
point scale
7 -- &greement very low on attribute 9 = &greement low on attribute ; = &greement tells you noting < = &greement ig on attribute
> = &greement very ig on attribute #elect items wit very ig or very lowmeans and little variability among te
:udges+
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*i#ert
.lternate )ethod of &tem>valuation &s2 some :udges to respond to te items
in te way tey tin2 someone ig inte attribute would respond+ &s2 oter :udges to respond as would
one low in te attribute+
?refer items tat best discriminatebetween tese two groups
&lso as2 :udges to identify items tat areunclear or confusing+
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*i#ert
Pilot ,est the &tems &dminister to a sample of persons from
te population of interest
Conduct an item analysis ?refer items wic ave ig item-total
correlations
Consider conducting a factor analysis
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*i#ert
.dminister the 0inal Scale on eac item, response wic indicates
least amount of te attribute scored as 7
ne4t least amount response scored as 9 and so on
respondentRs total score sum of item
scores or mean of item scores dealing wit nonresponses on some
items
reIecting items )reverse scoring*
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Semantic Di;erential Scale
Tis tecni"ue assesses te e4tent ofte sub:ectRs agreement wit items,were te response for eac item is
sown on a continuum+
.4ample
#2ipping class in #ociology ;9 is+++
Good for me+ 79; Aadfor me
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Semantic Di;erential
Tis tecni"ue can be used to as2 many "uestionsin a sort amount of space )mailed survey* ortime )telepone survey*+
Te tecni"ue is intuitively appealing to mostpersons+
Te tecni"ue provides continuous-level data+
Te tecni"ue can become tiresome if used tooe4tensively on a "uestionnaire+
%t sometimes can be di(cult to label te end-points of a semantic scale+
- d f ) t
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-oodness of )easurement&nstrument
To 2now weter te instrumentmeasures wat it supposed tomeasure
To 2now weter it consistentlymeasures wat it intends to
Can be tested troug reliability and
validity test
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V!I"I#$
&'ow do $ (now that the method $ am using is reall)
measuring what $ want it to measure?*
Face validity. +oes )our method a""ear a""ro"riate to
measure what )ou want it to measure at irst glan!e?
Content validity. -his is similar to a!e %alidit), e!e"t that
it reers to the initial assessment rom an e"ert*s "oint o
%iew.
Predictive validity. Can )our measures "redi!t uture
/eha%iour?
Construct validity. +oes )our data !orrelate with other
measures?
%s establised by testing for
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4eliailit
y
%s establised by testing forbot consistency and stability+
CronbacRs alpa is areliability coe(cient tatindicates ow well te items ina set are positively correlatedto one anoter+
Te results of factor analysis)a multivariate tecni"ues willcon!rm weter or not teteoriHed dimensions emerge+
0actor analysis would revealweter te dimensions areindeed tapped by te items inte measure, as teoriHed+
0actor
.nalysis
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Sensitivity
1obustness of te measurement incollecting data
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Exercise # 1
Aased on te :ournal article, pleaseidentify and e4plain
a* Te framewor2 including variables
involved in te study including teindependent and dependent and oters
b* Te ob:ectives or researc "uestions
c* Te researc design
d* Te data collection metod- includingte sampling tecni"ue, sample siHe,population, te instrument
e* Data analysis used in te study
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,he >nd
3 U & #ession
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